The main hydraulic characteristics of the studied rivers.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"993",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sleep Disorders",title:"Sleep Disorders",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"For progress to be maintained in a clinical field like sleep medicine, unimpeded, unrestricted access to data and the advances in clinical practice should be available. 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The quality of a cosmetic product, in the same way as to other kind of products, is initially defined by the manufacturer that chooses the features that a product should present. On the other hand, the quality control of a product aims to verify if all of these defined features are in accordance with the standard definitions and if it will be maintained during the shelf life of the product (Shewhart, 1980).
The quality control of cosmetics is important to ensure the efficacy and safety of products and its raw-materials. Due to the rapid growth that cosmetic industries have exhibit all over the world, efficient, low cost and rapid methods to assay cosmetics’ quality control are a priority. Some current techniques used by the cosmetic industry can be applied to the evaluation of cosmetics’ quality control in an efficient manner, such as: rheology, sensory analysis and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS).
Sensory analysis is a powerful tool, since there is no equipment able to measure the human feelings. It applies experimental design and statistical analysis to obtain information about a product in relation to what people feel when use or consume a product, in other words, it is used to indicate consumer acceptance of a particular product. It can be understood as the discipline that interprets, assess and measures characteristics of a product, after stimulating people in relation to their vital senses, as vision, touch, smell and taste (Stone et al., 1992). It is widely used in food industry and recently, it has also been applied in the cosmetic industry (Almeida et al., 2008; Aust et al., 1987; Backe et al., 1999; Lee et al., 2005; Parente et al., 2005; Wortel et al., 2000).
The sensory analysis can be applied in the research and development of a new cosmetic (Isaac et al., 2012a), in controlling the manufacturing process to evaluate raw-materials quality and, even, to make possible the substitution of a raw-material of a product that is traditional in the market without changes in the product’s features (Meilgaard et al., 1991; Muñoz et al., 1993).
The application of sensory analysis could be related to the product control, referring to the storage, packaging and maintenance of sensory quality in relation to time and temperature (Muñoz et al., 1993), since these factors can change a sensory attribute that the product present originally (Zague, 2008) and people who participates of the sensorial panel could realize the changes in the sensorial attributes. Another function of this important tool is to performance comparative tests between competing products.
Another tool that could be applied to evaluate cosmetics’ quality control is the rheology, which studies the flow and deformation of fluids. It has been used in research laboratories and industries as a tool for characterizing ingredients and products, and to predict the performance of products and consumer acceptance.
Rheology has been widely used because, by means of this tool, the researcher can determine physicochemical properties of a product. Constructing a rheogram, it is possible to check the flow curve, evaluate if there is a yield stress and a hysteresis area, which appears to be related to the release of drugs and actives. It is also possible to construct a creep and recovery curve obtaining information about viscoelasticity of each system.
Specifically, in relation to the quality control of cosmetics, specifically, rheology can be applied to help in determining the stability of products by means of the apparent viscosity measured periodically in a determined period exposing the samples to stress conditions (high and low temperatures, solar irradiation), and to monitor the flow characteristics during the shelf life or in the stability assay of a product.
The SAXS technique have being used for the analysis of cosmetics, in order to evaluate the presence of liquid crystalline structures, called liquid-crystals, which are known to increase the stability of formulations becoming, therefore, desirable in cosmetics (Makai et al., 2003).
Combining these three tools, it is possible to test the quality of cosmetics with a rich range of data, and obtain a deep characterization of the system. The results contribute to determining product use, or even, they provide indication of what need to be done to develop a product with predetermined characteristics.
Sensory analysis is defined by Piana et al. (2004) as the examination of a product through the evaluation of the attributes perceptible by the five sense organs (organoleptic attributes), such as color, odor, taste, touch, texture and noise, allowing the establishment of the organoleptic profile of diverse products, including cosmetics.
The sensory analysis was first applied to the food industry, but the high advance in other areas, such as the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, and the important data obtained with the sensory analysis, demanded this useful technique to describe what the consumers fell.
An important advantage of the use of sensory analysis in the quality control of a cosmetic product is that it yields a complex analysis in relation to all sensorial attributes that a product could present, it means that, the volunteer who participates of the sensorial panel is able to give information about the fragrance, the sensation, the appearance, the consistence, and other features that this person experience when use such product. The description of these characteristics by means of equipment would be an arduous work and would provide not sufficient or not valuable data when compared to the data provided by the human senses. Beyond that, the acquisition of this equipment could be of high cost when compared to the sensory analyses’ costs (Ross, 2009).
The association of data obtained from sensory analysis and instrumental analysis (especially physicochemical analysis) provides great information and a more complete profile of the product (Ross, 2009).
Nowadays, there are companies specialized in perform sensory analysis of cosmetic products, and thus, they could be contracted to perform this study for cosmetic industries that don’t have a sector trained to do it.
The sensorial performance of cosmetics is essential to the acceptance of consumers (Almeida et al., 2008; Fouéré et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2005; Proksch, 2005), thus, especial attention should be given to this subject.
The sensorial features of a formulation are mainly related to the raw-materials and package (Dooley et al., 2009). The raw-materials influence directly in what the consumer feels when applies the cosmetic. The emollients, for example, are raw-materials of marked influence in the tactile sense (Parente et al., 2008; Gorcea and Laura, 2010). Other raw-materials are available at the market and are commercialized to be used in formulations as sensorial modifiers. The main representatives of this kind of product are the silicones and Polymethyl Methacrylate (Ozkan et al., 2012).
The package influences in the first impression of the consumer about a product, since the first sense used to choose a cosmetic in the market is the vision. After, the smell is used too. The tact is not involved in the first purchase attitude, but it will define if a consumer will become a loyal consumer.
In this context, it is possible to verify that the sensorial features of a cosmetic are of great importance in the success of it in the market.
Thus, the sensorial analysis could help a company to define the attributes that a product should or not present beyond the characteristics and intensity of these attributes.
Another point is that these desired sensorial characteristics should be maintained during the cosmetic shelf life. To obtain that, the raw-materials used should be of good quality, the manufacture practices should be appropriate, the preservatives used need to be efficient and the formulation should be stable.
In conclusion, the sensorial analysis is an indispensable technique to help the formulator to evaluate the quality of its new product, in relation to its sensorial characteristics and to its stability, testing if the product will keep the nice sensorial feelings that transmit to the consumer during the time of use. This tool is helpful to the research and development area of a company which aims to obtain good quality products of high acceptance by the consumers. The suitable application of sensory evaluation could avoid the outlay of a company with the launching of a product in the market that was rejected by the volunteers of the preliminary study.
Currently, the sensorial analysis have gained more scientific rigor due to the need to offer to the consumers products that meet their expectations and due to the high competition between the major industries of this sector.
To perform the sensorial analysis with rigor and organization, the laboratory destined to it must have the following areas:
A room destined to the analyst who leads the team (Figure 1a)
A conference room (Figure 1b)
A room for the samples preparation (Figure 1c)
An area to the analyses with the volunteers (Figure 1d)
The laboratory should be located in an easy access place.
An example of layout of a sensorial analysis laboratory (
The area where will be performed the analyses should be divided in individual cabins (Figure 2) with a window, where the analyst must offer the samples to the volunteer, sink and faucet, to the volunteer use when necessary (Isaac et al., 2012).
An example of layout of sensorial analysis cabine (
The cabins must be ventilated and odor free, to avoid interferences in the analyses. The temperature and humidity should be controled around 22 ºC and at 45% of humidity (Isaac et al., 2012).
