Blood serum metabolites (Means ± SEM) in dairy heifers fed on control and foreign probiotic yeast.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1840",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"The Cardiovascular System - Physiology, Diagnostics and Clinical Implications",title:"The Cardiovascular System",subtitle:"Physiology, Diagnostics and Clinical Implications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The cardiovascular system includes the heart located centrally in the thorax and the vessels of the body which carry blood. The cardiovascular (or circulatory) system supplies oxygen from inspired air, via the lungs to the tissues around the body. It is also responsible for the removal of the waste product, carbon dioxide via air expired from the lungs. The cardiovascular system also transports nutrients such as electrolytes, amino acids, enzymes, hormones which are integral to cellular respiration, metabolism and immunity. \nThis book is not meant to be an all encompassing text on cardiovascular physiology and pathology rather a selection of chapters from experts in the field who describe recent advances in basic and clinical sciences. As such, the text is divided into three main sections: Cardiovascular Physiology, Cardiovascular Diagnostics and lastly, Clinical Impact of Cardiovascular Physiology and Pathophysiology.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0534-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6974-1",doi:"10.5772/2266",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"the-cardiovascular-system-physiology-diagnostics-and-clinical-implications",numberOfPages:494,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"a6a573b1908e6bcab874e3f8bda10705",bookSignature:"David C. 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He is currently Lecturer in Clinical Biochemistry at the University of Westminster and Honorary Cardiac Research Scientist within the Department of Chemical Pathology, Clinical Blood Sciences at St George’s Hospital and Medical School, London. \r\nHe has authored and co-authored in excess of 150 peer-reviewed papers and 200 abstracts, as well as presented at over 50 internationally invited conferences. He has contributed five book chapters to cardiovascular-related textbooks as well as writing a textbook on cardiac troponin. He is a peer reviewer for 25 medical journals. He is the commissioning editor for review articles for the Annals of Clinical Biochemistry & Laboratory Medicine and is Co-editor-in-chief of Practical Laboratory Medicine. \r\nHis academic research interests are in the development and clinical utility of cardiac biomarkers for the detection of cardiovascular disease with a special interest in the cardiorenal population.\r\nHe is a member of the Royal Society of Medicine of London; The Association for Clinical Biochemistry, of which he chairs the Clinical Sciences Review Committee for the Annals of Clinical Biochemistry. He is also a member of the American Association of Clinical Chemistry; Institute of Biomedical Sciences; Institute of Biology; European Society of Pathology; The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland and the associate member of the Royal Institution of London. \r\nGaze and colleagues have won a number of awards including two distinguished Abstract awards from the National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry as well as Diploma for Oral Presentation regarding D-dimer, natriuretic peptide and cardiac troponin in dialysis patients presented at the 17th IFCC-FESCC European Congress of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine and the 60th National Congress of the Netherlands Society of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine in Amsterdam in 2007.",institutionString:"University of Westminster",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of Westminster",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"985",title:"Cardiogeriatrics",slug:"cardiogeriatrics"}],chapters:[{id:"35911",title:"Control of Cardiovascular System",doi:"10.5772/36259",slug:"control-of-the-cardiovascular-system",totalDownloads:2535,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Mikhail Rudenko, Olga Voronova, Vladimir Zernov, Konstantin Mamberger, Dmitry Makedonsky, Sergey Rudenko and Sergey Kolmakov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/35911",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/35911",authors:[{id:"107668",title:"Dr.",name:"Mikhail",surname:"Rudenko",slug:"mikhail-rudenko",fullName:"Mikhail Rudenko"},{id:"114061",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Zernov",slug:"vladimir-zernov",fullName:"Vladimir Zernov"},{id:"114064",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",surname:"Voronova",slug:"olga-voronova",fullName:"Olga Voronova"}],corrections:null},{id:"35912",title:"Molecular Control of Smooth Muscle Cell Differentiation Marker Genes by Serum Response Factor and Its Interacting Proteins",doi:"10.5772/36890",slug:"molecular-control-of-smooth-muscle-cell-differentiation-marker-genes-by-serum-response-factor-and-it",totalDownloads:1808,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Tadashi Yoshida",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/35912",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/35912",authors:[{id:"110307",title:"Dr.",name:"Tadashi",surname:"Yoshida",slug:"tadashi-yoshida",fullName:"Tadashi Yoshida"}],corrections:null},{id:"35913",title:"Trans Fatty Acids and Human Health",doi:"10.5772/36064",slug:"trans-fatty-acids-and-human-health",totalDownloads:2592,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Sebastjan Filip and Rajko Vidrih",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/35913",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/35913",authors:[{id:"106965",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastjan",surname:"Filip",slug:"sebastjan-filip",fullName:"Sebastjan Filip"}],corrections:null},{id:"35914",title:"Control and Coordination of Vasomotor Tone in the Microcirculation",doi:"10.5772/36721",slug:"control-and-coordination-of-vasomotor-tone-in-the-microcirculation",totalDownloads:2361,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Mauricio A. 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\r\n\tHysteresis phenomena manifest themselves with highly intriguing features that have been continuously attracting the interest of scientists and physicists who have attempted to unravel the origins and the underlying mechanisms. Hysteretic behaviour is ubiquitous to different physical systems, and despite displaying diversified characteristic elements depending on the specific context, hysteresis originates from the presence of several metastable energy minima, which relate to path-dependent and rate-dependent responses to various external stimuli. This is translated in a considerable number of experimentally observable events, such as hysteretic loops in ferroic media, Bauschinger effect in elastoplastic materials, characteristic magnetic hysteresis in superconductors, current-voltage hysteresis in various electronic devices, contact angle hysteresis in liquid-solid interfaces and bistability in cell biological processes, among others. Significant progress on understanding the mechanisms underpinning hysteresis in different systems has been made over the years and improved knowledge on how to tailor hysteretic materials behaviour for application purposes has been gained.
