\r\n\t \r\n\tModern paramagnetism is mainly directed to those involved in research, lecturers, undergraduate and graduate students who work crosses paths with paramagnetism in one way or another. It gives the fundamentals of the theory of electron and nuclear paramagnetism, the relaxation and saturation mechanisms involved. Superparamagnetism and molecular magnets are included. It provides detailed NMR, EPR, magnetometry experimental, macroscopic and microscopic techniques. \r\n\t \r\n\tThe book intends to show the interpretations of bulk and spectroscopic measurements through many examples and applications. Examples should include but are not limited to: ferroelectrics, biological free radicals, chemical paramagnetic synthesized compounds, DNA radiation damage, ferroelectromagnets, perovskites, doped glasses, nitrogen and/or oxygen reactive free radicals, and so forth. \r\n\tThe book is directed to the new generations of physicists, engineers, biologists, medical specialists, material scientists, and chemists that would find examples and applications with valuable information and techniques on the science of paramagnetism.
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\n
1. Physiological considerations
\n
Thyroid disorders are most common endocrine problem next to diabetes mellitus. Thyroid disorders affect women more compared to men. Thyroid glands secrete, store, and release triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). The hormone T4 gets converted into T3 at tissue level and produces its effect. Iodine is necessary for production of thyroid hormone. Iodine in food is trapped by thyroid gland and is utilized in hormone production. Pituitary and hypothalamus control thyroid gland hormone secretion. TRH from hypothalamus modulates through pituitary to produce TSH, which in turn controls thyroid hormone production. If T4 and T3 are low, TSH level increases to stimulate thyroid gland to secrete more hormone. T3 and T4 hormones have profound effect on the body. Almost all the tissues are stimulated, and body metabolism is increased. T3 and T4 affect cardiovascular system, GI tract, brain, metabolism, weight, bone, etc. With increased T4 and T3, there is tachycardia, diarrhea, hyperglycemia, lowering of cholesterol, increased growth rate in infant, normal brain development, and sexual function. Undiagnosed hypothyroidism in infants not only affects physical and bony growth but also damages brain growth. If untreated, it leads to permanent damage.
\n
Thyroid functions are affected by congenital absence of thyroid glands, autoimmune thyroid disease, surgical removal, infiltrative diseases, and after radiation to neck. Drugs like amiodarone, lithium, interferon alpha, and interleukin 2 prevent thyroid glands from making hormone and causing hypothyroidism.
\n
Pituitary damage by tumor radiation or surgery can affect thyroid glands and cause secondary hypothyroidism.
\n
For brain maturation and brain function, thyroid hormone is necessary. Thyroid diseases like hypothyroid can cause lethargy, hyporeflexia, depression, memory impairment, weight gain, dry skin, and constipation along with dyslipidemia. Hyperthyroidism produces weight loss, tremors, irritability, and hyperreflexia. Glucose intolerance can also be caused by hyperthyroidism.
\n
Thyroid hormone acts through T3 with nuclear receptors and regulation of gene expression. Hormone deficiency can cause retarded brain maturation and neurological impairment. Thyroid hormone deficiency is caused by congenital and maternal hypothyroidism. Hypothyroidism causes lethargy, hyporeflexia, poor motor coordination, and memory impairment. Hypothyroidism is also associated to bipolar affective disorders, depression, or loss of cognitive functions, especially in the elderly. Thyroid hormone deficiency, even of short duration, may lead to irreversible brain damage.
\n
There is suggestion that reduction in circulating thyroid hormone concentrations is one of the factors mediating impaired neurological development in intrauterine growth retardation and premature babies. More research is required to resolve these questions and ultimately shows if thyroid hormone or iodide supplementation in hypothyroid mothers in the antenatal period and in premature neonates can reduce the prevalence of neurodevelopmental delay.
\n
\n
\n
2. Hyperthyroidism
\n
Hyperthyroidism, which is usually due to autoimmune thyroiditis, clinically presents with tachycardia, increased systolic BP, weight loss in spite of increased appetite, and tremors in both hands. The cardiovascular system reveals fast pulse and sometimes irregular pulse known as auricular fibrillation. Auscultation of chest reveals systolic murmur. Neurological examination reveals brisk knee jerk, and patients show anxiety. There is history of diarrhea. In thyrotoxicosis, bone resorption leads to hypercalcemia. There is decreased PTH, decreased urinary, and fecal calcium excretion. There is hyperphosphatemia. Bone mineral density is decreased due to osteoporosis. Forearms are more affected.