It is recommended that the walls and furniture of the rooms are colored with neutral and light colors to not disturb the attention of the volunteers and to not interfere in the attributes analyzed by the vision, such as color and appearance of the product.
The volunteers should not smoke, should be healthy, with ease of memorization and communication.
In the study, the volunteers judges could be an experienced judge or not, depending on the kind of evaluation and the answers that the professional team needs to obtain. In the case of utilization of sensorial analysis in the quality control of a cosmetic, usually the volunteers are regular users of the product in analysis, since they need to be familiarized with the characteristics of the product and have sensibility to perceive slight modification on it. When the aim of the sensorial analysis is to evaluate the acceptance of a product that should be launched in the market, it is recommended that the volunteers are potencial users of this new product, orienting the formulator to make changes in the formulation and guiding the company to evaluate if the costs of the product launch are recommended or not.
There are four different methods to perform the sensorial analysis that are most used, they are: affective, discriminative, descriptive (Aust et al., 1987) and methods to evaluate the effective of the product.
Independent of the method of sensory analysis suitable for each evaluation, the professional team should use printed questionnaires to obtain the answers from each volunteer. The use of printed questionnaires avoids the contact between the professional and the volunteers preventing that the professional is biased in his responses, beyond that, it facilitates the data collection.
In the elaboration of these questionnaires the professional team should use suitable lexicons for each class of product, for example, the lexicons used to the evaluation of lip products are different from that used for corporal lotions (Dooley et al., 2009). Some researches had developed suitable lexicons for different classes of cosmetic products (Civille and Dus, 1991; Wortel and Wiechers, 2000; Dooley et al., 2009). The manner as the volunteer is questioned is fundamental to obtain the information required from them. An inadequate formulary could invalidate a sensory evaluation. It is interesting also, that a description of all descriptors attributed to the formulation being provided to the volunteer, for example: “Thickness: Viscosity of the cream when picking up from the container”, “Ease of spreading: Ease of rubbing the sample over the skin”, “Absorption: Ease of absorption of the product through the skin”, “Residue: Amount of product left on the skin after application” (Parente et al., 2010).
The affective methods represent the consumer opinion and evaluate how much consumers like or dislike a product. It is a quantitative method that is performed in order to know the consumers preferences (Aust et al., 1987). This technique could be applied in the development of new products and when it is necessary to replace a constituent of a formulation without loss of the product quality. It could be performed in two different ways: offering two different samples to the volunteer asking him about what sample he prefers between them or using a hedonic scale for the volunteer attributes grades of intensity of its acceptation in relation to the sample.
The hedonic scale either can be presented to the panel of evaluators in different manners, as shown in Figure 3.
Examples of presentation of hedonic scale (
The affective methods provide quantitative data and allow more than one attribute in each sample being evaluated at the same time.
The discriminative test is better represented by the Triangular test. It allows differentiating one between three different samples and is very useful in shelf life studies and in the quality control of cosmetics. The ideal is to perform this evaluation with twelve to forty volunteers, who will receive the three samples and should indicate the different one between them (Zenebon et al., 2008).
The descriptive tests provide a broad sensory description about the product that is being evaluated (Almeida et al., 2008), helping to predict the consumer acceptance and what consumers think about such product (Almeida et al., 2006; Aust et al., 1987).
The tests to evaluate the effective of the products should be performed in true conditions of use and the volunteer may use only the product that is being assessed. These tests could be conduct by the evaluation of dermatologists, by the evaluation of volunteers, and even, by the measurement of one parameter by un equipment, such as the equipment that measures hydration, sebum and transepidermal water loss, to define if a product is really effective. Based on these clinical evaluations, a company could create an efficacy claim to the product (Wortel and Wiechers, 2000).
The sensory analysis could be also applied when a cosmetic industry needs to replace a raw-material of a commercialized product without changes in the performance of it. This replacement could be originated by many factors, such as the reduction of costs, problems with the firm who provides this raw-material problems with same raw material which causes irritation, comedogenicity or other problems that affect the consumer. In this field, the sensorial analysis helps the formulator, who proposes different raw materials as substitute, to evaluate if the consumer will notice the adaptation in the cosmetic product.
The statistical analysis is indispensable in the sensory studies. The sensory analysis data should be evaluated transforming them in scores which allows the application of statistical analysis to calculate the mean and standard deviation of the results, and the determination if the difference between the scores obtained is statistically significant. Graphics, tables and preference maps could be elaborated with the results obtained to facilitate the analysis of the data by the professional team.
The sensory analysis is especially indispensable in the industries of fragrances and perfumes, and because of that, high-resolution instrumental methods for evaluation of flavor and aroma have been developed and between them are the breath analysis via mass spectrometry (Dijksterhuis and Piggott, 2001; Ross, 2009). Instrumental measurements are thought to be objective, representing an independent fact or truth, however, the human smell sense is irreplaceable, being considered by Ross (2009) not necessarily valid because instrumental methods cannot account for the complexity of human perception.
Nevertheless, rheological studies have been applied to objectify the sensations when cosmetic emulsions are applied to the skin (Brummer and Godersky, 1999).
Rheology is a tool widely applied in the food, petrochemical and pharmaceutical industries, but to the cosmetic industry it is incipient yet. Until now, the majority of cosmetic industries use viscometers to guarantee that the viscosity of different batches of a product is maintained.
This chapter was elaborated in order to show that many other rheological characteristics could be used to evaluate and to predict the stability of cosmetic products and could be applied to compare competing products in the market and to assay if a change in the composition will cause alterations that could be perceived by the consumer.
First, it is necessary to define the three parameters of most importance in rheology: shear stress, shear rate and viscosity. Shear stress can be defined as a force applied in an area. Shear rate is the ratio of the velocity of material to its distance from a stationary object (Naé, 1993). The shear rate can be calculated by the ratio between the velocity and the layer or film thickness. In a lipstick application, for example, with a velocity estimated in 5 cm/s and a layer thickness of 0.1 mm, the ratio (shear rate) is 5.102 s-1. Finally, the viscosity can be defined as the resistance to flow. Thus, a viscous product presents smaller flow than others.
Concluding, rheology is the study of deformation and flow of materials under external forces. Some equations and the units of these parameters are (Naé, 1993):
Where:
σ = shear stress (Pa = kg.m-1.s-2)
F = force (N or kg.m.s-2)
A = area (m2)
The viscosity can be defined as the ratio between shear stress and shear rate:
Where:
= viscosity
= shear stress (Pa)
Since the unit of shear stress is Pa and the unit of deformation is s-1, the unit of viscosity is Pa.s. These parameters are involved in scientific measurements of rotational assays.
Using controlled shear rate and measuring shear stress is possible to carry out rotational assays, and determine flow curves and describe the models: Newtonian or non-Newtonian and, among the last one, plastic, pseudoplastic, dilatant, tixotropic and reopetic fluids. Newtonian fluids are materials that present constant viscosity, independent of time and temperature. These materials present flow curves with proportionality between shear stress and shear rate. The Figure 4 represents the flow curve of a Newtonian material.
Flow curve of a Newtonian material.
In the case of non-Newtonians materials, this proportionality between shear stress and shear rate does not happen.
If in the beginning of the flow curve there is an increasing in the shear stress but the shear rate is equal to zero, and after to it is verified a Newtonian flow, this material is called plastic. This initial shear stress with shear rate equal to zero is called yield value and it represents the shear stress necessary for the material flow. The Figure 5 represents a plastic material. The yield value is related to the energy required to deform the material sufficiently so that they can flow. The value of the yield stress can be determined by measuring the deformation of the material as a function of the applied stress (Abdel-Rahem et al., 2005).
