Recommended minimum NDF concentration based on the proportion of NDF coming from forage sources [9].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6910",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Bacteriophages - Perspectives and Future",title:"Bacteriophages",subtitle:"Perspectives and Future",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Bacteriophages are viruses that utilise bacterial cells as factories for their own propagation and as safe havens for their genomic material. They are capable of equipping bacteria with properties that bestow environmental advantages. They are also capable of specifically and efficiently killing bacteria.Bacteriophages are resilient in a wide diversity of environments, presumed to be as ancient as life itself, and are estimated to be the most numerous biological entities on the planet. Their overarching capacity to survive via molecular adaptation is supported by an arsenal of encoded enzymatic tools, which also enabled biotechnology. This volume includes contributions that describe bacteriophages as nanomachines, genetic engineers, and also as medicines and technologies of the future, including relevant production and process issues.",isbn:"978-1-83880-446-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-438-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-447-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73439",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"bacteriophages-perspectives-and-future",numberOfPages:142,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"7f28b4e1886882252219cac01e75b69c",bookSignature:"Renos Savva",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6910.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8438,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:20,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:28,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 10th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 1st 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 30th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 18th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 17th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"252160",title:"Dr.",name:"Renos",middleName:null,surname:"Savva",slug:"renos-savva",fullName:"Renos Savva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252160/images/system/252160.png",biography:"Renos Savva is a Senior Lecturer at Birkbeck, University of London. His research interests are in the interactions of viruses with their cellular host environments, particularly those of viral proteins with nucleic acids, and with host-encoded proteins. Dr. Savva’s research concerns the nature of viral survival mechanisms, such as viral replicative switches, evasion of host restriction factors, and the adaptation and sequence plasticity of virus-encoded proteins. Dr. Savva’s published research includes insights from the structural biology of phage-encoded inhibitors of the ubiquitous family-1 uracil-DNA glycosylase, Ung. His research also extends to questions of protein sequence plasticity, which crosses over into synthetic biology collaborations: On the one hand, how adaptable are essential phage proteins, and on the other, how interchangeable are structural components of phage from closely related genomic families.",institutionString:"Birkbeck, University of London",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Birkbeck, University of London",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"427",title:"Virology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-microbiology-virology"}],chapters:[{id:"70386",title:"Introductory Chapter: Nature’s Ancient Nanomachines and Their Synthetic Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90384",slug:"introductory-chapter-nature-s-ancient-nanomachines-and-their-synthetic-future",totalDownloads:664,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Renos Savva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70386",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70386",authors:[{id:"252160",title:"Dr.",name:"Renos",surname:"Savva",slug:"renos-savva",fullName:"Renos Savva"}],corrections:null},{id:"66740",title:"Bacteriophages: Their Structural Organisation and Function",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85484",slug:"bacteriophages-their-structural-organisation-and-function",totalDownloads:2039,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Viruses are infectious particles that exist in a huge variety of forms and infect practically all living systems: animals, plants, insects and bacteria. Viruses that infect and use bacterial resources are classified as bacteriophages (or phages) and represent the most abundant life form on Earth. A phage can be described as a specific type of nano-machine that is able to recognise its environment, find a host cell, start infection, self-assemble and safeguard its genome until the next cycle of replication is initiated. Remarkable results have been obtained by combining cryo-EM, X-ray analysis and bioinformatics in structural studies of these nano-machines. In this review we will describe results of structural studies of phages that uncover their organisation in different conformations, thus facilitating our understanding of the functional mechanisms in supramolecular assemblies and helping us understand the usage of phages in medical treatments. Currently, antibiotic resistance is an enormous challenge that we face. The tailed phages could be used in place of antibiotics due to their high specificity to host cells, but more knowledge of their organisation and function is required.",signatures:"Helen E. White and Elena V. Orlova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66740",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66740",authors:[{id:"101052",title:"Prof.",name:"Elena",surname:"Orlova",slug:"elena-orlova",fullName:"Elena Orlova"},{id:"262804",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen",surname:"White",slug:"helen-white",fullName:"Helen White"}],corrections:null},{id:"70784",title:"Biotechnology