\n
\n
\n
3. Hypothyroidism
\n
In hypothyroidism, patient has a puffy and pallor look. Skin is dry, BP may be increased, and tongue is bigger and voice is hoarse and has constipation due to poor bowel moments. In hypothyroidism, PTH and vitamin D are increased due to low urinary calcium excretion. Decreased bone resorption and formation occurs. Serum osteocalcin and alkaline phosphatase are decreased. Bone turnover is also decreased.
\n
\n
\n
4. Effect of thyroid disorders on bone
\n
Skeletal growth is influenced by thyroid hormone and growth hormone. In thyroid deficiency, there is decreased skeletal growth due to decreased growth hormone and insulin growth factor. Osteoblastic activity is decreased. In childhood thyrotoxicosis, there is advanced bone age due to premature fusion of epiphysis.
\n
\n
\n
5. Thyroid carcinoma
\n
Thyroid carcinoma like anaplastic, follicular, and adeno may eventually cause hypothyroidism. Diabetes mellitus is associated more with hypothyroidism. In Grave’s disease, eyes are involved which is termed as thyroid ophthalmopathy.
\n
Thyroid diseases affect both mother and child before and after delivery. Untreated thyroid dysfunctions can affect neurointellectual development of fetus.
\n
\n
\n
6. Thyroid disorders in pregnancy
\n
During pregnancy, human chorionic gonodotrophin is produced from placenta. This is structurally similar to TSH. Hence, this stimulates thyroid gland, leading to increase in T4 and T3 and decrease in TSH. Thyroid binding globulin is increased due to estrogen and in turn binds T4 and increases T4 level and increases T4 to T3 conversion. There is increased iodine consumption and increased renal iodine clearance. There is increase of iodine transfer to fetus.
\n
\n
\n
7. Thyroid function test in pregnancy
\n
\n
Increased TBG, T4, and iodine clearance, decreased thyrotropin, and increased placental type 3 deiodinase leading to decreased thyroxin level
TSH level varies with trimester
\n
2.5 μg in the first trimester
Less than 3 μg in the second trimester
Less than 5 μg in the third trimester
T4 = 1.5 times higher
\n
\n
\n
8. Factors influencing thyroid functions in pregnancy
\n
\n
Increase in human chorionic gonodotrophin in the first trimester stimulates TSHR. This leads to transient gestational hyperthyroidism or hyperemisisgravidorum. Antithyroid drugs are not needed in this situation.
Increase in estrogen leads to increased TBGT level.
Altered immune reaction leads to autoimmune phenomenon.
Increased thyroid hormone metabolism occurs in placenta.
Increased urinary excretion of iodine in pregnancy impairs thyroid hormone production. This in turn leads to goiter, maternal, and fetal hypothyroidism. Maternal hypothyroidism is seen in 2–3%. Thyroid hormone requirement increases by 25–50 μg/day.
\n
The current open access book on thyroid disorders covers many interesting topics. On the whole, various titles are interesting and provide additional information. I am sure this online book on thyroid disorders will be read by readers with great enthusiasm.
\n
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1. Introduction
The Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) was first introduced in 1964 by Epstein, Anchong, and Barr [1, 2, 3], from a tissue sample of Burkitt’s lymphoma and was observed with an electron microscope. EBV has the same characteristic as herpes viruses in tissue cultures from specimens of Burkitt’s lymphoma. EBV is included in the family of Herpesviridae, which has a characteristic of the viral genome covered inside a nucleocapsid bounded by the viral envelope. In 1968, 4 years right after its first discovery, EBV was found to be the causal agent of the infectious mononucleosis (also called glandular fever). On other studies that conducted after, EBV was also found on tissue samples of nasopharyngeal carcinoma [3, 4], non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, T-cell lymphoma, as well as oral hairy leukoplakia that associated with Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) [4, 5].