\r\n\r\n\tThe present book aims at compiling the main achievements and novel discoveries in the field of hysteretic materials, with particular focus on the control of materials hysteresis characteristics for engineering applications. Experimental and theoretical investigations from macro- to nanoscale on ferromagnetic, ferroelectric, ferroelastic, multiferroic materials and electronic devices, including solar cells, energy storage devices, memristors and tunnelling junctions are particularly attractive for the present compilation.
",isbn:"978-1-83881-972-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-971-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-472-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6482387993b3cebffafe856a916c44ce",bookSignature:"Dr. Giuseppe Viola",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10568.jpg",keywords:"Thermodynamics of Hysteresis, Irreversibility, Modelling, Presaich Approach, Ferroic Materials, Hysteresis Loops, Resistive Switching, Non-Equilibrium Systems, Electronic Devices, Energy Conversion Devices, Energy Storage Devices, Actuators, Sensors",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 22nd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 23rd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Viola was awarded an individual Marie Curie Fellowship in 2014. His current research interests are mainly focused on the relationships between microstructure and properties of piezoelectric, ferroelectric/ferroelastic, and antiferroelectric ceramics for sensing and energy storage applications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"173586",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Viola",slug:"giuseppe-viola",fullName:"Giuseppe Viola",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173586/images/system/173586.jpg",biography:"Giuseppe Viola (GV) graduated in Materials Engineering from Federico II, University of Naples in 2004. In 2009 he obtained his PhD from Queen Mary University of London which was focused on the study of the domain switching mechanisms in ferroelectric/ferroelastic ceramics. Afterwards, GV was employed as a Post-doctoral Reasearch Assistant at Queen Mary University of London (QMUL) and as a Materials Scientist at Nanoforce Technology Limited (a spin out company owned by QMUL). In 2014, GV was awarded an individual Marie Curie Fellowship and moved to Politecnico di Torino. In 2017, GV returned to the UK and joined UCL where he is currently based.\n\nGV's current research interests are mainly focused on the relationships between microstructure and properties of piezoelectric, ferroelectric/ferroelastic and antiferroelectric ceramics for sensing and energy storage applications. Previous research projects included the development of piezo-acoustic biosensors, investigation of domains switching mechanisms in ferroic materials and the exploitation of rapid sintering technologies for ceramics, metals and composites.",institutionString:"Independent Scientist",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University College London",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"54074",title:"Intense Pulsed Light Therapy",doi:"10.5772/65345",slug:"intense-pulsed-light-therapy",body:'\nIntense pulse light (IPL) treatment currently represents one of the most popular nonablative photodamage skin treatments [1]. Initially, it was promoted as an approach for leg telangiectasias treatment. In continued use, this device was found to be of far greater utility for indications other than leg telangiectasias. IPL technology had its birthplace in San Diego in 1992, with the first commercial IPL system introduced in 1994, and cleared by the U.S. FDA in late 1995. In the last 22 years (1994–2016), more than 20 different laser companies have developed a wide variety of IPL devices, which testified the acceptance of IPL as a valid, efficacious technological breakthrough. First-generation IPL devices (Photoderm, ESC) emit light of the infrared part of the spectrum, which prevalently leads to epithelial damage and a high incidence of side effects. In second- (Vasculight VL, ESC) and third-generation IPL devices (Quantum SR, Lumenis), water filters out the infrared portion, significantly reducing the risk of side effects. The fourth-generation IPL devices (Lumenis one, Lumenis) have improved the defects of the existing IPL. They maximize the effectiveness and minimize the side effects by fairly transferring energy to the entire face. Their proportionate distribution of energy allows to treat not only the skin surface but also inside the dermis where discoloration originates.
\nIPL is now considered the gold standard for treatment of many signs of photoaging, including facial telangiectasias, hyperpigmentation, and fine wrinkling. The main advantages of IPL are the lower risk of postinflammatory hyperpigmentation, minimal recovery downtime, long-term improvement, etc. [1].
\nIPL is situated in the visible light and infrared radiation of the electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 1). The broad range of wavelengths (500–1200 nm) emitted from IPL devices effectively target all the three main chromophores (hemoglobin, water, and melanin) in human skin [2]. The wavelength determines not only the absorption behavior but also the penetration depth of the light, which increases with the wavelength (Figure 2). Cut-off filters are used to eliminate the shorter than desired wavelengths from a particular treatment to focus the residual emissions on the feature to be treated. The patient’s skin type and the skin condition determine the choice of suitable cut-off filters and therefore the spectrum of wavelengths to be emitted. In addition, to avoid the burning of the epidermis, the skin can be cooled by applying a thick layer of cold gel or, with newer models, by integrated cooling on the IPL crystal [3, 4]. Compared with lasers devices, an important advantage of the IPL system is its relatively large spot size, which can increase the speed of treatment given that large areas can be treated quickly with fewer pulses. However, the hand pieces are larger and have a flat surface, hindering treatment of irregular surfaces.
\nIPL is situated in the visible light and infrared radiation of the electromagnetic spectrum (reprinted with permission of Lumenis company, Yokneam, Israel).
Pulses can be delivered singly, doubly, or triply, with variable delay between the pulses. Pulse duration can range widely from 0.5 to over 20 ms. Selective photothermolysis is the basic principle of IPL treatment. This often leads to cell necrosis, blood coagulation, and structure alterations, which contribute to the clinical and side effects of IPL. To prevent unselective damage to the surrounding tissue, pulse duration should be lower than the thermal relaxation time of the target structure. The particular wavelengths combined with pulse durations, pulse intervals, and fluences facilitates the treatment of a wide spectrum of skin conditions, such as vascular lesions, pigmented lesions, fine wrinkling, and unwanted hair growth.