Tools Derived from the Bacteriophage/Bacteria Arms Race",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90367",slug:"biotechnology-tools-derived-from-the-bacteriophage-bacteria-arms-race",totalDownloads:837,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The long association and intense competition between bacteria and their viruses have created a fertile ground for evolution to develop numerous tools for DNA modification, assembly and degradation. Many of these tools underpin the past 50 years of molecular biology, and others show great potential in shaping the next 50 years of the field. Here, I present some of the tools that have come out of the bacteria-bacteriophage arms race and discuss some of the concepts that may shape their future use. Molecular biology remains a fast-growing area increasingly limited solely by researcher ingenuity.",signatures:"Vitor B. Pinheiro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70784",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70784",authors:[{id:"264693",title:"Dr.",name:"Vitor",surname:"Pinheiro",slug:"vitor-pinheiro",fullName:"Vitor Pinheiro"}],corrections:null},{id:"67876",title:"The Unusual Linear Plasmid Generating Systems of Prokaryotes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86882",slug:"the-unusual-linear-plasmid-generating-systems-of-prokaryotes",totalDownloads:1230,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Linear DNA is vulnerable to exonuclease degradation and suffers from genetic loss due to the end replication problem. Eukaryotes overcome these problems by locating repetitive telomere sequences at the end of each chromosome. In humans and other vertebrates this noncoding terminal sequence is repeated between hundreds and thousands of times, ensuring important genetic information is protected. In most prokaryotes, the end-replication problem is solved by utilizing circular DNA molecules as chromosomes. However, some phage and bacteria do store genetic information in linear constructs, and the ends of these structures form either invertrons or hairpin telomeres. Hairpin telomere formation is catalyzed by a protelomerase, a unique protein that modifies DNA by a two-step transesterification reaction, proceeding via a covalent protein bound intermediate. The specifics of this mechanism are largely unknown and conflicting data suggests variations occur between different systems. These proteins, and the DNA constructs they produce, have valuable applications in the biotechnology industry. They are also an essential component of some human pathogens, an increased understanding of how they operate is therefore of fundamental importance. Although this review will focus on phage encoded protelomerase, protelomerases found from Agrobacterium and Borellia will be discussed in terms of mechanism of action.",signatures:"Sophie E. Knott, Sarah A. Milsom and Paul J. Rothwell",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67876",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67876",authors:[{id:"298694",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",surname:"Rothwell",slug:"paul-rothwell",fullName:"Paul Rothwell"},{id:"298695",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sophie",surname:"Knott",slug:"sophie-knott",fullName:"Sophie Knott"},{id:"302001",title:"BSc.",name:"Sarah A",surname:"Milsom",slug:"sarah-a-milsom",fullName:"Sarah A Milsom"}],corrections:null},{id:"68334",title:"Scale-Up and Bioprocessing of Phages",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88275",slug:"scale-up-and-bioprocessing-of-phages",totalDownloads:976,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A profusion of new applications for phage technologies has been developed within the last few years, stimulating investigations into the large-scale production of different phages. Applications such as antibiotic replacement, phages as gene therapy vectors, phages as vaccines, diagnostics using filamentous phages and novel optical applications such as the phage laser may need grams to kilogrammes of phage in the future. However, many of the techniques that are used for the growth and purification of bacteriophage at small scale are not transferable to large-scale production facilities of phage in industrial processes. In this chapter, the stages of production that need to be carried out at scale are examined for the efficient large-scale fermentation of the filamentous phage M13 and the Siphoviridae phage lambda (λ). A number of parameters are discussed: the multiplicity of infection (MOI) of phage to host cells, the impact of agitation on the initial infection stages, the co-growth with phage rather than static attachment, the use of engineered host cells expressing nuclease, the optimisation of both the quantity and the physiology of the E. coli inoculum and phage precipitation methods.",signatures:"John Maxim Ward, Steven Branston, Emma Stanley and Eli Keshavarz-Moore",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68334",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68334",authors:[{id:"263913",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Ward",slug:"john-ward",fullName:"John Ward"}],corrections:null},{id:"64001",title:"Surveillance and Elimination of Bacteriophage Contamination in an Industrial Fermentation Process",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81151",slug:"surveillance-and-elimination-of-bacteriophage-contamination-in-an-industrial-fermentation-process",totalDownloads:1485,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Commercial fermentation processes are often vulnerable to bacteriophage due to the lack of genetic diversity and use of high cell density cultures. Bacteriophage infections in these fermentations can have adverse impacts on operability of the production facility and product quality and prevent recovery of valuable bioproducts in the downstream process. Prevention strategies have been developed and optimized through feedback from bacteriophage diagnostic tests, which inform improvements to process design for