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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"458",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"State of the art in Biometrics",title:"State of the art in Biometrics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Biometric recognition is one of the most widely studied problems in computer science. The use of biometrics techniques, such as face, fingerprints, iris and ears is a solution for obtaining a secure personal identification. However, the "old" biometrics identification techniques are out of date. This goal of this book is to provide the reader with the most up to date research performed in biometric recognition and descript some novel methods of biometrics, emphasis on the state of the art skills. The book consists of 15 chapters, each focusing on a most up to date issue. The chapters are divided into five sections- fingerprint recognition, face recognition, iris recognition, other biometrics and biometrics security. The book was reviewed by editors Dr. Jucheng Yang and Dr. Loris Nanni. We deeply appreciate the efforts of our guest editors: Dr. Girija Chetty, Dr. Norman Poh, Dr. Jianjiang Feng, Dr. Dongsun Park and Dr. Sook Yoon, as well as a number of anonymous reviewers',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-489-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5566-9",doi:"10.5772/971",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"state-of-the-art-in-biometrics",numberOfPages:328,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:null,bookSignature:"Jucheng Yang and Loris Nanni",publishedDate:"July 27th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/458.jpg",numberOfDownloads:47278,numberOfWosCitations:65,numberOfCrossrefCitations:49,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:61,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:5,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:175,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 18th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 15th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 22nd 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 21st 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 20th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"36689",title:"Dr.",name:"Jucheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"jucheng-yang",fullName:"Jucheng Yang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/36689/images/1760_n.jpg",biography:"Jucheng Yang is a special professor of Haihe Scholar in College of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China. He is a special professor of Tianjin City, too. He received his B.S. degree from South-Central University for Nationalities, China, and M.S. and Ph.D. degree from Chonbuk National University, Republic of Korea. He did his post-doc at the Advanced Graduate Education Center of Jeonbuk for Electronics and Information Technology-BK21 (AGECJEIT-BK21), Republic of Korea. He was a professor in Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics, China and was a visiting fellow in the University of New South Wales, Australia. He has published over 50 papers in related international journals and conferences. He has served as editors or reviews of international journals such as IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics & Security, Sensors, Science China, Information Technology Journal and so on, and as reviewers or PC members of many conferences such as ICNC\\'06-FSKD\\'06, IMPRESS’09, FIRM-EPECC’11. He is the publicity chair of ICMeCG’10-11. 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\r\n\tThe marine offshore structures and renewable energies are two main topics of this book. The design and operation of marine offshore devices play an important role for the engineers, designers as well as researchers in the world nowadays. Under the harsh ocean environment, the study of marine offshore structures along with renewable energies is very necessary to ensure these devices which are always maintained safely during the operational process. The researchers in ocean engineering and marine offshore structures are conducting some research projects to optimize and improve the quality of initial structures compared with the proposed ones. There are some novelty methodologies that have been studied and analyzed based on the modern advanced theories like as finite element method (FEM), computational fluid dynamic (CFD), etc. Additionally, the marine ocean environment condition has also been referred and processed through the evaluation and experimental works in the laboratories at some universities/research institutes to analyze and give reliable results from the research results about the offshore structures as well as the renewable energies.
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On the other hand, the fossil fuel had been taken to decrease, and the alternatives of energy sources are still under research to raise their efficiency. Besides, the fossil fuel has led to the environment degradation and global warming [1].
Revolution of nanotechnology and its unique features compared with the large scale of its originality has been given a major focus. This dramatic growth stemmed from the multiapplications in various fields of life: medicine, agriculture, engineering, and industry. Nanotechnology, as a scientific major, studies the properties of nanoscale materials. Nanotechnology-based techniques could be produced by small particles in the size of nano of some solid materials such as alumina and titanium oxide that have relatively high thermal conductivity. The word “nano” is described as 1 billionth of meter or 10−9 m. Figure 1 shows a comparative sample of different sizes of materials from large scales to nanoscales. These nanosized particles are mixed in the base fluid of heat transfer forming a colloidal solution in the stable case, while its addition to the base fluids of low thermal conductivity probably increases the heat transfer characteristics of the base fluids. This creative fluid is known as nanofluid, which has a new heat transfer characteristic as one of the recent outcomes of nanotechnology. This makes, of course, saving energy exactly similar to reducing the volume of heat transfer equipment.
A comparative of things from large scale to nanoscale.
Nanotechnology has been widely used in various engineering applications as a promising alternative in saving energy and reducing the cost of producing engineering facilities. This important application is represented by the reduction of nanoparticles to the size of the nanoparticles and their mixing with fluids of low thermal properties to give a good type of fluid known as nanofluid.
With the advancement of nanotechnology and its ability to increase the performance of solar devices by exploiting it, a new fluid known as nanofluid has been originated. This is assembled by mixing the base fluid of low thermal conductivity with solid nanoparticles of high thermal conductivity, and hence the new fluid (nanofluids) has high transfer characteristic compared with the base fluids [1, 2]. A nanofluid is a fluid in which nanometer-sized particles, suspended in the base fluid, form a colloidal solution of nanoparticles in a base fluid. The nanoparticles used in nanofluids are typically made of metals, oxides, carbides, or carbon nanotubes, while the base fluids include water, ethylene glycol, and oil. Nanofluids have novel properties that make them potentially useful in many applications in heat transfer, including microelectronics, fuel cells, pharmaceutical processes, and hybrid-powered engines, engine cooling/vehicle thermal management, domestic refrigerator, chiller, and heat exchanger and in grinding, machining, and in boiler flue gas temperature reduction.
Nanofluids are produced by several techniques: first step, second step, and other techniques. To avoid the sedimentation of nanoparticles during its operation, surfactant may be added to them. Nanofluid preparation is the first step ahead of any implementations. Therefore, it entails more focus from researchers to obtain a good stage of stability. Colloidal theory states that sedimentation in suspensions ceases when the particle size is below a critical radius due to counterbalancing gravity forces by the Brownian forces. Nanoparticles of a smaller size may be a better size in the different applications. However, it has a high surface which leads to the formation of agglomerates among them [3, 4]. Therefore, to obtain a stable nanofluid with optimum particle diameter and concentration, it is considered a big challenge for researchers. Two common methods are used to produce nanofluids, the two-step method and the one step method, and others have worked up some innovations.
The two-step method is the common method to produce nanofluids. Nanoparticles of different materials including nanofibers, nanotubes, or other nanomaterials are first produced as nanosized from 10 to 100 nm by chemical or physical methods. Then, the nanosized powder will be dispersed in base fluids with the help of intensive magnetic force agitation, ultrasonic agitation, high-shear mixing, homogenizing, and ball milling. As resulting from high surface area and surface activity, nanoparticles tend to aggregate reflecting adversely on the stability of nanofluid [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. To avoid that effect, the surfactant is added to the nanofluids.
The two-method preparation has been done by many researchers [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14].
Figure 2 shows a block diagram of preparation of two-step method [15].