\nThe incidence of acute side effects has been markedly reduced with the newest progressive set of parameters. Most side effects associated to IPL photodepilation are transient and minimal, including stinging pain, swelling, and erythema. Blistering and scattered crusting are permanent side effects of overfluenced treatment. Before IPL treatment, a signed informed consent is mandatory. Therapy sequelae and potential side effects have to be mentioned.
\nDepth of light penetration into the skin, at various wavelengths.
Pulsed dye laser (PDL) is considered the gold standard for vascular lesions. However, this technique is limited by the need to achieve postoperative purpura that lasts 10–14 days. In contrast, the absence of postoperative purpura and minimized postprocedure downtime are main advantages of IPL technology. IPL is able to raise the blood vessel temperature high enough to cause its coagulation, leading to its destruction and replacement by fibrous granulation tissue. The successful treatment of vascular lesions with IPL depends on the type and size of vessels targeted, with cherry angiomas and superficial telangiectatic veins typically demonstrating the best response. A study analyzed the effect of IPL on facial telangiectasias and found that 79.2% of patients achieved greater than 50% reduction of vessels after one to four treatments [5]. In the largest study to date, Clementoni analyzed 1000 patients with telangiectasias treated using IPL and found that 89.7% experienced 75–100% improvement. These telangiectasias included leg veins that had no associated feeding reticular veins [6]. In our clinical experience, facial telangiectasias achieved marked improvement after IPL treatment (Figure 3a and b).
\n(a) Facial telangiectasias before treatment and (b) after a single IPL treatment. (reprinted with the permission of Liu Hongmei Laser Center, Huangsi Aesthetic Surgery Hospital, Beijing, China).
Pigmented lesions are frequent targets of laser and IPL treatment. Deep (dermal) pigmented lesions such as melanocytic nevi, nevi of Ota and Ito, drug-induced hyperpigmentation, Becker’s nevi, nevus spilus, and tattoos may be preferred to Q-switched lasers [7, 8]. Superficial pigments include solar lentigines, ephelides, café-au-lait macules, and epidermal melasma, which respond well to IPL. Moreno Arias published a study in which 20 patients with pigmented lesions were treated with IPL. They concluded that greater efficacy (76–100%) was attained with superficial lesions (ephelides, epidermal melasma, café-au-lait spots) compared with efficacy of less than 25% for deep lesions (Becker’s nevus, epidermal nevus, and mixed melasma) [9–11]. It is important to carefully assess each patient’s skin type preoperatively and adjust the IPL settings appropriately to avoid complications. In darker skin types, there is a risk of inducing hyperpigmentation. The immediate endpoint from IPL treatment of dyschromia should be visible darkening of the treated brown spots. These typically crust over 24–48 h and peel off within 7 days. Satisfied results were achieved in café-au-lait macules (Figure 4a and b) and ephelides (Figure 5a and b) treatment by IPL.
\nCafé-au-lait macules (a) before treatment and (b) after a single IPL treatment (reprinted with the permission of Liu Hongmei).
Ephelides (a) before treatment and (b) after a single IPL treatment.
Melasma is commonly seen in the Asian population. Traditional therapies including depigmenting agents, chemical peels, and Chinese medicine have some therapeutic effects but are often unsuccessful for refractory melasma. IPL technology provided an effective approach for melasma treatment. Over the last decade, the demand for IPL therapy in treating melasma has risen steadily, although IPL was traditionally considered as a second-line treatment. Li reported that 69 of 89 Chinese patients (77.5%) being treated for melasma improved by more than 50% following a total of four IPL treatments at 3-week intervals [12]. Recently, low-fluence IPL and fractionated IPL were used in treating melasma. The latter IPL system delivers more than 40 subpulses of 40 μs duration within milliseconds. In contrast to conventional IPL, fractionated IPL attenuates peak fluence and reduces nonselective heat diffusion, and is assumed to be safer than its conventional IPL. Bae demonstrated that low-fluence and short-pulse duration IPL at dose of 10 and 13 J significantly decreased the modified MASI score in 20 Korean melasma patients. Yun’s study showed that fractionated IPL had modest effectiveness in female Asian melasma patients. With regard to safety, fractionated IPL is a good alternative to conventional IPL with no indication that it exacerbates melasma [13, 14]. They suggested that low-fluence IPL protocol could provide more effective treatment for melasma with minimal side effects in Asian skin.
\nHair removal has become a key indication for IPL devices. Safe and long-lasting hair reduction in cosmetically undesirable locations can be achieved with IPL devices. These IPL systems emit red and infrared light with wavelengths ranging 600–1200 nm, which are capable of targeting melanin in the hair shaft, follicular epithelium, and hair matrix. During treatment, concomitant epidermal cooling sources help to minimize unwanted thermal injury induced by epidermal melanin (particularly in patients with darker skin) [15]. To protect the epidermal melanin from thermal injury, IPL pulses can be divided in synchronized millisecond pulses separated by short thermal relaxation times. The hair follicle is most susceptible to IPL treatment during the anagen phase. In addition, the darker the skin and the brighter the hair, the less effective the treatment will be (Figure 6).
\nA woman with hypertrichosis (a) prior to treatment and (b) after five IPL treatments.
Photorejuvenation has been described as a dynamic nonablative process involving the use of the IPL to reduce mottled pigmentation and telangiectasias and smooth the textural surface of the skin. There are two types of photorejuvenation: type I photorejuvenation refers to vascular anomalies, pigmentary changes, or pilosebaceous changes, while type II is related to dermal and subcutaneous senescence. Histologically, analysis showed that both type I and type III collagens increased after IPL treatment, whereas the elastin content decreased but elastin fibers were more neatly arranged. According to transmission electron microscope investigations, the amount of fibroblast activity increased, the fibroblasts were more active, and more collagen fibers were neatly rearranged within the stroma. Thus, morphological evidence exists for clinical improvement of the skin texture [16].