For non-Newtonian materials time-dependents, if the viscosity decreases with the shear rate, the material is called pseudoplastic and if the viscosity increases, the material is called dilatant. On the other hand, if the material is time-independent, it will be called tixotropic if the viscosity decreases with the shear rate or reopetic if the viscosity increases with the shear rate (Naé, 1993). When the ascending and the descending curves of the flow curve do not overlap it shows thixotropy which is a desirable feature for cosmetics and semisolid drug carriers for topical application (Lippacher et al., 2004). The Figures 6, 7, 8 and 9 represent the flow curves of non-Newtonian materials (Naé, 1993).
Flow curve of a plastic material.
Flow curve of a pseudoplastic material.
For screening purposes and in the initial phases of the formulation development, the rheological tests proved to be very useful for the study of stability.
In a stability assay to determine the shelf life of a recently developed product, the formulation should be exposed to stress conditions, such as storage at -5 ºC, 45 ºC, and cycles of -5 ºC during 24 hours followed by exposure to 45 ºC during more 24 hours. This procedure is done in order to induce the appearance of instability signals in the formulations, where can be cited the darkening of the formulation, the precipitation of a constituent, the phase separation in the case of emulsions, and other signals. These stressing conditions are kept for a period around 2 or 3 months.
Flow curve of a dilatant material.
Flow curve of a thixotropic material.
Flow curve of a reopetic material.
It is usually measured the viscosity of the stressed formulations periodically during the stability assay. It could be done by means of a viscometer or by using a rheometer.
With a viscometer, it is possible to carry out rotational assays or measurements by steady-state flow. On the other hand, the rheometer allows the development of oscillatory assays or dynamic measurements (Biradar, 2009).
When using an oscillatory rheometer it is necessary to carry out a flow curve assay and determine the apparent viscosity of the formulation in a defined shear rate. It is recommended to use the higher shear rate in the ascendant curve of the flow curve, since in this point the sample is in a suitable condition, it means that the formulation is not starting to flow and is not excessively sheared (Figure 10).
Example of a flow curve indicating the condition to the measurement of apparent viscosity.
In some papers, the flow curves have been plotted as viscosity as a function of shear stress instead of the traditional approach of plotting it versus shear rate because has been previously found that such curves are more discriminating and give better results for evaluation (Roberts, 2001; Samavati, 2011).
After obtaining, periodically, the minimum apparent viscosity of the samples exposed to stress conditions during a period, they should be compared with the initial value, and also compared the viscosity values of the control with the samples exposed to stress conditions, which allows the verification of the increase, decrease or maintenance of this attribute of the formulations.
Further exploiting the same assay, it is possible to calculate the hysteresis area of the formulation in each flow curve performed during the stability assay. The hysteresis loop areas can be obtained through a three-step experiment: upward curve, plateau, downward (Benchabane and Bekkour, 2008) and represents a way to measure, indirectly, the spreadability of the formulation, so it is possible to define if the formulation losses or gains easiness on spreadability during the shelf life. How much bigger is the hysteresis area, higher is the spreadability.
Flow curve with hysteresis area.
Using the flow curve is possible to compare two samples in relation to its hysteresis area and viscosity. A simple way to verify what formulation have a higher viscosity is by simple observation of the rheogram, since the curve that forms a bigger inclination in relation to the
Comparison between flow curves of different samples (a thixotropic and a plastic fluid).
Beyond the different sensorial features caused by the differences in viscosity is known that the viscosity of emulsioned systems is one of the factors that retards or avoids the phase separation processes. The coalescence of dispersed phase can be due to the emulsifier agent and can be related to an instability because of low viscosity of dispersed phase (Corrêa & Isaac, 2012). This low viscosity can occur because of high shear stress (Samavati et al., 2011).
In general, for emulsioned systems, the continuos phase is shear thinning, which means that its viscosity decreases with the increasing on shear rate and viscoelastic, which means that it has viscous and elastic components (Tadros, 2004).
An example of the verification of differences in viscosity and thixotropy between two samples is shown on Figure 13.
Comparison between flow curves of different samples.
Sample 1 is less viscous but more thixotropic than formulation 2. This simple verification gives to the analyst wide information, depending on what he needs.
Lescanne et al. (2004) studied organogels and aging properties of them. Organogels can be obtained by precipitation processes. These authors verified that, when aggregates are formed by the cooling rate, can be observed a elastic behavior, however, these aggregates can be aligned in the direction of the flow without lost the structure and when the flow is stopped, the aggregates are quickly rearranged and it inducing an thixotropic behavior. When the hot solution is introduced between the flat and the conical plates of the rheometer cell it is cooled to 5 ºC with a cooling rate of 20ºC/min, during the first hour of the gel life, it was measured the elastic properties of a gel as a function of time just after the cooling. Five minutes after its formation, the gel was submitted to a periodic stress (0.5 Pa) at a constant frequency (
The flow curve is a rotational assay, but using a rheometer it is possible to perform oscillatory assays too. Among the oscillatory assays are stress sweep and the frequency sweep assays.
The elastic (storage) modulus G’ and the viscous (loss) modulus G’’ are determined as a function of frequency or stress. The elastic modulus is a measure of energy stored and recovered per cycle of deformation and represents the solid-like component of a viscoelastic material. If a sample is elastic or highly structured then the elastic modulus will be high. The viscous modulus is a measure of the energy lost per cycle and represents the liquid-like component. If a sample is viscous the viscous modulus will be high.
In the stress sweep analyses, the structure of the sample is progressively destroyed by applying oscillations with an increasing stress amplitude at a fixed frequency (Callens et al., 2003). The linear viscoelasticity region occurs over that region of strain where the complex modulus is independent of the strain (Hemar, 2000). The linear viscoelastic region is determined by the maximum stress which can be applied without affecting G’ and G’’. Furthermore, the relative magnitude of the moduli is a qualitative indication for the structure in the sample. Two different situations can occur: G’ > G’’ for a network consisting of secondary bonds and G’≤ G’’ for a physically entangled polymer solution (Callens et al., 2003).
Frequency sweep tests are performed in the linear viscoelastic region of each sample, keeping the structure of the system intact during the measurement. By performing such small stress amplitude oscillations at a whole range of frequencies, the type of network structure can be revealed. The main difference between a network of secondary bonds and one of physical entanglements is located in the low frequency range: in an entangled network the polymers can disentangle if the available time is long enough (low frequency). In a network with secondary bonds the bonds are fixed irrespective of the time scale. This results for an entangled solution in a limiting slope of 2 for G’ and 1 for G’’ at low frequency in a log-log plot of moduli versus frequency, while at intermediate frequency a plateau develops. For a network of secondary bonds an almost constant value of G’ and G’’ is observed over the whole frequency range, with the value of G’ exceeding that of G‘’(Callens et al., 2003; Madsen et al., 1998).
The stress sweep is important to evaluate the linear viscoelastic region of a sample that is a range of shear stress in which the formulation does not suffer profound alterations on it structure, being not disrupted. When a shear stress of the linear viscoelastic region is applied in an oscillatory assay, only the intermolecular and interparticle forces are being evaluated (Martin, 1993). To determine the linear viscoelastic region, the oscillating stress sweeps are carried out for the most extreme values. These measurements are used to determine where the reological properties are independent of the applied stress and the identify the critical rheological properties (Tuarez, 2011).
Knowing the values of shear stress that do not cause the disrupt in the formulation by means of the stress sweep, the analyst could perform a frequency sweep of the formulation. The frequency sweep is carried out in a constant shear stress found in the linear viscoelastic region. With this assay it is possible to evaluate the elastic or storage modulus (G’) and the viscous or loss modulus (G’’). The cosmetic excipients most used, emulsions and gels, are often viscoelastic samples. The viscoelastic samples when evaluated by means of the frequency sweep present G’ and G’’ values. When the G’ value is higher than G’’ it is an indicative that the formulation is more elastic than viscous. It is a characteristic of gels.