elimination of entry points, as well as modification of the biocatalyst to reduce or eliminate bacteriophage virulence. In this chapter, we provide case studies for successful elimination of bacteriophage virulence via host modifications, including bacteriophage binding-site modifications on the outer membrane of an Escherichia coli production host, used for commercial manufacture of 1,3-propanediol, as well as application of CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) for bacteriophage immunity. Finally, we report application of bacteriophage diagnostic methods to fully characterize and eliminate bacteriophage entry points in a commercial fermentation process.",signatures:"James A. Zahn and Mathew C. Halter",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64001",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64001",authors:[{id:"257066",title:"Ph.D.",name:"James",surname:"Zahn",slug:"james-zahn",fullName:"James Zahn"},{id:"257072",title:"Mr.",name:"Mathew",surname:"Halter",slug:"mathew-halter",fullName:"Mathew Halter"}],corrections:null},{id:"66194",title:"Targeting Peptides Derived from Phage Display for Clinical Imaging",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84281",slug:"targeting-peptides-derived-from-phage-display-for-clinical-imaging",totalDownloads:1208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Phage display is a high-throughput technology used to identify peptides or proteins with high and specific binding affinities to a target, which is usually a protein biomarker or therapeutic receptor. In general, this technique allows peptides with a particular sequence to be presented on a phage particle. Peptides derived from phage display play an important role in drug discovery, drug delivery, cancer imaging, and treatment. Phage peptides themselves can act as sole therapeutics, for example, drugs, gene therapeutic, and immunotherapeutic agents that are comprehensively described elsewhere. In this chapter, we discuss phage selection and screening procedures in detail including some modifications to reduce nonspecific binding. In addition, the rationale for discovery and utilization of phage peptides as molecular imaging probes is focused upon. Molecular imaging is a new paradigm that uses advanced imaging instruments integrated with specific molecular imaging probes. Applications include monitoring of metabolic and molecular functions, therapeutic response, and drug efficacy, as well as early cancer detection, personalized medicine, and image-guided therapy.",signatures:"Supang Khondee and Wibool Piyawattanametha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66194",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66194",authors:[{id:"70846",title:"Dr.",name:"Wibool",surname:"Piyawattanametha",slug:"wibool-piyawattanametha",fullName:"Wibool Piyawattanametha"},{id:"257847",title:"Dr.",name:"Supang",surname:"Khondee",slug:"supang-khondee",fullName:"Supang Khondee"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3505",title:"Current Issues in Molecular Virology",subtitle:"Viral Genetics and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"039c53aa204f5131f1f67d2c24e160d0",slug:"current-issues-in-molecular-virology-viral-genetics-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Victor Romanowski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3505.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"90590",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",surname:"Romanowski",slug:"victor-romanowski",fullName:"Victor Romanowski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1775",title:"Molecular Virology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2e80abf77926d0ba82ba2bfd729031b0",slug:"molecular-virology",bookSignature:"Moses P. 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Recent Advances",slug:"plant-reproductive-ecology-recent-advances",publishedDate:"March 2nd 2022",bookSignature:"Anjana Rustagi and Bharti Chaudhry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10777.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"352604",title:null,name:"Anjana",middleName:null,surname:"Rustagi",slug:"anjana-rustagi",fullName:"Anjana Rustagi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11281",leadTitle:null,title:"Early Childhood Education - Innovative Pedagogical Approaches in the Post-modern Era",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tThe importance of education and care in the early stages of life has long been debated and documented. However, in a world that faces ongoing crises and challenges, early childhood education is in a constant quest for pedagogies that respond to acute problems such as:
\r\n\r\n\ta. Environmental crises which result in food & water shortages
\r\n\tb. The growth of digital environments which can educate and empower as well as exploit and destroy (mobile learning, STEM education, tablets, etc.).
\r\n\tc. Social, racial, class, and gender-based discriminations that restrict the developmental potential and the prosperity perspectives
\r\n\td. Health hazards and illnesses such as the laters COVID-19 pandemic.
\r\n\te. Armed conflicts with casualties and displacements of populations seeking refuge
\r\n\tf. Lack of physical spaces that will support and nourish development and learning, etc.
\r\n\tEducation in the post-modern era strives to address the above issues and develop policies, curricula, methodologies, and strategies to contribute to an environmentally and socially sustainable future. It embraces multiple perspectives and worldviews and seeks to touch on inequalities and discriminations in favor of equity. In this direction, children’s s agency lies at the heart of democratic approaches. Educational processes adopt forms of interactions that actualize learning as “becoming” and place it in a continuum between past, present, and future. This book intends to feature innovative approaches that employ transformative elements (targets, methods, materials, ideas, etc.) and embrace the concept of child development as “becoming” in an ever-changing and challenging world.