\nPoikiloderma of Civatte consists of a reddish-brown reticolate pattern of pigmentation with associated telangiectasias and atrophic changes of the skin. There is no single effective treatment for poikiloderma of Civatte. Because of their ability to target vascular and pigment abnormalities simultaneously, IPL sources have been utilized in the treatment of poikiloderma of Civatte. Treatment of poikiloderma is one of the most effective uses of IPL technology [17]. In a previous study, 135 randomly selected patients with typical changes of poikiloderma of Civatte on the neck and/or upper chest underwent one to five IPL treatments [17]. Parameters included the 515- and 550-nm filters with pulse durations of 2–4 ms, either single or double with a 10-ms delay. Fluences were between 20 and 40 J/cm2. Clearance over 75% of hyperpigmentation was reported.
\nRosacea affects the appearance and can have important psychosocial effects.
\nErythematotelangiectatic rosacea is the most common and may have the strongest vascular component among the four subtypes. Studies showed that IPL significantly reduces erythema and telangiectasia of rosacea and this is sustained for at least 6 months.
\nAcne vulgaris is a common disease in adolescents and young adults. Effective conventional therapies include oral and topical antibiotics and occasionally with oral and topical vitamin A. But these therapies were limited for adverse effects such as antibiotic resistance, teratogenicity, and skin dryness and irritation. IPL has been demonstrated to be an effective treatment for acne in Caucasians and Asian [18, 19]. Proposed mechanisms for the effects of our IPL therapy include photoinactivation of P. acnes and photothermolysis of the sebaceous glands, as well as anti-inflammatory action.
\nIn our experience, significant improvement was observed in patients after two IPL treatments (Figure 7a and b).
\nAcne vulgaris (a) before treatment and (b) after two IPL treatment.
It is well known that UV irradiation resulted in DNA damage in microorganism. A study by Takeshita revealed that DNA damage, such as formation of single-strand breaks and pyrimidine dimers, was induced in IPL irradiated yeast cells. A new sterilization technique/technology based on the use of pulsed light, which has been developed by PurePulse Technologies (San Diego, CA, USA), is suggested to have great potential in the development of a new method of sterilization [20].
\nThe efficacy of IPL in photorejuvenation of aged skin had been proven by numerous clinical trials. However, information regarding the precise mechanisms of IPL’s actions is currently still far from complete, despite some achievements in recent years. The basic principle of IPL treatment is heating and selective photothermolysis, which can lead to cell necrosis (melanin damage), blood coagulation, and structure alterations. It has been proved that pigmented and vascular lesions treatment is based on the cell necrosis (melanin damage) and blood coagulation effects. The elimination of superficial wrinkles results from the structure alterations and collagen remodeling. However, the detailed mechanism involved in collagen remodeling, which many studies focus on, is not clear. Two aspects were included in the mechanism of IPL treatment,
Accumulation of procollagen I and procollagen III in porcine and human skin after IPL treatment has been documented by several studies [21, 22]. Enrique investigated the gross and microscopic changes after nonablative IPL facial resurfacing. All the patients showed clinical and microscopic improvement after IPL treatment. Microscopic improvement includes increased epidermal thickness, elimination of horny plugs, appearance of new rete ridges, and increase in the number of melanocytes and melanophages. Thickness of the epidermis showed a statistically significant increase after treatment (
Histological manifestation in (a) untreated human buttock skin and (b) human buttock skin after four IPL irradiations (hematoxylin and eosin staining, magnification 10×).
Collagen I fibers in (a) untreated human buttock skin and (b) human buttock skin after four IPL irradiations (immunohistochemistry, magnification 10×).
Matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) play important roles in many physiological and pathological processes, such as skin ageing, wound healing, and even in tumor invasion. In the process of IPL photorejuvenation, MMPs are thought to be responsible for the turnover and degradation of extracellular matrix (ECM) [24, 25]. MMPs are composed of 23 family members, the main target molecules being connective tissue and basement membrane proteins (e.g., all types of collagens [both native and denatured ones, i.e., gelatins], laminins, integrins, elastin, proteoglycans, fibronectin, vitronectin, tenascins, etc.) Orringer has revealed marked increases in messenger RNA levels of MMP-1, MMP-3, MMP-9, and MMP-13 in carbon dioxide laser resurfaced photodamaged human skin. Wang detected increased MMP-1 and TIMP-1 protein levels in IPL-irradiated rat skin, which concord with Orringer’s study. They proposed that the increased matrix metalloproteinase may play a constructive role in collagen synthesis in the IPL-activated wound healing process [26, 27]. On the contrary, Luo found increased procollagens but decreased matrix metalloproteinase mRNA levels in BALB/C mouse skin, suggesting IPL irradiation can not only enhance new collagen production, but also decrease collagen degradation though downregulation of MMP [28]. So far, few studies documented decreased matrix metalloproteinase mRNA levels in IPL-irradiated skin
Protein expression of MMP-1 before (a) and after (b) IPL irradiation (immunohistochemistry, magnification 10×).
Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is a major regulator of the synthesis of ECM proteins in human skin as it stimulate fibroblast proliferation and collagen production. A study by Wang showed that TGF-β may be involved in the IPL photorejuvenation process.
Protein expression of MMP-3 before (a) and after (b) IPL irradiation (immunohistochemistry, magnification 10×).
Protein expression of MMP-9 before (a) and after (b) IPL irradiation (immunohistochemistry, magnification 10×).
Some results indicated that IPL activates a wound healing process and leads to vascular formation, which may play roles in IPL photorejuvenation. Recently, a study with mouse island skin flap model revealed that IPL at lower dose could improve wound healing through the dilation of tissue vasculature and heat-shock protein production [32]. An investigation by Wu demonstrated that IPL irradiation significantly enhanced aquaporin 3 protein levels in rat skin, which is responsible for substratum corneum hydration, biosynthesis of the substratum corneum, and wound healing process [33].