Emulsions which exhibits G’ values higher than G’’ (Figure 14) are described as more stable than formulations with G’’ values higher than G’ (Figure 15), since they tends to recovery its initial structure faster and more efficiently than the others, and are less susceptible to the gravitational forces which retards or avoids the coalescence process and the phase separation of emulsions (Alam and Aramaki, 2009). So, the G’ values higher than G’’ in emulsions is a desirable feature, being an indicative of stability of the cosmetic system.
A frequency sweep example (G’>G’’).
A frequency sweep example (G’’>G’).
Another assay that could be conducted using an oscillatory rheometer is the creep and recovery assay. It is done by submitting the samples to a constant shear stress during a period, and after, removing this shear stress and monitoring the formulation in relation to the deformation (measured by the compliance - J) during the same period. The compliance parameter is the resulting strain divided by the applied stress (Koop, 2009; Toro-Vazquez et al., 2010). If the compliance parameter is the relationship between strain and the applied stress, the strain is dimensionless and stress is measured in Pa, then, the compliance can be measured in 1/Pa.
In the example showed on the Figure 16 the samples were submitted to a shear stress during 300 seconds, and after removing this shear stress it was monitored during more 300 seconds.
Analyzing the result obtained in the first 300 seconds is verified that sample 1 exhibited lower compliance values than sample 2, which represents a higher difficult on being deformed than sample 1. The difficult on being deformed is always linked to higher viscosity values.
In the second part of the assay, where the shear stress imposed to the sample is removed, represented in the graphic by the time 301 to 600 seconds, is verified the viscoelastic properties of the samples. Formulations that are able to recovery its initial structure or part of it exhibit a gradually decrease in the compliance values. On Figure 17 there is an example of a formulation that is not a viscoelastic sample, it means that it do not exhibits storage modulus, and is not able to recovery its structure when the shear stress is ceased.
A creep and recovery example of viscoelastic samples.
A creep and recovery example of a non-viscoelastic sample.
In addition, the rheology can be used to evaluate the stability over the time by dynamic and oscillatory rheological measurements (Pénzes et al., 2004; Vasiljevic et al., 2006) and the release of active principles. According to Martinez et al. (2007), the transdermal absorption of topically administered drugs depends on the rate of release and the permeability of them into the skin and also of the viscosity of the formulation (Martinez et al., 2007).
Thus, it is possible to say that different categories of products should present peculiar rheological properties inherent to its application (Gregolin et al., 2010).
In this way, the rheology can influence the diffusion coefficient, altering the release and permeation of cosmetics active substances (Welin-Berger et al., 2001; A-sadutjarit et al., 2005; Vasiljevic et al., 2006). Some authors have related the influence of rheological characteristics on the release profiles and consequently in the permeation of active substances in the skin; thus, the addition of thickening agents or attainment of a weak-gel because of physical entanglement of polymer chains must be considered in the choice of cosmetics bases (Spiclin, et al., 2003). Thus, rheology can help in the assay of release and permeation in the skin. Some studies have been published about it.
So, in a short way, the rheology is a valuable tool that helps in the quality control of cosmetics, being used in the stability tests, in the comparison between competing samples, in the comparison between an original product and a product with an alteration in a constituent, and in the development of new products, aiming to develop cosmetic with rheological characteristics which indicate stability.
The use of this technique in determining the quality control of a cosmetic is closely related to the stability of the product, which could be improved with the presence of liquid crystals.
Liquid crystals are described as a state of matter between solids and liquids, it means that, they are fluid like liquids but are organized like solids, being called mesophases (Marsh, 1973; Kelker and Hatz, 1980; Müller-Goymann, 2004). These organization contributes to the highly stability of systems.
The formation of liquid crystals in emulsions could be induced by some components present in this system, such as surfactants (Müller-Goymann, 2004). So, what happens is that it is possible to find a peculiar system that is not a simple emulsion and not a genuine liquid crystal, but an emulsioned system that contains liquid crystals, commonly lamellar structures, that are formed around of the inner phase of the emulsion (Oka et al., 2008), making difficult the coalescence, flocculation and the separation of the oily and water phases, what makes the system formed more stable than a simple emulsion (Figures 18 and 19). Flocculation is defined as the formation of aggregates of droplets of an emulsion under the influence of interparticle colloidal forces which are net attractive (Dickinson, 1992) and the formation of lamellar structures avoid or prevent the occurrence of this phenomenon. The formation of lamellar structures is essential to obtain emulsified oil/water systems finely dispersed, with balanced hydrophilic-lipophilic properties, resulting in minimal interfacial tension between aqueous and oily phases, thus contributing to the stability of the system (Engels et al., 1995). Previous studies have also shown that it is possible to make correlation between SAXS and rheological analysis, since were verified that the thicker the interlamellar water layers, the higher the viscosity of the cream (Eccleston et al., 2000). Thus, liquid crystals could be responsible by the emulsion stabilization and by the increasing in the viscosity (Klein, 2002), being the presence of this structures desirable in cosmetic emulsions which could be an indicative of quality of them.
Scheme of a cosmetic emulsion containing liquid crystals.
Schemes of the microscopic visualization of lamellar gel networks surrounding emulsion droplets proposed by Klein (2002).
This kind of structure is more commonly found in cosmetics due to the high diversity of components used in it in order to obtain a moisturizer, emollient, humectant, good sensory and, above all, stable cosmetic. In other pharmaceutical forms, usually are used a less diversified composition, which gives a system easier to understand, described as emulsion or liquid crystal, or even, a gel, a suspension, etc. The quantity of these lamellar structures, found in cosmetic emulsions, probably is dependent of three main factors: the raw-materials, the amount of it used and the process of preparation, where should be cited, the temperature and the speed of agitation.
In cosmetics, other kinds of systems could be used, such as genuine liquid crystals aiming to explore its characteristics of controlled delivery systems.
There are different kinds of liquid crystals and different classifications, but this chapter has not the function of describe them, since it have been done by many authors (Bechtold, 2005; Formariz et al., 2005; Atkins and Jones, 2006), the aim was to demonstrate the importance of these structures in the maintenance of the cosmetics’ quality. Nevertheless, according to the literature data (Klein, 2002) and to our experience in this subject, it is possible to say that the lamellar arrangement is the most commonly found in cosmetic emulsions.
An initial analysis of the presence of liquid crystals in a cosmetic emulsion could be done using a polarized light microscope, but it should be confirmed and better analyzed by means of Small Angle X-Ray Scattering. When a microscope slide containing a sample of the system is studied and it presents structures that reflect the incident light, it is an evidence of the presence of liquid crystals (Figure 20). So, they should be submitted to SAXS analysis to confirm this expectation (Savic et al., 2011).
Photomicrographs of liquid-crystal present in emulsions evaluated by polarized light microscope.
The SAXS method requires a synchrotron light source that is formed by means of a particle accelerator, and using a monochromatic beam, that is used to irradiate the sample. After that, the scattering of the rays in small angle should be analyzed (Glatter and Kratky, 1982; Urban, 2004; Koch, 2010). Liquid crystals can be analyzed by SAXS since they are able to disperse the X-rays focused on it. In the SAXS line is used an X-rays detector and an multichannel analyzer to capture the intense of the SAXS measures (
Analyzing the data obtained (Figure 19), the
Hypothetical SAXS curve.