Two-step method of preparation of nanofluids [
The one-step process is simultaneously making and dispersing the particles in the base fluids which could be reduced to the agglomeration of nanoparticles. This method makes the nanofluid more stable with a limitation of the high cost of the process [16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25].
Some researchers create other methods to obtain new prepared methods for nanofluid with relatively high characteristics and more stability. Wei et al. [26] developed a method to synthesize copper nanofluids. This method can be synthesized through a novel precursor transformation with the help of ultrasonic and microwave irradiation [27]. Chen et al. [28] obtain monodisperse noble-metal colloids through using a phase-transfer method. Feng et al. [29] have used the aqueous-organic phase-transfer method for preparing gold, silver, and platinum nanoparticles with the solubility in water. Phase-transfer method is also used to prepare stable kerosene-based F3O4 nanofluids [30]. As stated above, the research proved that nanofluids synthesized by chemical solution method could be enhanced in conductivity with more stability [31].
Nanofluids have novel properties different from base fluids that included thermophysical properties such as specific heat, density, viscosity, and thermal conductivity.
Mixing the nanoparticles into the base fluid changes the thermophysical properties of the base fluid. The most important thermophysical properties of nanofluids are nanofluid viscosity, nanofluid convective heat transfer, nanofluid thermal conductivity, and nanofluid specific heat.
The value of specific heat and density of the nanofluids can be determined by correlations, whereas the viscosity and thermal conductivity have different correlations.
Conventional heat transfer fluids, such as oil, water, and ethylene glycol (EG) mixture, are poor heat transfer fluids. Hence, many trials by researchers to enhance the heat transfer convection of these fluids through increasing their thermal conductivity. High thermal conductivity is obtained for the nanofluids by adding nanoparticle of solid materials of high thermal conductivity.
Nanofluids are basically advanced heat transfer fluids as an alternative to the pure base fluids to improve the heat transfer process through the addition of nanoparticle materials that have the properties of higher thermal conductivity. This attracted the attention of researchers to test many nanoparticles that have different thermal conductivity to obtain a high rate of heat transfer and use them in different applications.
The literature reported multiequations describing the thermal conductivity of nanofluids. The prominent results reported that there are improvements of 5–10% of the thermal conductivity of nanofluids using the base fluid (water, PAO). As is reported, there is no critical improvement in the thermal conductivity in comparison to the conventional base fluid dependent on particle size and base fluid thermal conductivity [32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37].
Conventional models of effective thermal conductivity of suspensions are reported for some researchers [32].
where
Nanofluids have been proven a great potential for heat transfer enhancement [44, 45, 46, 47]. Nanofluids have been presented as a promising tool and a good alternative to base fluids to save energy, compact devices of low cost and design of multiequipment used in a different applications with nanofluids as working fluids.
Experimental investigation [38] on Cu- or water-based nanofluids has demonstrated great enhancement of heat transfer and also reported that friction factor has a very meager part in the application process. Other scholars [39] have concluded that a systematic and definite deterioration of the natural convective heat transfer occurs for the forced convection reliant on the solution concentration, the particle density, and the aspect ratio of the cylinder. Experimental investigation on Al2O3 nanofluids using water as base fluid has been studied by various research groups, and they concluded that the heat transfer coefficient in laminar flow [40, 41, 42] increases up to 12–15% and in the case of turbulent flow, it ranges up to 8% [43, 44]. CNT, CuO, SiO, and TiO2 nanofluids using water have been investigated [45, 46, 47]. Among these, CNT nanofluid produced similar results to that of Al2O3 nanofluid. Ding et al. [48] have concluded that the enhancement of heat transfer could be obtained by varying the flow condition and the fluid concentration. Alternatively, CuO has been investigated for several wall boundary conditions, and it has reached good results [3]. The increase in the concentration of the nanofluid on contrary gives very weak results on the heat transfer coefficient for volume fraction greater than 0.3% [49]. It is noted from the experiments that the heat transfer coefficient enhancement can be achieved in the range of 2–5%.
Viscosity is one of the parameters that influences the behavior of nanofluids. Researchers have conducted experiments to test the viscosity through adding the nanoparticles to the different base fluids, and hence they found out that the viscosity is significantly affected by both variations of temperature and volume fraction of nanoparticles [50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56]. They have reported correlated equations to quantify the viscosity based on their experiments using different nanofluids. The following correlated equations are examples that have been reported by some researchers.
Model for spherical nanoparticles [57]:
Model for simple hard sphere systems, the relative viscosity increases with particle volume fraction ø [57]:
The model is valid for spherical nanoparticles and for 0.5236 ≤ Φ ≤ 0.7405 [55]. Meaning of Φ = volume fraction and
The SiO2 nanofluid has been investigated [48] and concluded that nanofluid viscosity is dependent on the volume fraction. Other researchers [58] have analyzed commercial engine coolants dispersed with alumina particles. They found out that the nanofluid produced with calculated amount of oleic acid (surfactant) has been tested for stability. While the pure base fluid demonstrates Newtonian behavior over the measured temperature, it turns to a non-Newtonian fluid with addition of a few alumina nanoparticles.
The specific heat of material is quite an important property to define the thermal performance of any material [36]. Specific heats of nanofluids may differ according to the type of base fluids, nanomaterials, and concentration of nanoparticles found in base fluids. Pak and Cho [59] have investigated the impact of volume fraction of Al2O3 on specific heat. The investigation showed that 1.10–2.27% decrease in specific heat occurred for 1.34–2.78% volume fraction of nanoparticle size of 13 nm. Zhao et al. [68] also noticed a fall in the specific heat capacity of CuO nanofluid by 1.16–5% compared to base fluid EG for volume fraction of 0.1–0.6% and particle size which ranges from 25 to 500 nm. Some nanofluids show inconsistent behavior with volume convergence. Shahrul et al. [60] have conducted a comparative revision on the specific heat of nanofluids used in energy applications. They have concluded that for most nanomaterials in base fluids, specific heat decreases with the increase in volume fraction. Sonawane et al. [61] have investigated specific heat of Al2O3/ATF and reported the anomalous conduct of specific heat with volume convergence. Increase in specific heat capacity has also been reported in experimental observations [36, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68]. Fakoor Pakdaman et al. [69] have found out that there is 21–42% decrease in specific heat capacity of MWCNT/water nanofluid for 0.1–0.4% vol. a fraction in the range of 5–20 nm size. However, Kumaresan et al. [64] have observed 2.31–9.35% gain. In specific heat capacity of MWCNT/(EG/DW, 30/70) nanofluid for 0.15–0.45% concentration, particle size was kept at 30–50 nm. Nowadays, the result of experimental data does not signal a discreet and clear-cut indication that there is the only reduction in the heat capacity with an increment of volume concentration, as has been reported by several academic figures. Experimental observations on various nanofluids show increase of specific heat capacity [62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70], whereas experimental observations exhibit decrease in specific heat capacity performed by many researchers [59, 61, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81].
The specific heat of nanofluid can be determined as function of the particle volume concentration using the following equation [80]:
And
Nowadays, nanofluids play a vital role in heat transfer equipment as a good alternative in developing the efficiency of the heat transfer equipment and in turn of reducing the size of the equipment and saving energy.