\nIPL treatment has been shown to be highly effective for skin rejuvenation but the biochemical and molecular mechanism are not well known. Fibroblasts secrete procollagen and then covert it to collagen, which is an important component of ECM. Effects of IPL on fibroblasts were focused by many
Cell cycle in fibroblasts was assessed by flow cytometry after cells were stained with PI. (a) Control group, (b) UVA I irradiated group, (c) IPL irradiated group, and (d) IPL irradiation after PUVA exposure. Cells were stained by PI before flow cytometry. IPL irradiation, wavelength 570–960 nm, pulse duration 12 ms, energy intensity 15 J/cm2, irradiated once a day, for 2 days.
Liu investigated the effects of IPL and UVA on fibroblasts proliferation. In untreated control group, most cells were in cell cycle phase G1, while minor cells were in cell cycle phase S. UVA I irradiated group was designed to construct a cell injury model and compare the effects of IPL and UVA on human skin fibroblasts. Compared with the control, UVA induced no significant changes in proportion of cells in cycle phase S, as well as cell cycle phase G2. As compared with the UVA I irradiated group and the control group, the UVA+IPL group (fibroblasts irradiated with IPL after PUVA exposure) proliferate at a faster rate (
Cells were also stained by CCK-8 and assessed by flow cytometry to detect the proliferation ability. Note that 72 h after therapeutic dose of IPL irradiation, results showed an increase of cell proliferating index than the control (
Cyclin D1 and CDK2 protein expression levels were detected by Western blot.
Cuerda-Galindo did a series of studies regarding the effects of IPL on fibroblasts. Their study showed that SA Filter 800–1200 nm using a 60.1 J/cm2 energy density double-pulse induces a significant skin fibroblast proliferation. Note that 48 h after IPL irradiation, 1BR3G human skin fibroblasts were observed to proliferate at a faster rate, showing a significant increase of cells in S and G2/M cell cycle phases (S cell cycle phase, 8.23 vs. 10; G2/M cell cycle phase, 8.63 vs. 17.5), which is consistent with the results of Liu [34].
\nFurther studies show IPL could reverse or rejuvenate the cell senescence in fibroblasts. Wang evaluated the influence of IPL irradiation on 8-methoxypsoralen plus ultraviolet-A irradiation (PUVA)-induced senescence of fibroblasts. In their study, PUVA treatment increased the number of SA-β-gal-positive fibroblasts, increased the level of ROS, and shortened the telomere length. However, irradiation with IPL after PUVA exposure decreased the number of SA-β-gal-positive cells, decreased the ROS level, and prevented telomere shortening, in comparison with PUVA treatment only (
The staining of SA-β-gal in (a) control (untreated) human fibroblasts, (b) PUVA-induced senescence of fibroblasts, and (c) fibroblasts irradiated with IPL after PUVA exposure (reprinted with the permission of Wang Ruiyan).
It is well known that collagen in the dermis is mainly composed of type I (80%) and III (10%) collagens, which are responsible for the elasticity and integrity of the skin. Fibroblasts secrete procollagens and then convert them into collagens, which decreased in photoaged skin. More and more studies have proved that IPL irradiation could promote the production of collagens in fibroblasts [21, 22]. Besides collagen, other molecular components are present and contribute to the overall mechanical properties of skin. Among the noncollagenous components of the dermis, there are proteoglycans (PG), glycosaminoglycan conjugated proteins (GAG), hyaluronic acid, and versican, which are important constituents of human skin connective tissue and essential for maintaining mechanical strength of the skin. A study by Cuerda-Galindo detected an increase in the amount of collagens, accompanied by an elevation in protein production of hyaluronic acid and versican, which can be a possible mechanism of action for IPL devices in aging skin treatment [35, 37].
\nWhen referred to the biochemical and molecular mechanism of IPL treatment, three aspects should be mentioned: fibroblasts proliferation, ECM production, and ECM degrading enzymes. MMPs are endopeptidases that perform a degradative function, generally targeting the extracellular matrix. MMP1 is called collagenase and its main substrate are collagen type III, I, II, VII, and X. Although it is well established that MMP expression was increased in damaged or photoaged skin [38, 39], Cuerda-Galindo observed MMP-1 increased following IPL irradiation, consistent with the previous findings induced by laser treatment [40, 41]. Based on the above theories, these authors speculate that increased MMP could be an overlooked mechanism of skin rejuvenation, in which it will be implicated, contributing to the degradation of senescent collagens and then the turnover of the ECM [35]. So, it is reasonable that upregulation of MMPs levels following IPL irradiation did not contradict with the photorejuvenation effects and upregulation of collagen levels.
\nAccording to the effects of IPL on MMPs levels, there was another tendency, the downregulation of MMPs levels following IPL irradiation. Wong demonstrated reduced protein levels of MMP-2, MMP-14, and TIMP-2 in primary human skin fibroblasts following IPL irradiation [28]. Other authors reported that the IPL management had no impact on MMP secretion levels in fibroblasts [42]. More than the stimulation of ECM proteins production observed by many studies, they postulate that photorejuvenation effect of IPL also involves the inhibition of MMPs and therefore the decrease of ECM protein destruction [43]. Recent studies demonstrated that significant differences in the expression of MMP (down- and upregulation) may be related to the laser parameters such as wavelength and fluence [44, 45].
\nTGF-β acts as a multifunctional cytokine in regulating cell growth and differentiation and the biosynthesis of ECM proteins. Previous studies confirmed that TGF-β substantially increases elastin and type I collagen expression, via a Smads signaling pathway [46, 47]. Wong’s study verified upregulated expression of collagen III and TGF-β in dermal fibroblasts cultured within contracted collagen lattices, provided a potential mechanistic explanation for the mechanism of clinical photorejuvenation effects of IPL. This was verified by Byun, who observed slight increases in TGF-β1 mRNA and protein levels after IPL treatment.