EBV DNA has a nature of double-strand and consists of guanosine and cytosine as much as 58%. Due to the nature of the receptors on B-cell surfaces, EBV shows a great permissivity toward B lymphocytes. When B lymphocytes are infected by EBV, they will be “transformed” into lymphoblasts in vitro, this process known as immortalization. EBV occurs commonly and infects approximately 90% of human [1, 2, 3]. EBV-specific antibodies are found in about 95% of adults and 50–85% of the children [4, 5]. EBV infections are typically asymptomatic or have a subclinical infection, but once infected, it can lead to a viral carrier state for a lifetime. In some cases, primary EBV infection occurring during early adulthood could show clinical significance that is known as glandular fever or infectious mononucleosis [2, 5, 6]. Fortunately, most patients with infectious mononucleosis show a short recovery period since both cellular and humoral immune responses play a prominent role during the infection.
Ocular manifestations caused by EBV infection have been previously described. Previous studies showed that specific antibodies were detectable in 65% of tear and 87.5% of serum samples from 40 normal subjects [4]. EBV infection manifested in the eye may involves all segments of the eye, including oculoglandular syndrome, dry eye syndrome, dacryoadenitis, conjunctivitis, episcleritis, keratitis, uveitis, choroiditis, retinitis, retinal vasculitis, and papillitis [3]. Follicular conjunctivitis is the most common ocular disease during acute EBV infection. It is observed in 1–38% of cases and is usually unilateral. Bilateral stromal keratitis with coin-shaped lesions noted on tapering of systemic steroid therapy has been reported [6]. Uveitis occurred in 0.5% of patients with EBV infection [6].
The ocular manifestations of systemic EBV infection are numerous and have not been emphasized. Therefore, the role of EBV infection in ocular manifestation should be fully understood.
2. Pathophysiology infection of EBV
Usually, the first introduction to EBV in the period of childhood will cause subclinical infection, however if this primary event happens during adolescence, most of the time would trigger infectious mononucleosis. This syndrome consists in an acute and self-limiting lymphoproliferation of infected B cells and, at the same time, the development of virus-specific T cells that are triggered in order to tackle viral dissemination.
EBV transmission occurs by the sharing of saliva and then cause infection of mucosal surfaces and lymphoid tissues [3]. Almost most of seropositive individuals shed virus in their saliva. It was proposed earlier that initial replication of the virus happened also in the epithelial cells of the oropharynx, which causes the B cell infection by the previously infected epithelial cells. However, newer studies suggest that B cells located in the oropharynx could be infected first and act as the primary site.
During the latent stage of the infection, the site in which EBV persists within the body is the resting memory B cells. The viral replication in the oropharynx is partially suppressed in patients taking acyclovir, in the other hand, the amount of B cell EBV infected in the circulation remains the same.
Typical symptoms and signs are fever, pharyngitis, lymphadenopathy, and splenomegaly. The basic lesion is a perivascular infiltration of both normal and abnormal lymphocytes in all the tissues except bone marrow [7].
These cells are metaplastic noninvasive and to be formed in situ from other cells of the reticuloendothelial system. This lesion distributed throughout the body, and in any individual patient may be most marked in the central nervous system, liver, lungs, and other organs or systems.
Before the entry process into B cell, gp350, a major envelope glycoprotein, fixes to the receptor of the virus, CD21 molecule, which is located on the surface of the B cell. There are other factors besides CD21 that play a significant role, such as major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules that acts as a cofactor during B cells infection. EBV genome linear DNA molecules encode 100 viral proteins. These proteins are significant in the process of construction of virion as well as carrying forward immune responses of the host.
EBV infection in vivo of the epithelial cells consequences in active replication while simultaneously with lysis of the cells as well as production of virus. Meanwhile, EBV infected B cells in vitro will become immortalized and causes latent infection. Only a small portion of cases that viral replication is triggered immediately after the infection of B cells.
Both cellular and humoral immunity plays an important role in the infection of EBV in humans. Even though the presentation of antibodies designed against viral structural proteins is critical, cellular immunity plays a higher role on the controller of EBV infection. The control of proliferation of EBV infected B cells in the primary infection is carried forward by CD4+, CD8+, and natural killer cells. During the period of infectious mononucleosis, a proportion of 40% of CD8+ T cells are focused on single replicative EBV protein sequence, meanwhile only 2% are focused to single latent EBV protein sequence.
During acute infection, first IgM and then IgG antibodies to viral capsid antigens (VCA) appear. Anti-VCA IgG may lead to virus carrier state and persist for a lifetime [3, 7]. Antibodies to early antigens rise during the acute phases of the disease and subsequently decrease to low or undetectable.