Since water is a good medium for heat transfer and it is also a good medium for receiving and storing solar energy during sunrise time, therefore, water is a good medium for the heating processes and one important source for the application of solar energy [2, 82, 83]. It is granted that the thermal efficiency of the FPSWH is relatively low, and therefore researchers have exerted many efforts to increase its performance. The thermal efficiency of the FPSWH has improved by using specific techniques [84]. Researchers to enhance the performance of FPSWH and the thermal efficiency using different methods [85, 86, 87, 88, 89] have conducted many studies.
The recent researches have revealed that nanofluids have a large effect on increasing heat transfer. This is done through mixing the nanoparticles materials that have high thermal conductivity into the working fluid (or called the base fluid).
Now, nanofluids are promising mediums as alternatives to the base fluids, and hence the researches are still under investigation to improve and develop the heat transfer equipment systems.
Many works have been conducted to improve the performance of flat plate solar water heater using different nanoparticles to the base fluid [63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73].
To improve the performance of flat plate solar collector, scholars had conducted experimental and theoretical studies on flat plate solar collector using nanofluids with different binary materials (nanoparticles + base fluids) as a working fluid.
Salem Ahmed et al. [90] have conducted an experimental work on the performance of chilled water air conditioning unit with and without alumina nanofluids.
They have used the first method to prepare Al2O3 water nanofluids with different concentrations by weight, which vary from 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 1% wt. Under operation conditions, experiments have been investigated including a variation of flow rate of chilled water/alumina nanofluids and the air through the cooling coil. The results have shown that less time is scored to get the desired chilled fluid temperature for all the different concentrations of nanofluids (Al2O3-water) compared with pure water.
Again, the findings have shown a reduction of the power consumption and increase in the cooling capacity, which is in turn an increase in the COP by about 5 and 17% for alumina nanoparticles, concentration of 0.1 and 1% by weight, respectively. A schematic diagram of the experimental work shown in Figures 3 and 4 shows the TEM image of the alumina nanoparticles (Al2O3) used in the experiments.
A schematic diagram of the chilled-water air conditioning unit [
TEM image of Al2O3 nanoparticles used in the experiments [
Xu et al. [91] have conducted experimental and theoretical studies comparing a novel of parabolic trough concentrator with traditional solar water heater using nanofluid, CuO/oil. Figure 5 shows a configuration of the novel parabolic trough concentrator and the traditional solar heater.
Schematics of solar collection principles. (a) A conventional indirect absorption solar collector (IASC); (b) the proposed novel nanofluid-based direct absorption solar collector (NDASC); and (c) the heat transfer around nanoparticles inside the tube of NDASC [
As is shown in Figure 5b, a kind of oil added with certain nanoparticles (CuO) acts as a working fluid. The nanoparticles dispersed in the oil inside the inner tube directly capture the solar radiation instead of the tube wall coating. The solar collection efficiency curves for the two collectors suggested that the NDASC was superior to a conventional IASC within a preferred working temperature range, but inferior when the tf exceeded a specific critical temperature (
Variations of solar collection efficiencies with tf,i for both the NDASC and the IASC [
Said et al. [92] have used TiO2-water nanofluid as a working fluid for enhancing the performance of a flat plate solar collector for the volume fraction of the nanoparticles 0.1 and 0.3%, respectively, and mass flow rates of the nanofluid vary from 0.5 to 1.5 kg/min, respectively. Thermophysical properties and reduced sedimentation for TiO2 nanofluid have been obtained using PEG 400 dispersant. Energy efficiency has increased by 76.6% for 0.1% volume fraction and 0.5 kg/min flow rate, whereas the highest energy efficiency obtained has been 16.9% for 0.1% volume fraction and 0.5 kg/min flow rate.
The thermal efficiency of the FPSC (μ) and the energy efficiency are given, respectively, as [92].
The schematic of the solar collector and the experiment is presented in Figure 7. They also showed that the pressure drop and pumping power of TiO2 nanofluid were very close to the base fluid for the studied volume fractions [92].
The presentation of the experimental setup in schematic diagram [
Polvongsri et al. [93] have performed an experimental work to study the performance of a flat plate solar collector (Figure 8) using a silver nanofluid as the working fluid, while water was mixed with 20 nm silver nano with concentrations of 1000 and 10,000 ppm. The operating conditions of experiments to be done at a flow rate of working fluid between 0.8 and 1.2 l/min-m2 and the inlet temperature were controlled in a range of 35–65°C.
Diagram of the experimental setup [
It is remarkable that using silver nanofluid as a working fluid could improve the thermal performance of flat plate collector compared with water, especially at high inlet temperature as shown in Figure 9.
The performance curves of silver nanofluid at 10,000 and 1000 ppm and water [
This chapter reviews the recent applications of nanotechnology for nanofluids. These applications revealed that nanofluids have a promising alternative to enhance the performance of heat transfer equipment considering the cost, safety, potential of size reduction, and environmental protection. The present chapter provides a comprehensive overview of nanofluid as one of the important applications of nanotechnology and how to obtain it and its thermal properties. There are challenges hindering the preparation of nanomaterials, including the stability of nanofluids to take into consideration and worthy of attention on the part of researchers.
Even if paediatricians routinely give drugs to children ‘off-label’ (drug not specifically approved for use in children), it is known that children respond to drugs in a very different way than adults in terms of safety and efficacy [1]. Anatomical, physiological and developmental differences between children and adults and among children of different ages reflect in changes in absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME). Moreover, less information is available in younger age groups and neonates. Furthermore, while certain specific disorders are unique to children, others could be more common in children than adults or infrequent in children compared to adults. Notwithstanding, children have been excluded from testing of new drugs for many years and for this reason have been defined as ‘Therapeutic Orphans’ by Shirkey in 1969 [2].
The lack of a regulatory framework that obliged to test medications in the paediatric population taking into account the specificities of children and the ethical concerns behind resulted in several examples of therapeutic tragedies in paediatric patients. A new liquid formulation of the antibiotic sulphanilamide was developed in 1938 to allow oral dosing for paediatric patients who could not swallow the tablet form. Unluckily, the solvent used to dissolve the active substance was a toxin that caused many adverse events with a 30% mortality rate [3]. And again, Thalidomide was marketed in Europe in the late 1950s for the treatment of nausea in pregnant women causing severe birth defects in thousands of children including severe shortening of the extremities, malformations of ears, heart, intestines and other structures, depending on the embryologic stage at the time of exposure [4].
These tragedies are just an example of the high risk to which children have been exposed for years and have led to the increasing awareness that new medications for children should be carefully studied before they could be approved, defining the proper requirements and ethical issues to guarantee efficacious and safer drugs for children. As a consequence, regulations have been adopted independently in the most developed countries, but in accordance with unified guidelines suggested by the International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH), an organisation working on the harmonisation of pharmaceutical regulatory requirements within the European Union (EU), Japan and the United States (US) [5].