In the case of the hypothetical curve showed in Figure 19,
Beyond the advantages already mentioned, in a research conducted by Moaddel and Friberg (1995), the authors showed that the presence of lamellar liquid crystals in an emulsion avoids the water evaporation rate in this system, thus contributing in another way to the stability and maintenance of the cosmetic quality.
According to the advantages obtained with the presence of liquid crystals, these mesophases can be of great importance to the Cosmetic Industry in the development of very stable cosmetics and, the SAXS technique, an efficient tool to confirm the presence of these desirable structures that helps in the maintenance of cosmetics’ quality control.
Camerel et al. (2003) pointed the importance in correlate the microstructure of a colloidal suspension with its rheological behavior to define its better use in industry and in life, beyond that, according to these authors there are few reports correlating these analyses.
Our research group has invested in researches to assess the stability of cosmetics (Isaac et al., 2008); evaluating of the influence of the addition of thickening agents in creams using rheological measurements (Isaac et al., 2012a); evaluating the thickeners\' influence on the rheological properties of a cosmetic (Isaac et al., 2012b,c); proposing alternative methods to assay the efficacy and safety of them (Chiari et al., 2012a; Chiari et al., 2012b) and using of the sensory analysis in the cosmetics development (Isaac et al., 2012a) which, in different points of view of what was demonstrated in this chapter, also influence in the product quality.
This chapter aimed to show the facility that some simple or advanced techniques already used, sometimes to other finalities, could offer to the quality control of cosmetic products. The sensory analysis, rheology and SAXS technique have earned attention due to the important contribution that they can offer to the cosmetic area.
Solid runoff is one of the important state variables’ indicators of two-phase water mass circulation in a water object. Solid runoff of a water object represents solid matter, available in river flow or moving lake water masses, and having different genesis: ground (mineral solids) or organic matter. Solid runoff of water objects can be considered in different applications: static (water turbidity), dynamic (suspended and bed load, total sediment discharge), and indirect dynamic (bed mark changes and banks transformation).
Any irregular non-stationary two-phase flow is characterized by the processes of redistribution of solid matter in the riverbed or water area of a water body. At the same time, both the processes of sedimentation and bottom erosion and the transit of sediment can be observed.
Sediment can move in river flow by means of drawing or rolling over a bed (bed load sediment), saltation, in suspended state (suspended sediment), and over flow surface due to water surface tension (flotation). And maximum possible amount of solid matter, which specified water discharge can carry over, is called flow transporting capaсity. Transporting capaсity of a flow defines a process of redistribution of sediment in a channel—the main factor of channel processes. If sediment discharges lesser than transporting capacity of a flow, bottom sediment is engaged into the movement, and bottom erosion occurs. When sediment discharge starts exceeding transporting capacity of a flow, sedimentation of moving sediment occurs and bed marks increase. If sediment discharge in river flow conforms to its transporting capacity, then dynamic balance is observed between suspension and settling processes.
Currently, many formulas exist for suspended and bed load sediment discharges, total sediment discharge, and flow transporting capacity calculation. At the same, the high order of arguments degree in the sediment transport formulas leads to greater calculation error. One of the most significant calculation errors for such formulas is using the bottom sediment size, which is featured by high variability in the river channel, as an argument. For objective estimation of this value, bottom sediment samples taking for the whole watercourse cross section are required that seems to be impossible in some cases. Known formulas of sediment discharge do not consider interrelated effect of flow hydraulics and transportable solid particles. Also, the issue of friction parameters setting on solid boundary of river flow, despite multi-year study of this process, still remains not enough investigated.
Sediment transport calculation algorithms, developed separately for suspended and bed load sediment in the river flow, also bring known issues in calculation accuracy. Sediment transport is caused by flow energy and the size of transportable particles, only river flow is characterized by the transport potential in accordance with which the amount (mass) of transported particles is determined. And, depending on particle size distribution of transportable material, a part of sediment uprises in water layer and migrates with water mass of flow, and a part is dragged and rolled over a bed. Moreover, the ratio of suspended and bed load kind of transport is highly variable. It depends on hydrodynamic flow pattern and solid matter income from outside (e.g., from river basin or following the result of dumping of soil in the river channel). Hydrodynamic flow pattern, in queue, is defined by channel irregularity, slope variability, and bottom sediment size, as well as water and sediment discharges of upstream.
Creating a method for calculating total sediment discharge based on the balance of forces acting in the two-phase river flow will allow for the interrelated effects of hydraulically variables of a flow state and solid matter carried by the flow. At the same time, the main stumbling block of river hydraulics is the interaction of a moving stream, and the bottom should be considered not from the side of the boundary layer of the liquid, but from the side of bottom sediment, their well-studied properties in soil science. Setting the bottom sediment size through their qualitative characterization (by categories that include wide ranges of particle coarseness variation) allows us to avoid calculation errors that arise when using specific values of bottom sediment quantiles.
In a river flow, it can be considered the change in the flow velocity within one water discharge (phase hydraulic space) or its average value (average flow velocity within the phase hydraulic space) for the current water discharge. In the first case, we may speak of phase hydraulic space [1]. It seems clear that the same water discharge can carry the following amount of sediment
Within possible flow velocity change range at specified water discharge, velocity can conform to different critical values. Critical river flow velocities traditionally are called such flow velocities at which the conditions of movement of the water flow and sediment carried by the flow change. Critical flow velocities predefine movement pattern of both liquid phase (laminar, turbulent, subcritical, and supercritical flow and so on) and solid phase of a flow. Depending on this, different types of critical velocities predefining sediment transport and bed mark change regimens are classified. For example [4]:
non-eroding velocity (extreme velocity, whereas the basic part of bottom sediment is at rest state);
breakaway velocity (start of mass movement of particles);
non-silting velocity (extreme velocity, whereas the particles stay in suspended state).
Inter alia, Goncharov provides such definition for breakaway velocity: “the least average flow velocity, whereat unhampered breakaway of individual protruding grains on the bed occurs and average level of pulsation uplift forces is approximately equal to grain weight in water” [5]. Such definition enables concluding that breakaway velocity conforms to the start of particles movement both in suspended and bed load sediment forms. According to Zamarin [6], “non-silting velocity is the least average flow velocity, whereat suspended sediment, contained in water, do not leave a flow.” Obviously, the area of the clarified flow will be characterized by the lower limit of non-eroding velocity, while the area of maximum suspended load on the flow will be characterized by the non-silting velocity. Moreover, it is implied that the start of particles movement in river flow, predominantly, by saltation and in suspended form, conforms to velocity, being within the range between non-eroding and breakaway velocities. The latter can be explained by the fact that when the transporting potential of the river flow falls, particles of the largest size are the first to be deposited on the bottom during the movement of multi-factional sediment. Upper layer of deposited sediment will be represented by fine-grain fractions. Then, if transporting potential increases, at first, the upper layer of bottom sediment, represented by lesser size particles, starts movement. In support of the latter, let us consider the expressions, defined for critical velocities of movement start by drawing or rolling over a bed,
where
From these ratios, it follows that the movement of suspended particles, whose particle size is less than 30% of the size of the particles moving by drawing, is determined by a smaller value of the critical velocity. In a context of big grain size variety of mineral particles, available in river channel, this means that the start of sediment movement falls to suspended form.
The phase hydraulic space is characterized by the morphometry of the channel and the nature of the underlying surface, and the transporting potential of the flow is determined in accordance with the amount of solid matter entering the flow. Type of the function approximating the phase hydraulic space is defined by cross section form, and the function itself represents the velocity-to-depth ratio for constant water discharge at studied cross section. Figure 1 provides an example of phase hydraulic space for a channel with rectangular shape. In this case, change range for flow velocities and depth is defined by water discharge. It seems to be clear that water discharge predefines opportunity to reach this or that critical velocity. Thus, within the limits of one water discharge, a different ratio of hydraulic variables of a flow state can be established. This ratio is strongly predefined by solid matter ingress from catchment.