\nOther cytokines involved in IPL treatment include interleukin 10 (IL-10), one of the regulatory cytokines that inhibit cytokine production in activated T lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells. In Byun’s study, IL-10 protein increased up to 5.95-fold in IPL-irradiated cultured keratinocytes (HaCaT cells), which may contribute to the anti-inflammatory effect and the therapeutic benefit of IPL for inflammatory dermatoses such as acne vulgaris [48].
\nTo determine the principal mechanism that is involved in IPL hair removal treatment, the hair structures targeted by IPL were observed. Human scalp specimens were exposed
IPL systems are a successful and a noninvasive means of treatment, providing a viable alternative to laser systems and conventional therapeutic options when it comes to treating a series of indications, such as telangiectasias, skin photoaging, dyspigmentation, and unwanted hair. Compared with the wide clinical use, molecular mechanism involved in IPL therapy has not been thoroughly investigated. However, there are enough data to show that various biological effects have been shown to be exerted via IPL including fibroblasts proliferation, collagen production, and MMP secretion. It has also been shown that IPL protect PUVA induced senesce of fibroblasts. Advances have been made with respect to mechanism of IPL therapy, but a great deal is still unknown.
\nProbiotic are the live microbial feed supplements which provide the beneficial impact on the host by producing the useful metabolites [1]. Many probiotics have been available in the market for improving animal and human health in safe and healthy way. The commercially available probiotic product contains mostly lactic acid bacteria (
Representative scheme of development of target-based probiotic (TBP): The right side covers the main steps involving in the preparation of the TBP, the internal part covers the legalistic evidence of the interrelationship between, host and microbes. The left side covers the mechanistic activity of the TBP; including the improve gut microbial balance which leads to the improve feed digestion resultantly improve host health and production in cost effective manner.
In the situation of high animal feed cost, we must identify the cost-effective probiotic by using the concept of ITP to improve poor quality feed into high quality milk and meat. We had already given the concept of indigenous probiotic yeast our previous book chapter [31]. A clear understanding regarding the proposes guidelines to develop the ITP to improve gut microbiota resultantly improve milk and meat production. This book chapter will discuss the identification of the microbial strain from local ecological breed and its mode of action for preparation of target based probiotic products. We will also support our concept of ITP with our lab conducted experiments.
Yeast is a very useful microorganism with broad range of industrial application, because of their unique genetics and physiology. Yeast cells have many useful metabolites (protein, carbohydrate, vitamins; vitamin B6, thiamin, biotin, riboflavin, nicotinic acid and pantothenic acid and minerals; zinc and magnesium) [10]. The utilization of the naturally prepared yeast would be accelerated in coming years due to the nature-oriented mind set of the consumers. Therefore, research on the isolation of the nutritious rich yeast strains for preparation of probiotic product has rapidly increased [11, 12]. Yeast is an important single cell microorganism, belongs to fungus family and it multiplies by cell division. The genetics and physiology of the yeast are very unique, and, therefore, a broad range of research work in biological sciences is being carried out on this microbe. The yeast cell size is composed of 5 × 10 μm and the size of the baker’s yeast genome is 12.1 Mb containing 16 chromosomes and 5400 coding genes approximately [13]. Members of the order Saccharomycetales are mainly used for the animal probiotics when serves as reliable and economical source of essential amino acids, vitamins, carbohydrates, and minerals from yeast cell. Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin and Biotin are present in yeast [14]. The antagonistic ability of the yeast to block bacterial pathogenicity is also makes its very useful [15]. Yeast cell has competition for nutrients, pH changes in the medium, high concentrations of ethanol production, secretion of antibacterial compounds and release of antimicrobial compounds are major antagonistic steps. Yeast cell has many useful fermentation metabolites (protein, vitamins, carbohydrates) which makes it important microbial feed supplement. Yeasts are naturally present (1.3 X 105 yeasts ml-1) inside the rumen fluid [16]. Literature showed that, yeasts (
The role of the probiotic yeast in dairy animal is well studied [25]. They have been extensively used for improve milk yeast and its composition in cost effective manners. The benefits to cost ratio of probiotic yeast is 4:1 in dairy animals. They have also used as preventer against digestive problems, and rumen acidosis.