The European Paediatric Regulation was adopted in 2006 and entered into force in 2007 [6] imposing to pharmaceutical companies developing drugs of potential interest for children to prepare a paediatric investigational plan (PIP) to obtain a marketing authorisation for an indication in adults, unless they were granted a product-specific waiver by the Paediatric Committee of the European Medicines Agency (EMA), for example if the indication does not occur in children [7]. The paediatric regulation has defined rules concerning the development of medicinal products for paediatric use and introduced rewards and incentives for the development of paediatric drugs (i.e. the paediatric-use marketing authorization—PUMA) [5].
In the US, two main acts have complemented each other ruling the evaluation of drugs in infants and children and increasing the paediatric clinical studies and drug labelling for children: the PREA of 2003 [8] and the BPCA of 2002 [9], both amended in the FDAAA of 2007 [10]. A different approach has been taken in Japan, more focused on premiums granted to pharmaceutical companies as rewards for developing paediatric medicines without a regulatory framework specifically addressing paediatric clinical research. As an effect of these premiums, the price of those drugs is not reduced as normally occurred every 2 years in the Japanese system [11].
A major challenge in studying paediatric diseases is the relatively low incidence rate or uniqueness of some disorders in children. Paediatric diseases may resemble those in adults, but considerable differences may also exist with regards to aetiology, progression, comorbidities and prognosis [12].
Several cancer types are genetically different in children compared to adults as demonstrated by a comprehensive analysis of genetic alterations in a pan-cancer cohort including 961 tumours from children, adolescents, and young adults, and comprising 24 distinct molecular types of cancer [13]. Epilepsy in children is associated with a wide range of congenital or hereditary diseases, while in adults, it is associated mainly with strokes and brain tumours [14]. The onset of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) during childhood is associated with different clinical manifestations and two to three times higher mortality compared to adult-onset SLE [15]. Moreover, frequent comorbidities are specific of premature neonates including persistent ductus arteriosus, sepsis, intra-ventricular haemorrhage and necrotising enterocolitis, and mortality is the highest in premature neonates born <28 weeks’ gestation [16, 17].
The above studies provide just some examples of how children and adults can be differently affected by similar diseases underling the importance to address the drug discovery and development process starting from the specificities of the paediatric population.
Obviously, childhood is the period of life when the physiological and physical changes are the most important and the fastest. Physiological systems and functions are immature in neonates at birth with the degree of immaturity depending on gestational age. These systems develop progressively and changes can be observed, for example, in gastrointestinal motility and function, body composition and size, activities of transporters and metabolism enzymes, and renal function. The process is dynamic and nonlinear with progressive rapid growth and maturation in the first weeks/months of life, and slower thereafter. These developmental changes affect drug disposition, as discussed later, with differences among neonates, children, adolescents and adults [18, 19].
Therefore, defining the paediatric population is a very complex issue since it represents an extremely heterogeneous population. To address the peculiarity of each age group and to provide guidance for regulatory and clinical matters, the international regulation on paediatric clinical trials [20] has described four subsets: pre-term and term neonates (0–27 days), infants (1–23 months), children (2–11 years) and adolescents (12–18 years). In addition, the recently revised EMA guideline ‘Ethical considerations for clinical trials on medicinal products conducted with minors’ issued on September 2017 has further sub-divided the age group 2–18 years into pre-schoolers (2–5 years), schoolers (6–9 years) and adolescents (10–18 years) [5, 21]. It has to be underlined that this definition, although useful to unify the system of rules and law in this field, does not always reflect the maturity of the child, which is something that is generally recognised as crucial aspect to be taken into account during the conduct of paediatric clinical trials [5].
When it comes to talking about paediatric diseases, we cannot exclude the rare disease field since many rare diseases are diagnosed during childhood. Rare diseases include a very heterogeneous group of disorders, affecting any body system. A disease is defined rare if it affects fewer than 1 in 2000 people in Europe and fewer than 200,000 people in the United State. A high percentage of rare diseases (about 80%) affect children, and in 50% of cases, all rare diseases are characterised by a childhood-onset with a significant impact on the well-being of the patients and families [22, 23, 24].
Although rare diseases have by definition a low prevalence, with some having a single identified case worldwide, collectively they affect about 6–8% of the human population with a number of diseases recognised as rare comprised between 6000 and 8000 diseases [25].
Despite the high impact they have on the worldwide population, few treatments are available on the market. Drug development for rare diseases poses unique scientific and ethical challenges, most of which in common with the obstacles described in this chapter for the paediatric population. Since they affect a small population, heterogeneous and widely dispersed, it is more difficult to enrol enough patients in clinical studies and pharmaceutical company shows a scarce interest in this field for the low return they may have.
Moreover, considering the high incidence and prevalence during the childhood, the ethical issue is predominant in this field. And additional challenges may result from the frequently progressive, life-limiting or life-threatening nature of these diseases.
As described below, new approaches in all the phases of the drug development process may offer valuable solutions to overcome these difficulties in the rare diseases as well as paediatric diseases field.
Drug discovery and development path represents the long process starting with the identification of new target molecules (discovery phase), going through studies on microorganisms and animals (preclinical development) and finally testing the new medicines in the target population (clinical development) to bring them to the market (authorization and commercialization). Considering the differences between children and adults above mentioned, a new drug to be used in children should be specifically tested in children themselves in controlled clinical studies. At the same extent, medicines for children should be developed having in mind the specificities of this vulnerable population starting from the very initial phase of discovery.
In order to make available better medicines for children, it is mandatory to start thinking differently from the beginnings of the long process of drug development and stop the habit to translate results from adult to children. Even if we cannot deny the potentialities and advantages of using existing drugs in alternative ways or populations, as the case of repurposed drugs or the use of extrapolation in paediatric drug development, these approaches should be considered complementary to a drug discovery tailored to children and not the only way to go.
Drug discovery for children should be focused on specific targets for paediatric indications and should not be influenced by the existing knowledge for adults. Appropriate preclinical animal and cellular models should be used, and new emergent technologies should be implemented.
The main challenges in the research of novel medications for children come from a range of unique characteristics of this population. As highlighted before, several paediatric diseases are unique of childhood or differ in children compared to adult. Therefore, it is of major importance to increase our understanding of the disease mechanism in children and of the human development mechanism relevant for paediatric diseases and use this knowledge to favour a proper drug target selection and validation. For this aim, the availability of adequate disease models, both at
The existing human cell lines are frequently derived from adult sources, making them inappropriate as
Considering these findings, novel preclinical models should be evaluated as platform for drug discovery for paediatric diseases, such as induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) or innovative techniques including organoids and organs-on-a-chip. Disease-specific iPSCs represent a promising platform to understand pathological progression in patient-derived cells presenting many advantages: iPSCs are an unlimited source of patient-specific cells for drug testing and for the development of personalised medicine [32]. Advances in human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC) or tissue-resident adult stem cell (AdSC) research have led to the possibility to mimic any tissue in the human body through three-dimensional (3D) model including organoids and organs-on-a-chip that can be used as
In addition, as regarding the animal models, the number of comprehensive studies describing the normal development of different physiological systems and processes in laboratory animals from molecular to system levels is very limited, and such studies usually do not exist in animal models of paediatric diseases. Thus, questions of comparability of developmental stages across species continue to create debate. The need to use juvenile animal models will be better discussed in the following section.