\r\n\r\n\tWe invite authors to contribute original research or research review papers that present innovative approaches addressing personal and social transformation. All aspects of early childhood education will be considered, including research methodology for the early years.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-949-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-948-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-950-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"351c41dca5c8c997f15e758f2e035178",bookSignature:"Dr. Maria Ampartzaki and Associate Prof. Michail Kalogiannakis",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11281.jpg",keywords:"Early Childhood Education, Preschool, STEAM, Environmental Sustainability, Social Sciences, Social Sustainability, ICT, Digital Devices, Education for Equity, Gender Issues, Post-modern Epistemology, Social Constructivism",numberOfDownloads:65,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 16th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 14th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 12th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 2nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool\r\nEducation, University of Crete in Greece. He graduated from the Physics Department\r\nof the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University\r\nParis-7 and University Paris-5 and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5.\r\nHis research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching\r\nand learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, and games simulations.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:[{id:"81575",title:"Caring about Early Childhood Education",slug:"caring-about-early-childhood-education",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80874",title:"Postmodernist Ideas and Their Translation into a Critical Pedagogy for Young Children",slug:"postmodernist-ideas-and-their-translation-into-a-critical-pedagogy-for-young-children",totalDownloads:38,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"338161",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Wilkinson",slug:"john-wilkinson",fullName:"John Wilkinson"}]},{id:"82431",title:"Next-Generation Science and Engineering Teaching Practices in a Preschool Classroom",slug:"next-generation-science-and-engineering-teaching-practices-in-a-preschool-classroom",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6942",title:"Global Social Work",subtitle:"Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"222c8a66edfc7a4a6537af7565bcb3de",slug:"global-social-work-cutting-edge-issues-and-critical-reflections",bookSignature:"Bala Raju Nikku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6942.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263576",title:"Dr.",name:"Bala",surname:"Nikku",slug:"bala-nikku",fullName:"Bala Nikku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6926",title:"Biological Anthropology",subtitle:"Applications and Case Studies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bbb192dffd37a257febf4acfde73bb8",slug:"biological-anthropology-applications-and-case-studies",bookSignature:"Alessio Vovlas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6926.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313084",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessio",surname:"Vovlas",slug:"alessio-vovlas",fullName:"Alessio Vovlas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Meanwhile, the cost of feed grains for livestock has increased substantially in recent years [2]. Thus, there is an increasing interest in using silages as a main source of forages in ruminant’s diets, with high nutritive value as an alternative feed source. In high-producing dairy cattle, it is important to maximize digestible carbohydrate intake or increase neutral detergent fiber digestibility (NDFD) from silage because the energy needed for maintenance and milk production often exceeds the amount of energy high-producing cows can consume, particularly in early lactation [3]. One of the main factors that affect silage utilization is the proportion of its potentially digestible fiber fraction, where silage having less than 60% of total fiber content is available for digestion by the ruminant animal [4]. The first section of this chapter will discuss the most important aspects of silage fiber digestibility. The chapter starts by the importance of fiber digestibility, before considering the method used for evaluating fiber digestibility. This is followed by fiber digestion and utilization in ruminants. The chapter ends with sections on the factors that effect on fiber digestibility in silages.
\nSilages are considered the most cost-effective feed resource in ruminant nutrition. Grass and small-grain cereal silages are the main sources of dietary energy, while leguminous silages are considered important sources of protein for ruminant livestock [5]. The quality of silage is an important determining factor in dairy cow performance as the forage accounts for a large proportion of the diet about reaching from 35% up to 100% of dry matter (DM) [6]. For high-producing dairy cows, high-quality silages with lower fiber and higher fermentable concentrates are usually used to meet energy requirements. Nevertheless, inadequate dietary fiber reduces chewing activity, insalivation and rumen pH, and can cause rumen acidosis and laminitis [7]. These can depress fibrolytic microbes and milk production by increasing maintenance demands [8, 9]. National Research Council (NRC) stated that dairy rations should have a minimum of 25% neutral detergent Fiber (NDF), 18.7% of which must come from forage for adequate rumen health. Although rumen fermentation and function can cause negative impacts on dairy cattle fed rations deficient in fiber, excessive level fiber of over 44% may also have negative effects on intake and digestibility [9].