The main target of the PY used in new born ruminate diet are; (a) improvement in the rumen maturation; (b) stop the pathogenic bacterial growth; (c) establishment of the normal growing animals like microbial flora [26, 27, 28]. Microbial based feed can improve the rumen development during the growing phase of the dairy animals. The new born gut is sterile and have no germ [29]. After 6 months of age the rumen is colonized with diverse microbial flora. PY provides beneficial metabolites and enzymes like thiamine for fast growth of the fungi. The poor fungal growth of the animal fed on PY might be due to the low production of thiamine [30]. At the same time, the animal plays an important role in the maximum colonization of the beneficial microbial population [31]. If there is any imbalance bacterial species, it would result in digestive problems and leads to the economic loss. The establishment of the useful bacterial strains results in the development of strong and balanced rumen which resultantly strong immunity and health condition [32, 33]. PY provide the improve the rumen maturation and its microbial flora is also in strong balance. PY provide the useful bacterial species for feed digestion, like cellulolytic bacterial species and ciliate protozoa [34]. The balance in rumen microbial flora plays a crucial role in feed utilization and could result in better animal productivity [35]. PY remove oxygen from rumen and provides a more anaerobic environment for its growth of key beneficial microbial groups [36]. The newborn gut can easily be modulating by PY. The new born key beneficial microbial
For clear understanding of the ruminal gut microbiota using latest genomic methods to get useful information for preparation of specific probiotics. The ruminants feed consists of concentrate, silage, seasonal fodders etc. There diet mostly contains cellulose, hemicellulose starch and water-soluble carbohydrate. The rumen microbes play an important role in feed digestion. The animal feed is digested inside rumen and then energy is released for animal use. Cow and its microbes are mutually benefiting each other (Figure 2). Rumen is the first and the largest anaerobic chamber of the cow GIT. The temperature inside the rumen chamber is between 38 to 41 oC, with 6-7 pH (depends on feed type). There are three different types of microbes present inside the rumen including, bacteria, fungi and ciliated protozoa [41, 42, 43, 44] . The location and size of the rumen microbes depends on the feed formulation and host genetic. Mostly, bacteria are associated with fibrous feed particles; fungi, protozoa [45, 46]. Some are freely living and some are bound with rumen mucous membrane. 1 ml of the rumen is composed of 109 to 1010 per ml bacteria with 200 different species, 104 to 106 per ml protozoa with 20 different species, and 103 per ml fungi with 20 different species [47]. The rumen bacteria are gram negative 1-2 micrometer in size and cocci, and rod shaped mostly. Rumen bacterial are mostly non-spore producing, facultative anaerobes. 1- 5 % of the bacterial cells in rumen are cellulose digesters [48]. The rumen fungi (gut fungi) also play an important role in fiber digestion by stimulating growth of fibrolytic bacteria [49]. The rumen microbial features are heritable; moreover, animals age, feed and genome plays an important role in the microbial colonization. The composition of the diet describes the type of gut microbial species [50]. Therefore, the rumen microbiota can be manipulated by using the yeast-based probiotic to obtained the useful products. The feed must be targeted for modulating the rumen microbiota (Figure 3).
Major factors effects on the mode of action of probiotic.
A scheme describing the mutually benefits between host microbes.
The modulation of the rumen microbiota is mostly for the enhanced colonization of the fiber digesting microbiota [35, 36]. Literature showed that, animal diet has an important role in the manipulation of the rumen microbiota. Low amount of fibrous feed builds up fast working microbes (fibre-degrading Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens and F. succinogenes) and high amount of fibrous build up slow working fiber degrading microbes
Potential mechanisms of microbial ruminal acidosis: This figure suggested that, the live yeast supply different growth factors (amino acid, peptides, vitamins and organic acids). These growth factors have the knock-on impact of increases the stimulation and metabolism of lactic acid utilizing anaerobic bacteria, such as M. Elsdenii or S. ruminantium (that control the acidosis). Yeast cells has a affinity for sugar which outcompete S.bovis for the utilization of sugar.
A proposed flowsheet to explain mechanistic pathway of IPY: Steps involved in the mode of action of PY and its impact on animal.
A simple scheme proposed to explain mode of action of probiotic yeast in gut: IPY improve carbohydrates, protein and lipid digestion rate by improving the production of cellulolytic, hemi- cellulolytic and proteolytic and lipolytic bacteria and fungi as compare to FPY and no yeast animal.
The gut microbiota can digest the animal feed and produce nutrients for improve host health and well beings. Animal feed and host genetics play important role in shaping and composition of gut microbiota [18]. Same is the case of the rumen microbiota, which is highly variable and is depended on various factors like animal breed, physiology, feed type and geographical location. It has been commonly accepted that commercially available probiotic yeast may not showed equal impact to all animal breeds [65, 66] The compatibility of PY could be variable among animals. The local prepared yeast probiotic isolated from same ecological niche may have more beneficial impact than any exotic probiotic yeast [3]. The local isolated probiotic yeast may have fast adaptability and colonization in the local rumen ecosystem [24]. The origin of the probiotic strain determines the best prepared probiotic product. The strain selection is the most important step for the development of right probiotic for animal. Being precise during the strain’s selection could yield positive outcomes from the probiotic. The probiotic yeast may use for the rumen microbial manipulation [67] Different types of PY have been used for improve animal health and production [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68]. Some PY strains produced beneficial results in animals while others did not. The difference of that variable results of PY may be explained by different host and PY associated factors [69, 70, 71]. These factors are; animal age, breed, sex, feeding dose, PY strains isolation source and some unknown factors [3]. The major factors might be the low compatibility of the exotic probiotic yeast strain with animal having diverse biological inheritance and gut microbial composition. The right probiotic strain should be novel, so we must use latest molecular methods to isolate the target specific/local isolated microbial strains. The local isolated and molecular identified probiotic strains may have more impact on local animals in cost effective manners. The probiotic are species specific by targeting the indigenous strains and local dairy farms can get the cost-effective probiotic product for improve milk production and composition.
The main steps involved in the preparation of the breed specific probiotic yeast are as following [3].