In addition to the need of developing cellular and animal models more suitable to study paediatric diseases and the instruments to work with immature animals, all the new emergent technologies should be timely applied to the paediatric drug discovery in order to speed up the pharmacological research, including pluripotent stem cell, 3D cell cultures, target validation, patient-derived cell assays, micro-fluidics, high-throughput cell image analysis, non-invasive drug delivery systems and devices to measure drug safety or efficacy non-invasively.
Commonly, only a small number of compounds identified in the initial discovery phase will pass through to more rigorous preclinical development. Pre-clinical studies—
Drug dosing and response may differ markedly between adults and children for many reasons: anatomical and physiological differences between paediatric and adult population [34, 35], different diseases or presentation of diseases [36], differences in PK and/or PD profiles [37], different ‘host’ responses [38] different adverse drug reactions [39] and drug formulation.
There are many examples of drugs with a diverse PK profile in children compared to adults as a consequence of a different absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) [40]. The rate and extent of the bioavailability of a drug may vary as a consequence of the development changes that occur in absorptive surfaces, especially the gastrointestinal tract. Dissimilarities have also been reported in drug metabolism, transporters expression, biliary function and renal clearance, resulting in differences in drug disposition and elimination [41].
Similarly to PK profile, PD profile is also affected by human development and drug targets may vary under developmental control: their level of expression, affinity or activity may diverge according to the patient’s age, resulting in variable drug responses depending on patients’ age group. This is particularly important in younger infants, more vulnerable to drug toxicity and related adverse events by modifying drug therapeutic windows [42].
Another aspect to be taken into due account is represented by the effect of the ontogeny and genetic variation interactions on drug response, known as pharmacogenetics [43]. Several pharmacogenetics studies have indeed demonstrated the differences in response to drugs between children and adults [44].
To take into consideration these aspects, age-appropriated technologies and models in paediatric drug development should be applied: appropriate cellular models, juvenile animal model, administration of sub-pharmacologic doses (micro-dosing) to evaluate PK in a first-in-paediatric study, modelling and simulations and pharmacogenetics biomarkers.
Juvenile animal models should be used to take into due account the specificities of the paediatric population as described above and to fill the gap between developmental and mature toxicity. Indeed, the same drugs can have a different safety profile in children compared to adults due to many aspects such as body weight, developmental differences in growth and function of target organs, immune system maturation and different expression of receptors system. For example, adult models of epilepsy cannot be simply applied to the study of paediatric epilepsy and key differences exist in human and rodent brain maturation process [45].
Extrapolation of data from adults or studies using adult animals is not always adequate to predict these differences in safety profile for paediatric age groups. For this aim, ‘Guideline on the need for non-clinical testing in juvenile animals of pharmaceuticals for paediatric indications’ has been adopted in January 2008 by the EMA. The guidelines recommend the ‘use of juvenile animal models when a drug safety cannot be appropriately defined in the intended paediatric age group on the basis of human data or previous animal studies’ and provide recommendation on the ‘timing and utility of juvenile animal studies in relation to phases of drug development process’. In particular, the document points out that studies in juvenile animals should be performed on a case-by-case basis rather than using standardised study protocols and describes the key aspects to take into consideration in the study’s design: age of the animal and duration of the studies, route of administration, selection of species, PK and toxicokinetics, dose selection, endpoint [46]. Juvenile studies are especially recommended when it has been demonstrated that a medicine causes toxicity in adult at the target organ level and/or to tissues that undergo significant post-natal development (CNS, immune, or reproductive systems). As also underlined by Anderson et al., it is important to conduct the preclinical experiments in the most appropriate species at the most relevant age on the basis of comparability of the specific organ system development in question [47]. And many issues have to be considered in juvenile toxicology studies: difficulties in the dose administration due to the small size of the animals, in blood and tissue sample collection, and in distinguishing direct versus latent effects [48].
Therefore, proper animal models should be developed. As an example, Lohi et al. described the zebrafish as a model for paediatric diseases, with particular emphasis on haematopoietic and infectious diseases [49]. In this direction, several zebrafish models for the study of leukaemia have been developed [50, 51, 52].
Preclinical data obtained from juvenile studies, extrapolated assuming a correlation between developmental growth in animals and children, can be linked to different information from a variety of data sources using the modelling and simulation (M&S) approach.
M&S is a multidisciplinary science, which integrates knowledge about diseases, drug characteristics,
The use of a model-based approach in the paediatric context provides several advantages allowing the integration of prior
Finally, efficacy and safety of the new medicine should be tested in appropriate clinical trials. When it comes to the clinical development of a drug, several issues related to the peculiarity of the paediatric population have to be faced. Conducting a paediatric clinical trial raises several scientific and operational challenges.
First of all, the low prevalence of many paediatric diseases leads to a limited number of children affected by each condition. In addition, the ethical issues are also to be considered to obtain clinical benefits for children assuring the best possible protection for these vulnerable subjects. Moreover, considering the heterogeneous nature of the paediatric population, the population subsets to be included in a study should be chosen with great attention in order to be sure to consider the most likely target population for the medicine being tested.
Another issue to be considered in the design of a paediatric clinical trial is the lack of tools and/or methods for quantitative and qualitative assessment tailored for the paediatric population and its sub-groups (study endpoints, questionnaires and scales for the measurement of psychophysical parameters and tools for the assessment of adverse reactions).
The difficulties described above, in testing appropriate drugs in children, have brought to an increased use of off-label drugs with high risks for adverse safety events and efficacy failures and to a general knowledge gap in paediatric research [1].
The US and EU Regulatory agencies foster the drug clinical development through regulations and incentives and the increasing number of paediatric trials and specific label changes and dosing recommendations.
Ground-breaking methodologies such as innovative trial design, application of modelling and simulation and other tools supporting paediatric trials (such as specific outcomes measures, biomarkers, statistical methods, etc.) can help researchers to overcome obstacles faced in planning, initiating and conducting a clinical trial involving children.
For example, to reduce the number of samples required for a study, sparse and scavenged sampling approach can be used. Sparse sampling uses a lower number of samples per patient compared with traditional PK sampling methods. Scavenged sampling consists in the use of residual blood/plasma samples remaining after the laboratory tests obtained in the course of medical care. These approaches reduce the risk for the child and eliminate the need for vascular punctures specifically for the study and, as a consequence, increase the rate of parental consent and the availability of several samples per infant [56].
Statistical methods, such as the Bayesian design, allow the extrapolation of results out of fewer children than in the conventional, fixed-number design, also considering evidences in adults [5].
Modelling and simulation approaches allow to successfully predict the optimal dosing regimens from the preclinical to the clinical phase [57].
More innovative trial design methods are being developed to overcome the limits related to small samples and to the acceptability of the trial. These alternative approaches, limiting the amount of experimentation in children, represent a promising way of ultimately improving paediatric care [58].