\nThe National Research Council (NRC) recommendations regarding the total NDF and forage NDF contents of dairy rations are presented in Table 1 [9]. In general, the minimum NDF contents that are recommended for dairy ration will depend on the dietary contents of NFC, a physical effectiveness of fiber, and the source of the fiber. It is well established that the fiber from forage sources could induce the salivation and cud-chewing activity than nonforage fiber sources. Consequently, the major factor for evaluating the efficiency of dietary NDF capability is NDF content in forages. It has become very important to prevent acute and subacute rumen acidosis and maintain milk fat level, evaluating the physical effective NDF (peNDF) in diets due to the importance of peNDF in maintaining the rumen pH and fiber digestion. It is well established that the amount of peNDF in the diet is dependent on the chop length of forages, dietary NDF, and forage to concentrate ration content [10]. It has been reported that peNDF intake can stimulate the chewing activity and can minimize the incidence of ruminal acidosis [11]. Many studies have examined the effects of peNDF on lactation performance [12–19]. The peNDF of feed could be calculated from the NDF content multiplied by a physical effectiveness factor (pef). The pef ranges between 0 (not effective at stimulating chewing) and 1 (100% effective at stimulating chewing). Numerous feed models such as Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System (CNCPS) presently use peNDF as an important input for the model to predict lactational performance. The forage and total mixed ration (TMR) particle size distribution recommendation using Penn state particle separator as reported by Heinrichs and Kononoff is presented in Table 2 [13].
\n19 | \n75 | \n25 | \n
18 | \n66 | \n27 | \n
17 | \n58 | \n29 | \n
16 | \n51 | \n31 | \n
15a | \n45 | \n33 | \n
Recommended minimum NDF concentration based on the proportion of NDF coming from forage sources [9].
a Not recommended because of depression of milk fat test.
Sieve size | \nType | \n||
---|---|---|---|
Corn silage | \nHaylage | \nTMR | \n|
>19.0 mm | \n5 ± 3 | \n15 ± 5 | \n5 ± 3 | \n
19.0–8.0 mm | \n55 ± 10 | \n60 ± 15 | \n40 ± 10 | \n
8.0–1.18 mm | \n40 ± 10 | \n30 ± 10 | \n40 ± 10 | \n
<1.18 mm | \n<5 | \n<5 | \n<20 | \n
Forage and TMR particle size distribution using Penn state particle separator as reported by Heinrichs and Kononoff [13].
Understanding the mechanism of fiber digestion is very important to accurately estimate the digestible energy of fiber and to improve animal performance. Fiber is digested primarily in the rumen as the result of the dynamic operation that is affected by the chemical nature of the fiber and by the passage and digestion rate of fiber within the digestive tract of the animal. The potentially digestible NDF (pdNDF) and the digestion rate (kd) vary greatly between and within different silage types [14, 17]. The passage rate of fiber (kp) is in the first place influenced by the animal, where the digestion of fiber increases along with increased retention time of feed in the rumen [15, 18]. Several models have been developed to describe the process of digestion in the rumen; some models are simple or complex. Most of these models have been developed by fractional schemes to correlate the disappearance or gas production curves with rumen digestibility of feed components, which assume that the feed component includes at least two portions: a potentially degradable fraction and an undegradable fraction. The potentially degradable portion will be degraded at a fractional rate (per hour), after a discrete lag time (h). The undegradable fraction is calculated from the longer time of incubation as proposed by Waldo et al. [19] (Figure 1). By using this model, Allen and Mertens [21] educed mathematical equations to define fiber digestibility and rumen fill. For fiber digestibility, the following equations were educed:
Schematic model of total-tract fiber digestibility. Redrawn from Waldo et al. and Jung and Allen [
Finally, the rumen fill would be estimated as the sum of the digestible (D) and indigestible (I) fiber pools in the rumen
Eq. (1) shows that digestibility is directly related to (pdNDF) and (kd), and inversely proportional (kd + kp; the rate of total fiber digestibility). Thus, as the ruminal retention time increases (1/kp), the extent of ruminal digestibility increases [22]. The fiber weight in the rumen is dependent on fiber intake per unit of time (dFINTAKE/dt), and parts that are digestible (fd), and indigestible (fi), as well as digestion rates (kd) and passage (kp). Jung and Allen ranked the factors that influence ruminal fill, and the most important element was the fiber content, followed by kp, the fraction that is indigestible, and the lowest factor was the kd [20]. The digestion kinetics of fiber can be measured in vivo using rumen evacuation technique, where cannulated animals are used for measuring the digestible and indigestible fiber pools that flow from the rumen [23]. In spite of the high precision for rumen evacuation technique to estimate rumen digestion kinetics, this technique is unwieldy for routine forage analysis. It has been proved that the use of other biological methods, that is, in vitro or in situ techniques, could give better characterization to degradation kinetics of fibrous fraction of forages. Over the last 50 years, the in vitro system has not been widely used in farm to implement analysis on forages because of its difficulty to perform in farm. This situation has changed in recent years with the use of a shorter digestion time (30 or 48 h) along with the enhancements that occurred in spectral analysis using near-infrared spectroscopies, where the laboratories were facilitated to assess the digestion of forages without the need to obtain rumen fluid. Some mathematical equations have been developed, which can use single time points like 24 or 30 h in vitro NDFD along with fixed lag time and lignin in the forages to calculate the kd rates [24].