Phase hydraulic space of a flow in the channel cross section for
The flow velocities achieved within the phase hydraulic space for a fixed water discharge were considered above. Let us now stop at the average velocity, which corresponds to a given water discharge. If sediment in the river flow is formed solely by means of channel deformation, then we speak of channel-forming water flows. In this case, the average rates of the beginning and end of the process of channel deformation correspond to certain critical values. Then, the ratio of critical velocities and sediment transport pattern comes to the following schematic (Figure 2) (the view of this dependence is conditional).
Correlation of critical velocities and type of sediment transport.
At the same time, both for the phase hydraulic space (within a fixed water discharge) and for the average velocity for a given water discharge, there is a ratio of critical flow rates and the nature of transport of multi-fractional sediment:
v1—velocity lesser than minimal non-eroding velocity (no sediment movement,
v2—non-eroding velocity (start of suspended sediment movement,
v3—breakaway velocity (start of bed load and suspended sediment movement,
v4—non-silting velocity (transporting capacity of a flow,
In the early days of research into the movement of solid material in river flow, a separation of total sediment into a suspended and a bed load sediment part was adopted. Such posing of the question was justified by measurement base opportunities and useful to form general representation on regularities of involvement into movement and solid matter transfer in river flow. However, amid modern views on process physics, vast experience of full-scale and laboratory experiment, instrument opportunities, and all-round interdisciplinary integration, such vision of the issue seems slightly limited.
Development of suspended sediment discharge formulas, unfortunately, failed to find enough place in hydraulic calculations practice. At the same time in investigation of suspended sediment, the big attention was paid to turbidity distribution along vertical and along river length. Furthermore, vast investigations with another averaging scale were conducted on generalized materials analysis of spatiotemporal turbidity distribution (Karaushev [8], Shamov [9]). And as formulas for the consumption of suspended sediment in the standards and applied works, formulas for calculating the transporting capacity of a flow are proposed. Admixture propagation equation based on diffusion theory of sediment movement (Taylor [10], Schmidt [11], Makkaveev [12], Karaushev [8]) is represented in educational and scientific literature for suspended sediment discharge calculation. However, neither in the first case (formulas of transporting capacity of a flow) nor in the second case (admixture propagation equation), the task of suspended matter concentration estimation in a flow is not solved finally. It is evident that suspension-bearing load of river flow not always conforms to its transporting capacity. And admixture propagation equation, being an elementary continuity equation at known suspended matter concentration in a flow (boundary condition specification), leaves the question of estimating this concentration open.
In the last century, some suspended sediment discharge formulas were also based on knowledge on suspended matter concentration in a near-bottom layer and came down to integral calculation of suspended matter concentration distribution epure. In 1937, Rouse [13] provided theoretic equation for vertical distribution of suspended particles in turbulent flow. Suspended matter concentration formulas by Karaushev [8], Van Rijn [14], Sedaei et al. [15], Bagnold [16], Karasev [4], etc., are used in hydraulic calculations practice.
As is commonly known, assessment of bed load sediment discharge for natural water objects is one of the most complicated hydraulic tasks. Disconcertingly, lately activity in developing new approaches to solve this issue is not enough. Moreover, the main encumbrance lays in the absence of reliable verification for proposed calculation formulas according to field studies data. Bed load sediment discharge formulas can be focused both on the movement of separate solid particles directly or ridge form of sediment movement. Formulas describing ridge form of sediment movement consider geometric parameters of ridges, their length, height, etc., and can be used for rivers with sand bed. Such formulas are supported with relatively true data of sediment discharge observation that enables optimization of both formula’s structure and its parameters. Bed load sediment in rivers with gravel bed represents the biggest complexity in sediment discharge measurements. This, accordingly, hampers probation of bed load sediment discharge formulas and optimization of structure and parameters of such formulas.
Some researchers classify the following groups of bed load sediment discharge formulas:
Dependence of sediment discharge on hydraulic flow characteristics (Shamov [9], Levi [17], Goncharov [5], Grishanin [18], Egiazarov [19], Van Rijn [20]);
Relation of sediment discharge to water content (water discharge) of a river (Meyer-Peter et al. [21], Meyer-Peter and Müller [22], Schoklitsch [23, 24], Gilbert [25]);
Relation of the sediment discharge to the attractive force of the flow (Egiazarov [19], Bagnold [16]);
Formulas, where stochastic nature of sediment movement is expressed (Einstein [26, 27], Velikanov [28], Shen and Hung [29]).
Given enough great quantity of bed load sediment discharge formulas, but total sediment discharge formulas are not as common. However, at empirical nature of bed load sediment discharge formulas, the formulas for total sediment discharge are often more physically based. Total sediment discharge is a function of hydraulic flow parameters, such as average flow velocity, depth, water discharge, slope, size, hydraulic size, and density of the particles, as well as shear stress on solid boundary of a flow. Some formulas are developed based on dimensional analysis and almost all of them based on main concept of shear force of a flow.
The formula by Yang and Lim is defined using dimensional analysis for rivers with sand bed [30]. The formula by Ackers and White is also derived from dimensional analysis [31, 32]. The transport of fine-dispersed material is associated with a shear velocity, and the transport of larger particles is associated with an average flow velocity. Karim and Kennedy also obtained a formula for the total sediment through the theory of dimensions, making the total sediment flow dependent on the average and dynamic flow velocity, hydraulic size, and average particle size [33, 34]. Yang hypothesized that the determining factor in the concentration of sediment in alluvial channels is the specific power of flow, which can be defined as the calculated per unit time dissipation of potential energy per unit weight of water [35, 36]. The formula by Engelund and Hansen, defined in the middle of last century [37], is based on Bagnold’s flow power concept and theory of similarity. The formula by Molinas and Wu is based on shearing force of a flow [38]. In this formula, the Darcy-Weisbach equation is solved together with an expression for the frictional force, which gives the relationship between the total sediment concentration and the resulting flow force. The formula by Bagnold [16, 39] is based on energy balance concept, where flow power predefines energy for sediment transport. The formula of total sediment discharge developed by Karasev is based on two dependences for suspended and bed load sediment discharges [4]. The commonality of the mechanisms of movement consists of a single process of interaction between a liquid and a solid medium characterized by turbidity of ascent [4].
The values of empirical coefficients in the formulae of sediment discharge can be determined by minimizing the deviations between the results of calculations and observational data. But when deriving the formulas of flow transporting capacity, it’s hard to focus on observation data for definite river, as limit flow saturation with sediment is not achieved on all rivers and not for all water content periods.
One of the determining factors for the involvement of sediment particles in the flow is the turbulence regime of the river—velocity pulsations have a suspending and supporting effect on the particles in the flow. But it is known that the presence of a solid substance in the flow significantly reduces the pulsations of velocities, the flow becomes relatively orderly. Whereas all other things being equal, the clarified stream, having a large erosion capacity of the channel, has a more turbulent mode of movement.
In can therefore be concluded that the degree of flow saturation with sediment has nonlinear dependence from average flow velocity and, among others, depends on flow movement pattern.