A biomarker can be defined as ‘a characteristic that is objectively measured and evaluated as an indicator of normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention’ [59].
Biomarkers can be influential in every phase of drug development, from drug discovery and preclinical development, through each phase of clinical trials and into post-marketing studies. Evaluation and application of biomarkers can be useful to refine a drug dose or dose interval, or to select the appropriate population during early-phase clinical development of a product [60].
Despite this, the discovery of paediatric biomarkers has been limited and to cover the resultant gap, extrapolation, in children, of biomarkers identified and employed successfully in adults has become a common practice. However, human development impacts almost all factors and systems from organ function to drug disposition including the commonly utilised biomarkers that are influenced by changes occurring from birth onwards [61]. Therefore, adult biomarkers are not always appropriate to a paediatric setting.
A major challenge in the paediatric biomarkers discovery path is the sample availability due to the low prevalence of many paediatric diseases. Moreover, compared to adults, the paediatric populations is more heterogeneous making more difficult to obtain samples for biomarker discovery and validation, with the patients often distributed among several centres. Consequently, multicentre collaborations are often necessary in order to access sufficiently large study populations of affected children to generate big enough datasets to adequately power research studies [62].
Additional obstacles in children are represented by the difficulty to obtain appropriate age-matching control samples in order to minimise the influence that age-related changes may have on biomarker discovery and validation. Research on healthy children is generally restricted to minimal risk procedures, so although biological samples like saliva and urine can be relatively easy to obtain, blood samples are difficult to obtain in healthy children, particularly in neonates [61].
Moreover, several ethical considerations have to be taken into due account to enrol children in a biomarkers study: an effective and simplified consent process, long-term retention of samples for future research, the impact of ancillary genetic information on family members and predisposition to adult-onset disease [61].
Current advances in molecular techniques and the speed up of the ‘-omics’ technologies (i.e. genomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics and proteomics) have provided new tools facilitating the discovery of new biomarkers. The promise of omics technologies is considered huge, but translation of these technologies into clinical setting has been quite slow especially in the paediatric field.
The effect of age on PK profile, as discussed above, leads to different dosing requirements for different age groups. The proper dose administered may vary nearly 100-fold during childhood as a consequence of the body size and weight increase from birth to adulthood [63]. Premature neonates admitted to the hospital can weigh as little as 500 g. Moreover, since the maturation process in children is not linear, not always a linear relationship exists between a medication dose and body size and/or weight.
The need to have safe and suitable drugs for children has led to the awareness that drug formulations tailored to children in all the target age groups is essential. Formulation acceptability differs across age groups as children gradually develop their cognitive and motor skills, and improve their ability to swallow medications. And taste of a drug may be critical to ensure acceptable adherence to paediatric oral formulations.
The ideal formulation for children should have flexible dosage increments and minimal excipients, be palatable if given oral, easy and safe to administer, and be stable with regard to light, humidity and heat.
Continuous effort in formulation science by academic and paediatric researchers and commitment of policy makers and regulators should promote the preparation of pharmaceutical formulations for paediatric use, focusing on age tailored forms, excipient-related toxicity and safety risks in order to improve acceptability and facilitate medication adherence in children.
Up to 80% of women receive at least one medication, over-the-counter (OTC) or prescribed, during pregnancy in Europe [64]. The most common drugs used during pregnancy are anti-infectives and respiratory drugs [65]. It is recognised that medications assumption during pregnancy can represent a risk for the foetus, and therefore, medication use is approached with caution by pregnant women and their health care providers [66]. Nevertheless, the majority of current therapeutics used were never being studied in pregnancy for many reasons. Traditionally, pregnancy usually represents an exclusion criterion for phase I testing studies and women of childbearing age are usually excluded from clinical trials. Moreover, pharmaceutical companies manifest a low interest in the pregnant population since this population has more medico-legal risks and ethical concerns and represents a small percentage of the patient population that these companies target [66].
Due to the lack of studies involving pregnant women, safety drugs profile is usually obtained from either post-marketing surveillance or late-stage retrospective studies and efficacy and dosing data can be extrapolated from studies conducted in men or non-pregnant women [66].
To foster the availability of more effective and safer obstetrical drugs, a better understanding of the changes that occur in the mother, placenta and foetus is essential and strategies to monitor the therapeutic progress have to be improved [65].
The placenta represents a maternal-foetal interface between the mother and baby’s blood and controls exchanges of nutrients, oxygen, wastes and drug transport. The process regulating molecular transfer across the placental barrier is poorly understood leading to a lack of precious information for the drug development process.
Most studies on human placental biology have been conducted on tissue obtained after term delivery, or earlier, often from pathological pregnancies at various stages of disease, or from
In the last decades, advances in computer technology has led to an increase in the use of informatics and bioinformatics in biomedical research, moving into an
As an example,
This approach has been translated in paediatrics as a promising method to support the design of
The introduction of PBPK modelling software in the field of paediatric drug development presents many advantages considering the peculiarities of this population. Notwithstanding these approaches could not replace totally the need for clinical trials, but they could reduce the amount of clinical trials required in children providing a primary exploratory investigation of drug PK, first-time dosing in children and study design [71, 72].
The issues linked to the pricing and reimbursement of drugs administered to paediatric population are strictly linked to the mechanisms of drug marketing. Multiple factors are involved, and alteration of the regulatory environment can rapidly change the drug development pathway chosen by pharmaceutical companies. At the moment, most of the drugs used for children have a marketing authorization for adults and are used ‘off-label’. No incentives are present for a company to perform further studies in a paediatric population if the drug is used and reimbursed all the same.
The introduction of regulatory requirements for clinical studies in paediatric populations [6, 8, 9] has altered this paradigm for the newest drugs but has not changed the situation for the already used ones.
A basic principle for price calculation is the pay for quality-adjusted life years. Theoretically, this approach should increase the value of a new paediatric drug, but if the same drug is also used for an adult population, the payer would limit the price as a larger population is involved. In fact, due to the age stratification of the paediatric population, many paediatric pathologies might be considered as a rare disease. In fact, due to the facilitation linked to the development of a drug for a rare disease, an emerging approach from commercial entities is to develop drugs for the smaller paediatric population and to ask for an extension of the marketing licence to the adult group only when the licence is going to expire in a reverse approach to maximising the revenues for each new drug.
As this is applicable to all small populations, the regulatory agencies are already eliminating the rare diseases from the groups receiving extra benefit during the marketing authorization process, further complicating the issue.
Overall, due to the personalised medicine approach stratification, there is a strong need to increase the public funding during the early stages of drug development in order to not only reduce and control the cost of new drug but also encourage the development of new class of drugs based on the increased knowledge of the human normal and pathological development.
The advancement of innovative technologies in the paediatric pharmacology and preclinical phase of drug development will contribute to speed up both the development of new medicines for children and the paediatric clinical research. The awareness about the limited application of the innovative technologies in the paediatric drug development process and the scarce availability of safer and efficacious drugs for children has led, over the last years, to the onset of initiatives and collaborative efforts in this field.