\nIn recent times, the feeding studies have found the indigestible neutral detergent fiber (iNDF) after longer incubation time (240 h in vitro or 288 h in situ) was highly correlated with dry matter intake (DMI) and would be used to predict pdNDF [25]. Furthermore, there were sufficient data being created by commercial laboratories. Thus, the iNDF was applied as a new approach rather than using lignin × 2.4 to calculate pdNDF (CB3) and indigestible NDF (CC) using the updated CNCPS 6.5 [25]. It has been found that the model, which could accurately predict NDF digestibility, should partition NDF into iNDF and pdNDF, fractionate feed particles by their retention and passage in the rumen, using a predicted kd by an in vitro system [26]. Based on this approach, Combs developed a new method for predicting fiber digestibility; he used shorter incubation time (24, 30, and 48 h) along with iNDF (240 h) to predict kd (kdCB3) of pdNDF [27]. The CB3 kd rates derived from in vitro analysis were entered in the updated CNCPS model to calculate the ruminal fiber digestibility according to this equation; rumen degradability for pdNDF = CB3 × (kdCB3/(kdCB3 + kp). Finally, they calculated the in vitro total-tract NDFD (ivttNDFD) assuming that the intestinal digestibility of available NDF (CB3) amount escaping rumen digestion was 5%. Lopes et al. have found that in vivo total-tract NDF digestibility was highly correlated with the ivttNDFD. The regression equation to describe the relationship was described as follows: in vivo total-tract NFDF (%) = −3.62 + 1.11 × ivttNDFD (%) with
The use of high-resolution spectroscopic techniques (e.g., high-field nuclear magnetic resonance, mid-infrared, Raman spectroscopy, and pyrolysis mass spectrometry) is finding increased usage in forage assessment. These advanced technologies would provide more broad information about a primary nature [29]. A spectroscopic method such as Fourier transform infrared (FT/IR) spectroscopy has been developed as rapid, direct, nondestructive and noninvasive bioanalytical technique [29–37]. Thereby, this technique paves the way to better understand the quantity, composition, structure, and distribution of chemical constituents and functional groups in a tissue (feed and ingredients) [38–42]. Intrinsic chemical structures were found to effect on nutritive value, degradation characteristics, utilization, and availability of feed [43, 44]. Many studies have reported that AT/IR would accurately predict rumen degradability of DM, NDF, concentrations of lignin, ferulic, and coumaric acids in forage samples [45–47].
\nThe forages are diverse in its characteristics, and this uniformity results in variations in quality as an animal feed. Plant cell-wall carbohydrates are the most important components in forages that influence silage quality. There is higher complexity in the utilization of silages due to diversity among forage plants, diversity in the ruminal microorganisms, and interaction between the forage plant cell-wall carbohydrates and microorganisms [48]. Ruminants can digest and degrade plant cell-wall polysaccharides. The plant cell-wall chemistry and anatomical structure will determine the digestion characteristics of cell types [49]. The fiber fraction for the main silages is presented in Table 3.
\nForage | \n% DM | \nADF | \nNDF | \nHemicellulose | \nLignin | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Legume silage | \n37 | \n39 | \n47 | \n8.9 | \n7.7 | \n
30–43 | \n33–44 | \n40–55 | \n4.1–13.6 | \n5.3–10.0 | \n|
MM legume silagea | \n35 | \n39 | \n52 | \n13.4 | \n6.8 | \n
27–42 | \n35–42 | \n45–59 | \n7.8–18.9 | \n5.4–8.3 | \n|
MM grass silage | \n36 | \n39 | \n56 | \n17 | \n6.9 | \n
28–45 | \n35–44 | \n50–63 | \n22 | \n4.7–9.0 | \n|
Grass silage | \n31 | \n41 | \n62 | \n21 | \n6.4 | \n
21–41 | \n37–44 | \n55–68 | \n15–27 | \n4.9–7.8 | \n|
Corn silage | \n33 | \n26 | \n45 | \n19 | \n2.8 | \n
25–40 | \n22–30 | \n38–51 | \n15–23 | \n2.2–3.5 | \n|
Winter cereals | \n29 | \n31 | \n52 | \n21 | \n4.3 | \n
\n | 35 | \n39 | \n59 | \n20 | \n6.3 | \n
Fiber fraction for NDF concentrations based on the proportion of NDF derived from forage sources
aMM legume refers to mixed mainly legume forage; MM grass refers to mixed mainly grass forage.