EBV can exist regardless of competent responses from the healthy immune system that are targeted toward it. It would most probably suggest that EBV has developed some tactics to evade the response from the immune system. EBV encrypts a cytokine as well as cytokine receptors that have a crucial role in moderating capable immune system therefore this allows tenacious infection. The 70% of amino acid sequence of EBV BCRF1 has the same characteristics as interleukin-10.
The protein of BCRF1 imitates the behavior of interleukin-10 of inhibits interferon-γ synthesis by in vitro human peripheral-blood mononuclear. In addition to that, EBV BARF1 protein acts as a soluble receptor for colony-stimulating factor 1. It is known that colony- stimulating factor 1 usually upregulates the expression of interferon-α of monocytes, therefore BARF1 protein able to operate as a decoy receptor to halt the action of cytokine. Since inhibition of the outgrowth of EBV infected cells in vitro is done by interferon-γ and interferon-α, BARF1 and BCRF1 proteins could aid the EBV to avoid the immune system of the host in the period of both acute as well as latent infection. EBV also codes more than two proteins that cause apoptosis inhibition. Protein of the EBV BHFR1 is similar to the protein of human bcl-2 protein, this protein has the same function on blocking apoptosis. In addition, EBV LMP-1 increases several cellular protein expressions that hinders the process of apoptosis, i.e. bcl-2.
Antibodies to EBV nuclear antigens appear weeks to months later, providing serologic evidence of past infection. Lesions of the special sense organs are somewhat rare, but there are few reports of eye lesions or manifestations [7].
Ocular manifestations have been reported to affect all segments of the eye and most commonly associated with acute mononucleosis [3]. Manifestations in the ocular may be the cause of direct involvement of the eye and its adnexa through inflammatory syndrome similar to that of infectious mononucleosis, and those affecting vision and the neuro-ophthalmologic apparatus owing to a more remote occurrence of the lesion, most commonly involving the central nervous system [7].
3. Clinical manifestation
Ocular manifestations of acute EBV infection may affect the central nervous system to the extent of disturbance in the visual or oculomotor pathways, in addition it could as well cause a disorder in the eye and adnexa of the eye [4, 8]. Further manifestations were observed due to the advancement of diagnostic tools that could give much more sensitive and specific results [8].
Neurologic abnormalities caused by EBV could disturb the vision of its host. Disorders that have been reported previously consisted of papilledema, convergence deficiency, nerve palsies, retinal necrosis, central nervous system vasculitis, retinochoroiditis, necrotizing retinitis with extensive hemorrhage that were co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus and cytomegalovirus and optic neuritis.
The appearance of yellowish, coalescing lesion in the macula as well as edematous optic disk were seen in a patient with EBV infection by Kim et al. [9]. From our previous case-report, it was examined from funduscopy a peculiar finding of prominent presentation of white sheathing retinal phlebitis covering all four retinal quadrants (Figure 1). Other reports had described this finding as frosted branch angiitis. It was also well known that frosted branch angiitis has been seen regularly in numerous disorders such as Crohn disease, Behcet disease, and systemic lupus erythematosus. However, from our previous case, the patient did not show any typical symptoms of Crohn disease, Behcet disease, and systemic lupus erythematosus, also, PCR was done on the patient’s serum and was positive for EBV.
Figure 1.
Bilateral fundus photographs showing white sheathing of retinal veins in four retinal quadrants (frosted branch-like appearance) with macular edema. Reprinted from [1]. Copyright 2016 by Retinal Cases & Brief Reports.
EBV infects lymphoid tissues and also mucosal surfaces. In the cellular level, EBV infects B cell and conforming virus-specific T cells, which will lead to symptoms such as lymphadenopathy and pharyngitis. Based on seroepidemiologic data, it was reported that EBV infects all parts of the eye, though the most common abnormality includes follicular conjunctivitis. After the availability of virus-specific tests, other disorders of the anterior segment that is associated with EBV were detected more frequently, which includes keratitis, iritis, episcleritis, as well as dacryoadenitis.
It was found by Plugfelder et al., [10], that some cases of primary Sjogren’s syndrome developed right after infectious mononucleosis. These authors [10] gathered patients that have aqueous tear deficiency and evaluated them for a serologic finding of EBV infection. A significant correlation was found between elevated EBV titers and severe aqueous tear deficiency once the results were placed in multivariate analysis. This suggests that EBV infection could be a risk factor in developing aqueous tear deficiency [10, 11].