At European level, we can cite EnprEMA [73], a network of research networks, investigators and centres with recognised expertise in performing paediatric clinical studies, which have greatly contributed to increase availability of medicines authorised for use in the paediatric population, according to what foreseen in the Paediatric Regulation. The TEDDY Network of Excellence (
Behind the initiatives mentioned above, other actions have been taken to foster the early drug discovery and preclinical development phases. In this field, we can mention the European Paediatric Translational Research Infrastructures (EPTRI) project [77], aimed to design a research infrastructure (RI) completely dedicated to paediatrics to be included in the landscape of the ESFRI RIs. EPTRI aims to be complementary and fully integrated in the context of the existing RIs providing services, competences, expertise in the paediatric drug discovery and development. EPTRI will provide support to the paediatric research community through its thematic platform: Human Development and Paediatric Medicines Discovery, Paediatric Biomarkers and Biosamples, Paediatric Pharmacology, and Paediatric Medicines Formulations and Medical Devices. Through them, EPTRI will promote a translational approach from the bedside to the bench side, to make available more efficacious and safer drugs for children. In the formulation field, it has to be mentioned that the European Paediatric Formulation Initiative (EuPFI) [78] is a consortium working in a pre-competitive way on paediatric drug formulations and aimed to speed up the development of better and safer medicines for children by identifying issues and challenges in paediatric formulation development. EuPFI has set up the database Safety and Toxicity of Excipients for Paediatrics (STEP) that provides updated information on excipients safety and toxicity in children.
To address specifically the rare diseases, the European Joint Programme Rare Disease (EJP RD) [79], recently founded by the European Commission, brings over 130 institutions from 35 countries to create virtuous circle among research, care and medical innovation in the rare disease landscape. In particular, the project will improve the integration, the efficacy, the development and the social impact of research on rare disease and will implement an efficient model of financial support for all types of research on RD (fundamental, clinical, epidemiological, social, economic and health service), providing support to accelerate the exploitation of research results for the benefit of patients. To more specifically focus on the drug development in rare diseases, a task force has been created within International Rare Diseases Research Consortium(IRDiRC) [80], the Orphan Drug Development Guidebook Taskforce, aimed at providing support to academic and industrial drug developers and describing the available tools and initiatives specific for rare disease drug development [81].
As described, many initiatives exist as a result of the growing understanding that children cannot be considered as small adults, but need to be addressed specifically in the drug development path. But more efforts and the involvement of the national and international policy bodies are still needed to make the development of medicines for children a priority.
Children represent particular vulnerable subjects and therefore should be protected and preserved by the risks that a clinical research can entail. However, at the same time, higher risks in term of major toxicity and/or reduced efficacy can result by the administration of drugs not properly tested and developed for them. Despite this, the off-label drug administration is still common in the paediatric population and children have been considered for year as the therapeutic orphans due to the recognised lack of medicines specifically targeted for them. Moreover, the enormous progresses and advancements reached in the pharmaceutical field have not been applied to the paediatric population at the same extent of the adults.
The gap in the availability of proper medicines for children can be traced back to ethical, practical and economic reasons. As discussed in the chapter, the main practical reasons can be associated with the differences existing in the diseases affecting children compared to adults, as well as in the different physiology itself of the children compared to adults, the low number of patients affected, the need to take into account different age groups and the need to make available appropriate formulations. Moreover, the ethical concerns make more difficult to obtain the parents’ consent. In addition, the pharmaceutical companies are not interested in this niche market, since they cannot foresee an adequate economic return. Furthermore, more challenges have to be faced when considering paediatric rare diseases. Complex aetiology, small affected population and subsequently small market size, high cost, and possibly low return on investment led to a large gap between basic research and patient unmet needs for rare disease drug discovery.
Many initiatives have been taken over the years, also at institutional levels, to promote a ‘good research’ in the paediatric field, in order to involve children and at the same time preserve them by unnecessary risks. Only increasing our understanding about human development processes and about how these processes impact on the onset and progression of diseases will able us to develop specific medicines targeted for children. The knowledge of these processes will allow us to transfer in the paediatrics all the advancements and innovative technologies nowadays available in the adults’ pharmacological research. Thus, more efforts are needed in terms of capitals, human resources, and technological expertise to speed up both the preclinical and clinical drug development in children and make available to children new medicines and appropriate treatments.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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This airplane requires lightweight and powerful actuators to fly in the rare Martian atmosphere. DEs are a possible candidate for use as actuator controlling the airplane since they have high power, and high efficiency. A structural model of a wing having a control surface, a DE, and a linkage was built and a wind tunnel test of a control surface actuation using a DE actuator was carried out.",book:{id:"10210",slug:"solar-system-planets-and-exoplanets",title:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets",fullTitle:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets"},signatures:"Seiki Chiba and Mikio Waki",authors:[{id:"33308",title:"Dr.",name:"Seiki",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Chiba",slug:"seiki-chiba",fullName:"Seiki Chiba"},{id:"33315",title:"Mr.",name:"Mikio",middleName:null,surname:"Waki",slug:"mikio-waki",fullName:"Mikio Waki"}]},{id:"65461",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84352",title:"Human Health in the Lunar Environment",slug:"human-health-in-the-lunar-environment",totalDownloads:860,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The lunar environment contains many hazards to human health, some common to extraterrestrial locations, some unique to the Moon. 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Consequently, knowledge of exoplanets is considerably more limited than Solar System planets. This chapter reviews the essential characteristics of Solar System planets and associated data derived from a variety of observational approaches. Exoplanet characteristics and their comparison to Solar System planets are provided as well as general detection methods and planned probes to gather additional data.",book:{id:"10210",slug:"solar-system-planets-and-exoplanets",title:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets",fullTitle:"Solar System Planets and Exoplanets"},signatures:"Joseph Bevelacqua",authors:[{id:"115462",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:"John",surname:"Bevelacqua",slug:"joseph-bevelacqua",fullName:"Joseph Bevelacqua"}]},{id:"65725",title:"On the Deviation of the Lunar Center of Mass to the East: Two Possible Mechanisms Based on Evolution of the Orbit and Rounding Off the Shape of the Moon",slug:"on-the-deviation-of-the-lunar-center-of-mass-to-the-east-two-possible-mechanisms-based-on-evolution-",totalDownloads:1025,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"It is known that the Moon’s center of mass (COM) does not coincide with the geometric center of figure (COF) and the line “COF/COM” is not directed to the center of the Earth, but deviates from it to the South-East. Here, we discuss two mechanisms to explain the deviation of the lunar COM to the East from the mean direction to Earth. The first mechanism considers the secular evolution of the Moon’s orbit, using the effect of the preferred orientation of the satellite with synchronous rotation to the second (empty) orbital focus. It is established that only the scenario with an increase in the orbital eccentricity e leads to the required displacement of the lunar COM to the East. It is important that high-precision calculations confirm an increase e in our era. In order to fully explain the shift of the lunar COM to the East, a second mechanism