The main groups of plant cell-wall carbohydrates are hemicelluloses and cellulose. Cellulose is a water-insoluble β-glucan composed of a linear molecule of d-anhydroglucopyranose residues linked by a β-(1→4) bond. In contrary to cellulose, hemicellulose has various groups of polymers that are characterized with the heterogeneous composition. Xylan is the main component of hemicellulose and compromises about 30–35% of the cell-wall material of annual plants. The main chain of xylan is composed of 1,4-β-linked d-xylopyranose units [50, 51].
\nThe collaborative activity of the cellulolytic and noncellulolytic microorganisms in the rumen is critical in fiber digestion [52]. Rumen cell-wall degradation initiated by the attachment of rumen microbes to fiber and the bacterial species specialized to start this attachment/colonization process are the cellulolytic species
Lignin is an indigestible polymer in plants that plays an important role in the structural integrity of plant tissue. Although lignin comprises little of the total structural carbohydrate system in plants, it has been recognized to exert the negative effect on cell-wall polysaccharide digestibility by coating the plant cell-wall polysaccharides from enzymatic hydrolysis [55]. Lignin arises from an enzyme-initiated dehydrogenative polymerization of three originators: p-coumaryl alcohols, coniferyl, and sinapyl. The phenylpropanoid metabolism and shikimic acid pathway lead to the synthesis of lignin intermediates like p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and diferulic acid [56], which are converted into coniferyl, sinapyl, and p-coumaryl alcohols and ultimately to guaiacyl, syringyl, or p-hydroxyphenyl lignin, respectively [55].
\nWith the maturation of forage cell walls, the guaiacyl-type lignin changes to lignin-rich syringyl units, and the digestibility of mature cell walls decreased. Taboada et al. found that guaiacyl and syringyl have negative correlation with organic matter or dry matter digestibility in ruminants fed on silages. They concluded that guaiacyl and syringyl could be used as predictors of digestibility than total lignin content in silage [57].
\nThe brown midrib (BMR) mutation in annual C4 grasses such as corn and sorghum results in both a reduction in lignin concentration and a shift in lignin composition to a more guaiacyl-rich polymer [20]. Jung and Deetz have suggested that the improved digestibility of cell walls in BMR mutants is a result of both the reduced lignin concentration and the reduction in syringyl lignin content [58].
\nCross-linking of lignin to cell-wall polysaccharides has been reported as additional mechanisms limiting fiber digestibility [20]. In grasses, ferulate and p-coumarate molecules are esterified to arabinoxylans, and some of p-coumarates are the ester or covalent linked to lignin [59]. As forages mature and lignin concentrations increase, ferulates that were esterified to arabinoxylan become etherified to lignin via cross-links between lignin and the cell-wall polysaccharides [60]. The degree of lignin/arabinoxylan cross-linking by ferulates negatively influences cell-wall digestibility to the polysaccharides, which prevents physical access by hydrolytic microbial enzymes to polysaccharides [49]. Model studies utilizing isolated cellulose and xylans, and forage NDF to which phenolic acids have been synthetically esterified, obviously demonstrated that the presence of these phenolic esters negatively effects on cell-wall degradability [61]. However, the reduction in digestibility caused by esterified ferulic acid only limits the degradation rate of polysaccharide, rather than extent, because fungi and ruminal bacteria possess phenolic acid esterases to ultimately remove these impediments to cell-wall digestion [62].
\nRuminal digestibility of forage neutral detergent fiber can range from less than 25% to over 75% for different forage types [9]. Most research with brown midrib mutant corn silage found that lactating dairy cows will consume more DM and produce more milk when fed corn silages that have greater NDFD [63–65]. Oba and Allen found a relationship between NDFD and animal performance and they reported that a 1-unit increase in forage NDFD after 30 h of in vitro incubation was associated with increases of 0.17 kg d−1 of dry matter intake, 0.23 kg d−1 of milk yield, and 0.25 kg d−1 of 4.0% fat-corrected milk [66]. Using high-quality silage in dairy cattle rations could reduce physical rumen fill, allow cattle to consume more feed, and produce more milk [63]. There are many factors that would influence the quality of silage. Such factors include silage species, silage varieties, stage of harvest, cutting height, growing conditions, silage additives, and enzymes.