Inflammation of the conjunctiva has been seen and linked with keratitis, that variate from mild hyperemia to mild follicular reaction in the inferior and superior tarsal conjunctiva. A study by Matoba [4] has found stromal keratitis related to EBV infection to infect all layers of stroma. Matoba [4] has also reported there were two forms of EBV-related keratitis, the first type was a granular, multiple, well-defined, ring, or circular-shaped opacities which was distributed all over the anterior as well as mid-stroma. Another form is nonsuppurative, multifocal keratitis including deep layers or full thickness of peripheral cornea and also related to various grades of vascularization [4]. In another study by Chodosh J, stromal keratitis associated with EBV infection presented three principal forms (Figure 2) [7].
Figure 2.
Subepithelial infiltrates resembling adenoviral infection-associated keratitis in a patient with recent primary EBV infection. Reprinted from [2]. Copyright 1990 by Surv Ophthalmol.
Type I: multifocal subepithelial infiltrates that resemble adenoviral keratitis.
Type II: multifocal, blotchy, pleomorphic infiltrates with active inflammation or granular ring-shaped opacities (inactive form) in anterior to midstroma.
Type III: multifocal deep or full thickness peripheral infiltrates, with or without vascularization.
Matoba et al. [4] proposed a hypothesis about the pathophysiology of EBV related keratitis onset being carried forward by infectious and immunologic processes. Due to the quick response to the introduction of topical corticosteroid and seeming resolution of the inflammation without involving the use of antiviral therapy, it is more likely that immunologic processes were involved rather than viral replication. If this is true, the cornea was affected could be due to native keratocyte share a similar antigen with EBV, or it might be caused by EBV antigen develops located within the tissue [4].
Other common symptoms affecting the ocular include periorbital edema, pain when rotating the eyes, deep orbital pain, photophobia, as well as headache. It was spotted by Tanner [8] that episcleritis, as well as uveitis as part of the ocular manifestation of EBV infection. Tanner [8] reported nongranulomatous uveitis taking place at the end stage of clinical manifestation of infectious mononucleosis had been noted in four cases. One specific exhibition is the disorder of the oculomotor apparatus. Fledelius et al. [8] observed an exclusive inferior rectus paresis. Motto and Ashworth [8] were the first to notice a bilateral papilledema case of infectious mononucleosis with the nonappearance clinical manifestation of encephalitis nor meningitis. Other studies observed ptosis, nystagmus, as well as diplopia in their patients [8].
4. A diagnostic approach for detecting ocular disease by EBV infection
Most of the ocular manifestations linked to the EBV infection have been based mostly on seroepidemiologic data. This claimed is supported by the fact that numerous patients with EBV infection that showed ocular manifestations have been confirmed from in-situ hybridization of EBV genome from the biopsy of suspected tissue specimens.
The diagnosis of EBV infection by serologically for quite sometimes has been hinge on heterophil antibodies detection [4]. Heterophile antibodies are classified in the IgM group and would typically reach its highest levels around the second to third week since the first onset of the sickness and would exist and visible till 1 year [4]. They are detectable in up to 90% of adults who suffered from primary EBV infection [4].
Monospot test is a test that could be used in detecting EBV infection. This test is a quick slide agglutination test for specific heterophile antibodies produced by the human immune system in response to EBV infection. The sample will clump when it exposes to equine erythrocytes if these specific antibodies present in the patient’s blood specimen. The Monospot test is considered to be a very specific test. However, its sensitivity falls in the range of 70–90% [12]. Patients with atypical clinical features and patients and with suspected of chronic infection are better evaluated with EBV specific serologic test that measure antibody levels against VCA, EBNA, and EA [4].
5. Management
The overall goal of EBV treatment is mainly supportive since the disease is usually self- limited [4]. Antiviral drugs have been used to inhibit the replication cycle of the virus. The action of antiviral agents can be divided into: (1) disrupting with cellular process which the virus uses for its replication; (2) inhibits the function of the virus by bind to the nucleic acid; (3) modifies the viral envelope which is resulting in preventing the virus infecting new cells; (4) inhibits the formation of new progeny by interfering with viral assembly; (5) interferes with the viral enzyme and inhibits their function; (6) prevents the processing of viral precursor polypeptide. The effect of some of the antiviral agents used in EBV infection is uncertain, but some studies have reported good results of treating EBV infection with systemic antiviral [4, 11].