was developed that takes into account the influence of tidal changes in the shape of the Moon at its gradual removal from the Earth. The second mechanism predicts that the elongation of the lunar figure in the early era was significant. As a result, it was found that the Moon could have been formed in the annular zone at a distance of 3–4 radii of the modern Earth.",book:{id:"8444",slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Boris P. Kondratyev",authors:[{id:"277909",title:"Prof.",name:"Boris",middleName:"Petrovich",surname:"Kondratyev",slug:"boris-kondratyev",fullName:"Boris Kondratyev"}]},{id:"65534",title:"Solar System Exploration Augmented by In Situ Resource Utilization: Lunar Base Issues",slug:"solar-system-exploration-augmented-by-in-situ-resource-utilization-lunar-base-issues",totalDownloads:1131,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Creating a presence and an industrial capability on the Moon is essential for the development of humankind. There are many historical study results that have identified and quantified the lunar resources and analyzed the methods of obtaining and employing those resources. The idea of finding, obtaining, and using these materials is called in situ resource utilization (ISRU). The ISRU research and development efforts have led to new ideas in rocket propulsion. Applications in chemical propulsion, nuclear electric propulsion, and many other propulsion systems will be critical in making the initial lunar base and future lunar industries more sustainable and will lead to brilliant futures for humanity.",book:{id:"8444",slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"65508",title:"New Principles of Monitoring Seismological and Deformation Processes Occurring in the Moon Rock Massive",slug:"new-principles-of-monitoring-seismological-and-deformation-processes-occurring-in-the-moon-rock-mass",totalDownloads:796,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Currently, the interest in studying the processes occurring in other planets surrounding the Earth is becoming increasingly important. The Moon-satellite planet is the closest to the planet Earth, and therefore, it makes sense to organize a system for studying it first and foremost, incorporating the most advanced ideas about the physics of processes in rock massive, which are also used in terrestrial conditions. In this paper, new ideas on the organization of seismological and deformation monitoring are set out, based on the results obtained for the rock massive of the Earth and the theoretical ideas presented in the works of I. Prigogine and S. Hawking.",book:{id:"8444",slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Olga Hachay and Oleg Khachay",authors:[{id:"150801",title:"Prof.",name:"Olga",middleName:"Alexandrovna",surname:"Hachay",slug:"olga-hachay",fullName:"Olga Hachay"},{id:"263300",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Khachay",slug:"oleg-khachay",fullName:"Oleg Khachay"}]},{id:"66992",title:"Lunar Occultation",slug:"lunar-occultation",totalDownloads:921,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"A detailed explanation of the reduction method used to determine the angular diameters of the stars occulted by the dark limb of the Moon is presented.",book:{id:"8444",slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Abdulrahman Malawi",authors:[{id:"282963",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulrahman",middleName:"Ali",surname:"Malawi",slug:"abdulrahman-malawi",fullName:"Abdulrahman Malawi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"623",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82332",title:"Access to Space, Access to the Moon – Two Sides of the Same Coin?",slug:"access-to-space-access-to-the-moon-two-sides-of-the-same-coin-",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105175",abstract:"The dynamics of human expansion towards space are going through Earth external layers, orbital space and the Moon. With its low gravity, slingshot effect relative to Earth, on-site resources and relative proximity to Earth in the solar system, the renewed space race is effectively returning first to the Moon. A psychological bridge to enlarge our civilization with a permanent bridge to our natural satellite. The development of this Earth-Moon system, requires enormous amount of finances, energy, science, technology, but over all, opportunities. This chapter deals with the efforts and the mental changes that may eventually result from all of these changes.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Yann-Henri Chemin"},{id:"81141",title:"Modeling Radiation Damage in Materials Relevant for Exploration and Settlement on the Moon",slug:"modeling-radiation-damage-in-materials-relevant-for-exploration-and-settlement-on-the-moon",totalDownloads:32,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102808",abstract:"Understanding the effect of radiation on materials is fundamental for space exploration. Energetic charged particles impacting materials create electronic excitations, atomic displacements, and nuclear fragmentation. Monte Carlo particle transport simulations are the most common approach for modeling radiation damage in materials. However, radiation damage is a multiscale problem, both in time and in length, an aspect treated by the Monte Carlo simulations only to a limited extent. In this chapter, after introducing the Monte Carlo particle transport method, we present a multiscale approach to study different stages of radiation damage which allows for the synergy between the electronic and nuclear effects induced in materials. We focus on cumulative displacement effects induced by radiation below the regime of hadronic interactions. We then discuss selected studies of radiation damage in materials of importance and potential use for the exploration and settlement on the Moon, ranging from semiconductors to alloys and from polymers to the natural regolith. Additionally, we overview some of the novel materials with outstanding properties, such as low weight, increased radiation resistance, and self-healing capabilities with a potential to reduce mission costs and improve prospects for extended human exploration of extraterrestrial bodies.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Natalia E. Koval, Bin Gu, Daniel Muñoz-Santiburcio and Fabiana Da Pieve"},{id:"80241",title:"The Evolution of the Moon’s Orbit Over 100 Million Years and Prospects for the Research in the Moon",slug:"the-evolution-of-the-moon-s-orbit-over-100-million-years-and-prospects-for-the-research-in-the-moon",totalDownloads:65,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102392",abstract:"As a result of solving the problem of interaction of Solar-system bodies, data on the evolution of the Moon’s orbit were obtained. These data were used as the basis for the development of a mathematical model for the Moon representing its motion over an interval of 100 million years. A program of exploration of the Moon with the aim of creating a permanent base on it is outlined. Such a base is intended for exploring the Earth, the Sun, and outer space.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Joseph J. Smulsky"},{id:"80217",title:"Educational and Scientific Analog Space Missions",slug:"educational-and-scientific-analog-space-missions",totalDownloads:88,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101392",abstract:"Analog space missions in Poland include international scientific, technological, and business projects designed and realized by a private research company Analog Astronaut Training Center Ltd. (AATC) devoted to the future Moon and Mars exploration. Growing experience in educational aspect of the training as well as continuous development of the habitat and its professional space science laboratory equipment correspond to increased interest of educational organizations, universities, and individual students. We serve unique practical platform for space engineering, space master, and even space doctoral theses. In addition to a wide range of training courses offered for future astronauts, for example, diving, skydiving, rocket workshops, and stratospheric missions, AATC provides a private laboratory to simulate the space environment. It carries out scientific experiments focused on biology and space medicine, as well as addressing several multidisciplinary issues related to the Moon and Mars exploration, including space mining. The main goal of each our analog simulation is to get publishable results, what means that our analog astronauts obtain not only certification of completion of the training but also ability to continue studies and to perform it individually. This chapter summarizes methodology used by us, didactic tools, and obtained results for both educational and scientific analog simulations.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Agata Maria Kołodziejczyk and M. Harasymczuk"},{id:"79544",title:"Regolith and Radiation: The Cosmic Battle",slug:"regolith-and-radiation-the-cosmic-battle",totalDownloads:126,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101437",abstract:"This chapter discusses regolith utilization in habitat construction mainly from the point of view of radiation protection of humans on missions of long duration. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"