Pre-plan ruminate diet for isolation of probiotic yeast
Identification of yeast strain based on the molecular techniques
Probiotic potential of selected yeast strains
In vitro probiotic potential
Safety assessment/In-vivo animal model
The first mode of action of the probiotic yeast is competitive exclusion (CE) [27]. The CE is a probiotic mode of action that involves the colonization of the beneficial microbial strains to GIT tract to reduce the addition of disease-causing microbial flora [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74]. The ability of probiotic yeast cell to fight with other useless microbial flora can improve growth and function of beneficial microbial flora. The IPY has the indigenous strain, which has the advantage that it drives from animal of interest (Cow). IPY has an environmental modification capability. The concept of co-evolution of host microbial has been seen in case of IPY mode of action. The local strain gains an advantage because of its ability to adjust/modify itself in new environment by producing the antimicrobials e.g (lactic acid) to make its less suitable for its competitors. The FPY has the foreign origin strain, which has the less environmental modification capability less, competition for available nutrients, and mucosal adhesion sites. Second mode of action of the PY is reported as a good pH stabilization. Rumen microbial flora can work under stable pH [75]. Rumen pH is highly affected by animal feed intake and its composition. Ruminants eat different types of feed, like high energy concentrate diet, fodder, and silage. These types of feed have a quick impact on rumen pH. If rumen pH is not stable, the animals may have different types of metabolic diseases [76] Literature showed that PY has a stabilizing effect on the rumen pH. [77, 78] Some studies reported a rise rumen pH when animal was fed on diet with high energy supplemented with PY. Sometimes, the increased pH might be due to the decreased VFAs inside the rumen [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79]. The lower pH leads to the rumen acidosis, PY can prevent the acidosis condition of the dairy animals [7]. The third proposed mechanism is that yeast cell provides the anaerobic condition inside rumen by removing the oxygen thus facilitated the useful feed digestion microbes [35, 36]. The main microbial flora are bacteria fungi and protozoa. These microbial species have a fiber digestion role by secreting the cellulase and hemicellulase enzymes. Fiber is the main part of the ruminant diet. Therefore, fiber digestion, nature blessed them with unique fibrolytic digestion bacteria (
Based upon the above discussion, we have conducted two research experiments on dairy animals by using the IPY concept to improve the gut health. In experiment 1, eight dairy heifers (87 ± 5 kg and 6–7 months) were divided into two equal groups (control n = 4 and probiotic n = 4)[80]. Control group animals fed on NRC recommended diet and probiotic group animals fed control diet FPY (Yea-Sac1026; 5 g/animal). After 120 days results showed that the FPY significantly affected the serum glucose, and urea levels in dairy heifers [24].
That means, we had a proof of positive impact of PFY on animal health. We had isolated the yeast from dairy animals fed on yeast. After careful assessment of the probiotic potential, we conducted another experiment to determine the impact of FPY Vs IPY on the health of lactating dairy cattle. Mix breed (
Items | Feeding regime | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|
Control2 | FPY3 | ||
Before treatment4 | 30.10 ± *0.711 | 31.14 ± 0.974 | 0.012 |
After treatment5 | 33.34 ± 0.432 | 29.23 ± 0.494 | 0.01 |
Before treatment | 62.67 ± 4.04 | 60.86 ± 2.80 | 0.605 |
After treatment | 63.31 ± 2.60 | 65.47 ± 2.84 | 0.600 |
Blood serum metabolites (Means ± SEM) in dairy heifers fed on control and foreign probiotic yeast.
n = 4 per treatment.
Control feed without yeast.
Probiotic feed compose of control feed supplemented with 2.5×10 07 cfu/g commercially available probiotic yeast (Yac-Sac1026) at the rate of 5 g per animal/day * ± Standard error of the mean.
Before treatment (day 0).
After treatment (day 120).
Parameters | Feeding regime | ||
---|---|---|---|
Control2 | IPY3 | FPY4 | |
Before treatment5 | 14.55 ± *0.57 | 14.18 ± 0.21 | 15.54 ± 0.32 |
After treatment6 | 14.18a ± 0.58 | 12.31b ± 0.22 | 13.68ab ± 0.90 |
Before treatment | 75.70 ± 1.24 | 73.99 ± 2.51 | 75.08 ± 2.30 |
After treatment | 73.84b ± 0.71 | 77.42a ± 1.28 | 78.97a ± 0.54 |
Effect of indigenous Vs foreign probiotic yeast on blood parameters (Means ± SEM) in lactating dairy cattle.
n = 3 per treatment.
Control feed without yeast.
LAB-Probiotic feed compose of control feed supplemented with 3.13 × 1007 cfu/g laboratory produces probiotic yeast (QAUSC03) at the rate of 8 g/day/animal.
COM-Probiotic feed compose of control feed supplemented with 2.5×10 07 cfu/g commercially probiotic yeast (Yac-Sac1026) at the rate of 10g/day/animal.
Before treatment (day 0).
After treatment (day 120) * ± SEM = standard error of the mean.
a,b Values on the same row with different superscripts differ significantly (P < 0.05).
We highlighted that improved animal health condition might be due to improved digestive enzymes produced from well propagated IPY. The VFAs have a capability to reduce the triglycerol and cholesterol in liver cells and might be change the animal lipid profile. Results of the ruminal gut microflora showed that the average, beneficial
Total Lactococcus count (CFU/g) in the ruminal gut of dairy heifers fed on control feed (control, ♦; no yeast) or commercial probiotic feed (COM-P, ■; control feed plus commercial yeast) (n = 4).
Total Enterococcus count (CFU/g) in the ruminal gut of dairy heifers fed on control feed (control, ♦; no yeast) or commercial probiotic feed (COM-P, ■; control feed plus commercial yeast) (n = 4).
It can be concluded IPY improves the, gut health, and wellbeing of lactating dairy cattle in cost effective manner. IPY strain may adopt well in the cattle gut than FPY [80].
Ruminants of developing and developed countries have different types of gut microbiota due to their living standard, feeding type, their managemental style. Although from above discussion we have a clear understanding that the interlink between gut microbiota and fiber digestion plays a key role for obtaining maximum profit from dairy animals. Therefore, the PY must be target specific which give maximum outcomes in cost effective manners. For animals of specific geographical region, a unique and precise YP must be designed by isolating the local yeast strains from that population, only then maximum beneficial outputs can be obtained. The reason beings, compactivity of the local strains with normal microbiota of the rumen ecosystem (Figure 9).
Target based Probiotic Preparation strategy: This figure showed probiotic preparation of by using the local animal GIT tract as preparation of local yeast probiotic. Interlinked factors involved in the application of probiotics in the ruminant’s nutrition.
The recommendations are outlined as follows;
Pre-plane feed formulation for the manipulation of the rumen microbiota to digest the fibrous feed
Identification of breed specific probiotic strains with same target.
Whole genome sequencing of the probiotic strains as well as animal for maximum outputs
Mode of action of the probiotic should studied well for understanding of the useful and useless probiotic.
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