Several antiviral drugs have been used to treat EBV infection and can be grouped into three as nucleoside analogs such as ganciclovir, valganciclovir, acyclovir, valaciclovir, acyclic nucleotide analog such as cidofovir and adefovir, and pyrophosphate analog such as foscarnet [11]. Acyclovir is recommended as the first-line drug for treating EBV infection. Therefore, it has become the most commonly prescribed antiviral regimen [13, 14, 15]. Anderson et al. [13] have found a significant reduction of EBV-infected B-lymphocytes after acyclovir treatment. Accordingly, systemic acyclovir therapy showed a good result of treating EBV-associated ocular involvement and ARN [14].
Acyclovir triphosphate inhibits viral replication by acting as a competitive substrate for viral DNA polymerase, and its subsequent incorporation into the viral DNA chain results in obligate chain termination. The recommended regime is intravenous acyclovir 10 mg/kg every 8 hours (or 1500 mg/m2) per day for 5–10 days, followed by oral acyclovir 400–800 mg 5 times daily for an additional 6–12 weeks. Second eye involvement may occur within the first 6 weeks after EBV infection; thus, the minimum duration of subsequent oral therapy was 6 weeks. Even though some ophthalmic centers are switching to oral therapy alone, few studies found a higher level of intravitreal acyclovir when given intravenously [14, 15, 16]. From the limited data available, one may conclude that acyclovir given intravenously and orally is the recommended regime [15, 16].
The effectiveness of steroid along with antiviral drug in treating ocular manifestations of EBV infection remains unclear. Some studies described that ophthalmic steroids relieve the symptoms of ocular inflammation in the anterior segment of the eye, including keratitis, anterior uveitis, and ocular allergies or injuries, yet its effect on the posterior part is still not clear [2, 4, 16].
6. Conclusion
It can be concluded that distinctive characteristic pathologic clinical manifestation, as well as lesions of infectious mononucleosis, exists in the ocular. The ocular manifestations of systemic EBV infection are wide-ranging and have not been highlighted. EBV infection is best diagnosed using heterophile antibody tests to detect primary EBV infections and serology tests for asymptomatic patients. Despite of the self-limiting nature of the disease, acyclovir still becomes the first line of treatment with its attribute to reduce the viral replication. EBV infection should be included in the differential diagnosis of most unusual inflammatory course of the eye.
Conflict of interest
There are no conflicts of interest in this chapter.
\n',keywords:"Epstein-Barr virus, oculoglandular syndrome, dry eye syndrome, dacryoadenitis, conjunctivitis, episcleritis, keratitis, uveitis, choroiditis, retinitis, retinal vasculitis, papillitis, papilledema, optic neuritis, ophthalmoplegia, impaired accommodation, facial nerve palsy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73462.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73462.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73462",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73462",totalDownloads:106,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 16th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 24th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 5th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"October 5th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV), a member of the Herpesvirus family, occurs commonly and infects more than 90% of people worldwide. Most of systemic EBV infections throughout childhood and adulthood are typically asymptomatic or paucisymptomatic. Even though ocular involvements in EBV infections are infrequently reported, an increasing number of ocular manifestations have been previously reported . Ocular manifestation caused by EBV infection involved all segments of the eye, including oculoglandular syndrome, dry eye syndrome, dacryoadenitis, conjunctivitis, episcleritis, keratitis, uveitis, choroiditis, retinitis, retinal vasculitis, and papillitis. Previous reports found neurologic complications such as papilledema, optic neuritis, ophthalmoplegia, impaired accommodation, and facial nerve palsy. Any atypical ocular inflammatory process should be considered EBV infection in the differential diagnosis. The ocular manifestations of systemic EBV infection are varied and have not been emphasized. And the role of EBV infection in ocular manifestation should be fully described.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73462",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73462",signatures:"Andi Arus Victor",book:{id:"9619",title:"Epstein-Barr Virus",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Epstein-Barr Virus",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Emmanuel Drouet",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9619.