Therefore, when derivation of the formulas of flow transporting capacity, not only dependence on the amount of transported matter from hydraulic variables of flow state shall be considered, but the factors predefining limit fluid saturation with suspensions. Such factors can include suspending capacity of a flow, Froude and Reynolds criteria, as well as presence of small fractions in a flow. It is known that high content of finest particles increases water viscosity and, therefore, impacts onto flow capacity to transport coarser fractions. Accordingly, “the limit of flow saturation with sediment depends on both flow hydraulics and transported sediment content” [8]. The formulas by Zamarin [6], Bagnold [39], Karaushev [8], and others are known from assessment practice of flow transporting capacity
Main equation of mathematic model for water and solid matter movement in river flow is based on balance of forces acting to moving sediment particle in “water flow—bottom sediment—sediment” system. The forces acting on the particle side are counteracted by the forces acting on the flow side:
Total force balance equation in “water flow—bottom sediment—sediment” system has the following view:
where
Bottom resistance force
where
Therefore, main equation of water and solid matter movement has the following view:
where
Water and solid matter movement equation (Eq. (10)) is closed by flow continuity equations (Eq. (11)), equations for particle velocity (Eq. (12)), and the equation of flow and particles kinetic power balance (Eq. (13)).
For conditions for uniform steady movement after some transformations of the equation (Eq. (10)), we can acquire that sediment discharge
where
Thus, upon reductions and transformations, two basic groups remain in the formula: gravitational component (ρ
It worth noting that formula (Eq. (15)) calculates the mass of solid matter in water and this mass shall be brought to real mass of solid matter:
Therefore, the formula (Eq. (15)) takes the following view:
Parameters
or in common view
where
Following the optimization, the values of parameter
The given values of the parameters
Let us consider deriving the formula of flow transporting capacity. Based on phase hydraulic space concept, we assume that flow transporting capacity
where
Minimum possible depth is predefined by channel’s morphometry and water discharge. A decrease in
Thus, the calculation of the transporting capacity of the flow is preceded by an estimate of the values of
To estimate the boundary velocity
According to the formula (Eq. (23)), minimal flow depth will be:
Then the expression for transporting capacity of a flow (Eq. (22)), considering the formula (Eq. (24)) will be as follows:
Therefore, defined analytical formula for transporting capacity of a flow (Eq. (25)) is based on balance of forces acting in the system “water flow—bottom sediment—sediment” [1], the formula of soil shear resistance [40], and the formula of the boundary velocity of particle deposition in the water flow [41]. Probation of formula (Eq. (25)) and comparative analysis of some formulas of flow transporting capacity are provided in [1].
Consider now the derivation of formulas for suspended and bed load sediment. The start of sediment suspension is due to increase in average flow velocity against non-eroding velocity. The formula of non-eroding velocity
By expressing the depth from (Eq. (26)), we will get:
By substituting the defined expression (Eq. (27)) to total sediment discharge formula (Eq. (17)) we’ll get suspended sediment discharge formula,
Since total sediment discharge represents the sum of suspended and bed load sediment discharges, we’ll get the expression for bed load sediment discharge,
This section thus presents the derivation of four formulas: total sediment discharge formula (Eq. (17)), flow transport capacity formula (Eq. (25)), suspended sediment discharge (Eq. (28)), and bed load sediment discharge (Eq. (31)) formulas. All derived formulas are based on the equation of water and solids motion (Eq. (10)), the concept of phase hydraulic space, and the relationships describing the critical flow states.
Consider the results of approbation of the new sediment discharge formulas. Observation data on 15 hydrometric stations, located on American rivers in the states Alaska, Idaho, Colorado, Washington, and Wisconsin, were used as calculation material. Observations on these rivers and creeks were conducted in 70s–80s years of the last century, and investigation results are represented in the report “Measured total sediment loads (suspended and bed load sediment) for 93 United States streams.” This report is published on official website of Geological Survey at the US Home Department and is in public domain [43]. The report represents the data on suspended and bed load sediment measured nearly simultaneously. Besides this, the report provides hydraulic variables of flow state and и grain-size analysis of sediment and bottom sediment. “The data, most of which were not published earlier, were measured by means different individuals and entities… Despite known sampling issues, the data are, probably, the best of those available for the moment” [43] (for 1989).
The report provides observation results in 93 rivers and creeks; however, the most comprehensive data required for calculation are represented for 15 rivers only. Totally, 252 measurement data for medium water content period were used in calculations. The range of main hydraulic characteristics of the studied rivers, wherein calculations were conducted, is represented in Table 1.
No | Hydrometric section | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Susitna River near Talkeetna, Alaska | 0.00146 | 612–1160 | 1.8–2.7 | 1.7–2.3 | 183–202 | 197–849 | 2.26–10.4 | 199–859 |
2 | Chulitua River below Canyon near Talkeetna, Alaska | 0.00131 | 564–946 | 2.0–2.5 | 2.5–3.1 | 108–123 | 462–1690 | 26.9–145 | 488–1835 |
3 | Tanana River at Fairbanks, Alaska | 0.000467 | 1010–2020 | 1.3–1.9 | 2–2.9 | 296–469 | 2410–10,030 | 16.3–89.4 | 2426–10,119 |
4 | Snake River near Anatone, Wash | 0.001033 | 1990–3770 | 2.4–3.3 | 4.7–5.8 | 181–197 | 61.6–1270 | 1.07–58.7 | 62.67–1328 |
5 | Toutle River at Tower Road near Silver Lake, Wash. | 0.00311 | 112–248 | 1.5–3.1 | 0.77–1.5 | 61–70 | 538–5820 | 33–232 | 682–5901 |
6 | Fork Toutle River near Kid Valley, Wash. | 0.0037 | 110–185 | 2.4–2.8 | 0.85–1.1 | 56–59 | 1590–4980 | 110–338 | 1883–5090 |
7 | Clearwater River at Spalding, Idaho | 0.000312 | 847–1810 | 1.4–2.5 | 4.3–5.1 | 135–143 | 15.8–124 | 0.578–6.54 | 16.38–130.54 |
8 | Yampa River at Deerloge Park, Colo | 0.000673 | 108–447 | 0.81–1.3 | 1.5–3.9 | 90–93 | 113–998 | 3.6–13.2 | 122.3–1008 |
9 | Wisconsin River at Muscods, Wis. | 0.000311 | 114–714 | 0.49–0.88 | 0.71–2.6 | 278–310 | 1.42–20 | 1.76–23.3 | 3.18–43.3 |
10 | Black River near Galesville, Wis. | 0.000221 | 20.1–80.7 | 0.44–0.54 | 0.55–1.4 | 72–122 | 0.422–5.5 | 1.28–4.09 | 1.702–9.59 |
11 | Chippewa River at Durand, Wis. | 0.000326 | 132–884 | 0.77–1.1 | 1.3–3.2 | 215–244 | 2.78–64.5 | 5.52–23.3 | 8.3–87.8 |
12 | Chippewa River near Pepin, Wis. | 0.000309 | 118–391 | 0.57–0.86 | 10.76–1.8 | 229–274 | 2.24–45.7 | 2.89–14.7 | 5.13–60.4 |
13 | North Fork of Lick Creek near Yellow Pine, Idаho | 0.00666 | 1.28–4.25 | 0.52–0.95 | 0.32–0.51 | 7.3–8.8 | 0.00294–0.0978 | 0.0005–0.0292 | 0.00344–0.127 |
14 | South Fork of Salmon River near Cascade, Idaho | 0.00695 | 22–77.5 | 0.62–1.3 | 1.1–1.7 | 31.5–34.5 | 0.132–4.11 | 0.00632–6.42 | 0.138–10.53 |
15 | Chippewa River near Caryville, Wis. | 0.000213 | 117–779 | 0.45–1.1 | 1.4–2.8 | 185–247 | 0.936–16.4 | 0–13.5 | 0.936–29.9 |
The main hydraulic characteristics of the studied rivers.
On average, the deviations between the observed and calculated values for the medium water content period have been: according to the formula of total sediment discharge (Eq. (17))—41%; according to the formula of suspended sediment discharge (Eq. (28))—48%; according to the formula of bed load sediment discharge (Eq. (31))—46%. The results obtained are quite acceptable and confirm the operability of the above formulas.
It should be noted that calculation results for the formulas derived by other authors, as provided in this work, were published earlier many times, including [1]. At the same, the best results are shown by the formulas [1]:
Engelund and Hansen’s [37]:
Karim and Kennedy’s [34]:
Bagnold’s [39]:
where
Figure 3 shows the relationship between the total sediment discharges observed and the calculated according to the above formulas for the study rivers. As can be seen from the graphs, the points of the observed and formula-calculated sediment discharges are almost bisecting each other. Small values of sediment load discharge are better calculated using the Karim-Kennedy’s (Eq. (33)) and Engelund-Hansen’s (Eq. (32)) formulas, but at the same time, the points of observed and calculated sediment discharge using the Engelund and Hansen’s formula (Eq. (32)) have a greater scatter and a systematic bias toward underestimation of calculated sediment discharge for large values of sediment load. At the same time, Shmakova’s formula (Eq. (17)) and Bagnold’s formula (Eq. (34)) showed the best result in the area of large values and the worst in the area of small values.
Observed
Now consider the results of the validation of formula (Eq. (25)) and conduct a comparative analysis of some formulas for the transport capacity of the flow [1]:
Zamarin’s formula for hydraulic particle size 0.002 < ω < 0.008 m/s [6]:
Goncharov’s formula [5] for
Bagnold’s formula [39]:
where
The main criterion for the quality of the calculations will be the condition that the observed values of the total sediment discharge do not exceed the calculated values. This somewhat tentative and rather qualitative assessment of the correctness of the formulas can be explained by the fact that there is no information for the study rivers on how much suspended load of the flow reaches its maximum possible values. Or, in other words, it is not clear whether the measured sediment discharge
where
For formula (Eq. (25)), the friction parameters were assumed to be equal to those optimized for the high and medium water periods in the calculations using the analytical sediment flow formula (Eq. (17)).
Table 2 shows the relative number of cases of non-exceeding δ, % of the observed values of sediment discharge by calculated ones, average relative deviations σ
Formula | δ, % | σtotal, % | σmin, % |
---|---|---|---|
Zamarin’s (Eq. (35)) | 45 | 555 | 671 |
Goncharov’s (Eq. (36)) | 38 | 819 | 882 |
Bagnold’s (Eq. (39)) | 24 | 849 | 434 |
Shmakova’s (Eq. (25)) | 33 | 87 | 66 |
Results of calculations using the flow capacity formulas.
Results of the calculations according to the four formulas are shown on the Figure 4. Degree of qualitative correspondence between the calculated values of total sediment discharge and the observed values is demonstrated by the excess of calculated points over the bisecting lines.
Observed
The results of the calculations above illustrate, in summary form, that in general (55–76%) the calculated sediment discharges are higher than the observed values. However, the values calculated using Shmakova’s formula (Eq. (25)) are the most consistent with the order of magnitude of the observed sediment discharges, with a deviation σtotal of about 87%. For the same formula, the most adequate values σmin (66%) were also obtained.
The calculations were based on a quantitative assessment of the quality of the calculation formulas by comparing the calculated values from the above formulas and the observed values of the transport capacity of the flow. For the study watercourses at the observed average flow depth, the silting velocities
Table 3 shows the calculation data and the results of the calculations for the station Fork Toutle River near Kid Valley. The
Zamarin’s (Eq. (35)) | Bagnold’s (Eq. (39)) | Shmakova’s (Eq. (25)) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
185 | 2.9 | 2.8 | 56 | 1.1 | 5090 | 110 | 352 | 3367 |
110 | 2.6 | 2.4 | 56 | 0.9 | 1883 | 53 | 181 | 1953 |
123 | 2.6 | 2.6 | 56 | 0.85 | 2045 | 64 | 269 | 2417 |
147 | 2.6 | 2.4 | 59 | 0.85 | 1714 | 69 | 260 | 2607 |
153 | 2.8 | 2.4 | 59 | 0.98 | 1978 | 71 | 225 | 2348 |
Calculation data and calculation results for transport capacity, Fork Toutle River near Kid Valley.
As can be seen from Table 3, the Shmakova’s formula (Eq. (25)) shows the best agreement between the observed and calculated values of the flow transport capacity. The average relative deviation for this formula was 29%. For Zamarin’s (Eq. (35)) and Bagnold’s (Eq. (39)) formulas, the calculated
Many of the formulas for flow transport capacity and minimum non-silting velocity have been derived experimentally for canals at maximum sediment load. In the case of natural watercourses, however, selecting the formula for the transport capacity and optimizing its parameters is extremely difficult due to the lack of reliable observational data on the maximum possible of sediment load in the flow. For this reason, the calculations in this chapter are somewhat tentative. However, the results obtained demonstrate the incompleteness of theoretical research in the study of the transport capacity of rivers. Concurrently, an important advantage of the formulas (Eqs. (17), (25), (28), and (31)) is analytical conclusion from the equation of basic two-phase mass carryover in river flow (Eq. (10)). In this equation, the forces are written not in relation to the water flow, but in relation to a moving solid (the shearing projection of the gravity of the water flow, the retaining projection of the gravity of moving particles, the inertia forces of the water flow and moving particles, the force of the soil resistance to shear). Also in equation (Eq. (10)), the interaction of the water flow, and the bottom is represented by the resistance of the bottom sediment to the tangential load from the flow side. Therefore, formulas (Eqs. (17), (25), (28), and (31)) are based on interrelated calculation of water flow and solid matter and supported by qualitative, but not quantitative characteristic of bottom sediment size. Friction parameters are derived functionally from bottom sediment size categories, which are represented by wide ranges of bottom sediment sizes.
Two-phase river flow represents a complicated system of liquid and solid phases and underlying surface interaction. Its main particulars are as follows:
Sediment transport in the river flow is, from one hand, predefined by flow hydrodynamics and, from the other hand, impacts to hydraulic variables of flow state;
Bottom sediment size is highly variable along the channel and in water flow and depends on water content phase;
Resistance on solid boundary of a flow in cross section is not constant within a year;
Practice of calculating solid runoff shows insufficient study of the interaction of river flow and river bed.
Existing methods of sediment transport calculations are not always universal and do not fit for flows of any scale and different hydraulic conditions. In this case, sediment transport process in any kind (suspended or bed load) and any degree of flow saturation with solid phase (from clarified to transporting capacity) is the same for all types of channels and for any water content periods. This process is based on the power of the river flow, which determines the amount of solid matter transported. Accordingly, assessment algorithms of any kind sediment discharge (suspended and bed load) shall be the result of theoretic equations describing two-phase river flow hydrodynamics. This means that these algorithms (formulas) shall be fully interconnected each other and follow one from another. And the structure of sediment transport formula shall be fully coordinated with measuring base opportunities. In particular, the average size of bottom sediment, highly variable in cross section, or its quantile values with specified occurrence decrease calculation accuracy. In this case, integral river bed characteristics, such as bottom sediment size categories, are more convenient for operation. Algorithms, provided in this work, can avoid the above deficiencies in a whole and increase calculation accuracy of sediment discharge for different types of rivers.
The research was funded by the study № 0154-2019-0003 of the state research plan for the Institute of Limnology RAS.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
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\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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