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"228998",title:"Dr.",name:"Andi Arus",middleName:null,surname:"Victor",fullName:"Andi Arus Victor",slug:"andi-arus-victor",email:"arvimadao@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Pathophysiology infection of EBV",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Clinical manifestation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. A diagnostic approach for detecting ocular disease by EBV infection",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Cohen JI. Epstein-Barr virus infection. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2000;343:481-492'},{id:"B2",body:'Victor AA, Sukmana N. Retinal vasculitis associated with Epstein-Barr virus infection, a case report. Retinal Cases & Bried Reports. 2016:1-4'},{id:"B3",body:'Slobod KS. Molecular evidence of ocular Epstein-Barr virus infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2000;31:184-188'},{id:"B4",body:'Matoba AY. Ocular disease associated with Epstein-Barr virus infection. Survey of Ophthalmology. 1990;35:145-150'},{id:"B5",body:'Kramer S, Brumer C, Zierhut M. Epstein-Barr virus associated acute retinal necrosis. The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2001;85:110-120'},{id:"B6",body:'Wong KW, D’Amico DJ, Hedges TR III, et al. Ocular involvement associated with chronic Epstein-Barr virus disease. Archives of Ophthalmology. 1987;105:788-792'},{id:"B7",body:'Chodosh J. Epstein-Barr virus stromal keratitis. Ophthalmology Clinics of North America. 1994;7(4):549-556'},{id:"B8",body:'Tanner OR. Ocular manifestations of infectious mononucleosis. In: Presented at the 36th Annual Meeting of the Pacific Coast Oto-Ophthalmological Society, 1st May 1952, Salt Lake City; 1952'},{id:"B9",body:'Kim SJ, Baranano DE, Grossniklaus HE, Martin DF. Epstein- Barr infection of the retina: Case report and review of the literature. Retinal Cases and Brief Reports. 2011;5:1-5'},{id:"B10",body:'Pfugfelder SC, Tseng SCG, Pepose JS, et al. Epstein-Barr virus infection and immunologic dysfunction in patients with aqueous tear deficiency. Ophthalmology. 1990;97:313-323'},{id:"B11",body:'Yaro A. Epstein-Barr infection: Current treatment options. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Public Health. 2013;6(1):10-13'},{id:"B12",body:'Stuempfig ND, Seroy J. Monospot test. [Updated 2019 Mar 10]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2020. p. 1'},{id:"B13",body:'Keorochana N. A case report of Epstein-Barr virus associated retinal vasculitis: Successful treatment using only acyclovir therapy. International Medical Case Reports Journal. 2016;9:213-218'},{id:"B14",body:'Rafailidis PI, Mavros MN, Kapaskelis A, Falagas ME. Antiviral treatment for severe EBV infections in apparently immunocompetent patients. Journal of Clinical Virology. 2010;49(3):151-157'},{id:"B15",body:'Patrick MK, Claire YH, Susan L. Antiviral selection in the management of acute retinal necrosis. Clinical Ophthalmology. 2010;4:11-20'},{id:"B16",body:'Lee FF, Foster CS. Pharmacotherapy of uveitis. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 2010;11:1135-1146'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Andi Arus Victor",address:"arvimadao@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Cipto Mangunkusumo National General Hospital, Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9619",title:"Epstein-Barr Virus",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Epstein-Barr Virus",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Emmanuel Drouet",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9619.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"213995",title:"Dr.",name:"Indrajit",middleName:null,surname:"Sinha",email:"isinha.apc@iitbhu.ac.in",fullName:"Indrajit Sinha",slug:"indrajit-sinha",position:null,biography:"Dr. Indrajit Sinha did his Master’s in Chemistry from IIT, Delhi and then PhD in Materials Science and Technology from Banaras Hindu University. In 2004 he joined as an Assistant Professor in Chemistry in the erstwhile Department of Applied Chemistry, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University. This Department was converted into Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University). Presently, he is Associate professor in this Department. Currently, his research interests include various aspects involved in integrating experimental and theoretical approaches to nanocatalysis.",institutionString:"Indian Institute of Technology",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213995/images/9383_n.jpg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalEditedBooks:"1",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[{type:"book",slug:"nanocatalysts",title:"Nanocatalysts",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8384.jpg",abstract:"Nanocatalysis is a topical area of research that has huge potential. It attempts to merge the advantages of heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis. The collection of articles in this book treats the topics of specificity, activity, reusability, and stability of the catalyst and presents a compilation of articles that focuses on different aspects of these issues.",editors:[{id:"213995",title:"Dr.",name:"Indrajit",surname:"Sinha",slug:"indrajit-sinha",fullName:"Indrajit Sinha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Catalytic Activation of PVP-Stabilized Gold/Silver Cluster on p- Nitrophenol Reduction: A DFT",slug:"catalytic-activation-of-pvp-stabilized-gold-silver-cluster-on-p-nitrophenol-reduction-a-dft",abstract:"Systematic DFT calculations on poly(N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone) (PVP) stabilization of Ag13 cluster have shown that the former acts not only as a stabilizer but also plays an important role in activating the Ag catalyst by supplying extra electrons to it through its oxygen atoms. Natural Bonding Orbital (NBO) calculations show that weak back donation of electrons from M(dπ) orbital of Ag to antibonding σ* of one of the N-O bond, facilitates the formation of the nitroso intermediate. Vibrational frequency calculation of PNP association with Ag13-2PVP cluster carried out to understand the extent and the nature of this interaction better. Red shift in the frequencies is result of strong interaction with that of silver cluster present in Ag13-2PVP-PNP model.",signatures:"Madhulata Shukla and Indrajit Sinha",authors:[{id:"56688",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhulata",surname:"Shukla",fullName:"Madhulata Shukla",slug:"madhulata-shukla",email:"madhu1.shukla@gmail.com"},{id:"213995",title:"Dr.",name:"Indrajit",surname:"Sinha",fullName:"Indrajit Sinha",slug:"indrajit-sinha",email:"isinha.apc@iitbhu.ac.in"}],book:{title:"Density Functional Calculations",slug:"density-functional-calculations-recent-progresses-of-theory-and-application",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"Introductory Chapter: Salient Features of Nanocatalysis",slug:"introductory-chapter-salient-features-of-nanocatalysis",abstract:null,signatures:"Alkadevi Verma, Madhulata Shukla and Indrajit Sinha",authors:[{id:"56688",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhulata",surname:"Shukla",fullName:"Madhulata Shukla",slug:"madhulata-shukla",email:"madhu1.shukla@gmail.com"},{id:"213995",title:"Dr.",name:"Indrajit",surname:"Sinha",fullName:"Indrajit Sinha",slug:"indrajit-sinha",email:"isinha.apc@iitbhu.ac.in"},{id:"300191",title:"Dr.",name:"Alkadevi",surname:"Verma",fullName:"Alkadevi Verma",slug:"alkadevi-verma",email:"vermaalkadevi85@gmail.com"}],book:{title:"Nanocatalysts",slug:"nanocatalysts",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"26760",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Leonor",surname:"Contreras",slug:"m.-leonor-contreras",fullName:"M. Leonor Contreras",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"32498",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32498/images/system/32498.jpg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik has a degree in Chemistry from the University of Buenos Aires and a Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from the University of La Plata. He has done postdoctoral studies at UNC (USA), UPR (Puerto Rico), and UVA (Spain), as well as being an Invited Professor at the University of the Balearic Islands (Spain). He currently serves as Senior Researcher Level C at CIMAV, and is a member of SNI - CONACYT, with Level III. His specialty is Computational Chemistry and Molecular Modeling with emphasis on Computational Medicinal Nanochemistry. He has published over 200 papers in indexed international scientific journals and has made over 250 presentations at national and international scientific conferences.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"39813",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Rozas",slug:"roberto-rozas",fullName:"Roberto Rozas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"154505",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma",surname:"Flores-Holguín",slug:"norma-flores-holguin",fullName:"Norma Flores-Holguín",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"207738",title:"Dr.",name:"Burkhard",surname:"Kirste",slug:"burkhard-kirste",fullName:"Burkhard Kirste",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Freie Universität Berlin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"208273",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco J",surname:"Tenorio",slug:"francisco-j-tenorio",fullName:"Francisco J Tenorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"208306",title:"Dr.",name:"David Alejandro",surname:"Hernández-Velázquez",slug:"david-alejandro-hernandez-velazquez",fullName:"David Alejandro Hernández-Velázquez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"208685",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime Gustavo",surname:"Rodriguez-Zavala",slug:"jaime-gustavo-rodriguez-zavala",fullName:"Jaime Gustavo Rodriguez-Zavala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"209201",title:"BSc.",name:"Zuriel Natanael",surname:"Cisneros-Garcia",slug:"zuriel-natanael-cisneros-garcia",fullName:"Zuriel Natanael Cisneros-Garcia",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"214504",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Frau",slug:"juan-frau",fullName:"Juan Frau",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. 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