\nThe most practical approach for increasing NDFD is based on increasing the amount of pdNDF in forages. Grass silages often have a greater proportion of pdNDF to indigestible NDF (iNDF) and higher in NDFD than legume silages, but the rate of digestion of legume pdNDF is frequently faster and could increase the total amount of NDF digested in vivo [63, 64]. The chemical and structural features have been identified, which may reduce the fiber digestion. Of these, lignin is the most notably reported [67]. Lignin is supposed to constrain ruminal fiber digestion, which acts as a physical barrier. The involvement of cross-linking of lignin to polysaccharides by ferulate linkages as an additional factor that inhibits the digestion of grass fibers has been identified [20]. However, a similar lignin cross-linking to fiber polysaccharides in legumes has not yet determined. There is an important role for plant anatomy on fiber digestibility [68]. The vascular tissue, sclerenchyma, and stem epidermis are degraded at a slower rate in rumen where they contain a higher amount of indigestible or highly lignified components. Leaf blades C4 grasses are typically less digestible than those in C3 grasses due to the existence of mesophyll cells. In C3 species, stem tissue cell such as parenchyma bundle sheath, mesophyll, phloem, and epidermal cells are totally degraded, but these tissues are partially or slowly degraded in C4 species. In an earlier study by Akin and Burdick, they found that C4 grasses are less digestible than C3 species due to the existence of vascular tissue and parenchyma bundle sheath cells in larger amounts than in C3 grasses [69].
\n\n\n\nThe total-tract digestibility of whole-crop cereals silage, legumes, and maize silage is often lower than for grass silage. However, the lower digestibility is mostly alleviated by higher feed intake such that energy intake is maintained [70]. Many studies have shown that the partial replacement of grass silage with whole-crop cereals may not have a negative impact on milk production in cows [71]. However, the effects of barley silage on DMI have been inconsistent, which are probably attributable to differences in the quality of the forages between studies. For example, Ahvenjärvi et al. noted a reduction in fiber digestibility when grass silage was replaced with whole-crop barley silage. This reduction in NDFD was related to a lesser pdNDF concentration in the rumen and higher iNDF pool size of barley silage compared with that of grass silage [70].
\nWhole-crop cereals species also varies in their quality and digestibility, for example, barley and oat silages when harvested at the same maturity stage (milk to soft dough stage) have found to enhance the feed intake and average daily gain in heifers when compared with triticale silage [72]. Furthermore, dairy cows that fed on barley silage have had higher intake than cows fed on oat silage when harvested at the maturity stage (early to a mid-dough stage of maturity). Such difference in feed intake is a consequence of variation in chemical composition and ear:stalk ratio of whole-crop cereals. Barley has more starch than oats and triticale because of the higher ear:stalk ratio in barley. Since most fibers exist in plant stalk, barley contains a lower fiber than oats and triticale when they are harvested at the stage of maturity. The higher starch resulted in a lower fiber content in barley silage, and hence barley can enhance the OM digestion when compared with oats and triticale silages when fed to dairy cows [72].
\nAnother potential method to increase pdNDF is by the use of genetic mutations in forage crops that reduce iNDF and increase the pdNDF fraction of the plant. The brown midrib mutation mutants were discovered for the first time at the University of Minnesota in 1924; the BMR genes have been found in sorghum, Sudan grass, millet, and corn. The BMR corn forage has about 25% less lignin and lower cross-linkages with lignin. Corn silage with the brown midrib mutation has a higher NDFD (34% less lignin and had 19% higher IVNDFD than conventional corn silage) [73–75]. Several studies confirmed the positive effect of feeding BMR corn on DMI and productivity of dairy cattle [76, 77], but responses have not been consistent in all experiments [78]. Ivan et al. compared corn silage with low and high cell-wall content on milk production, and reported that the hybrid with high cell-wall content had greater IVNDFD, increasing DMI and milk yield [79]. Data collected from a Journal of Dairy Science (number of treatments
Mycogen corn silage | \n|
Cargill (brown midrib corn silage) | \n|
Normal corn silage | \n|
Brown midrib corn silage | \n|
Conventional corn silage | \n|
Brown midrib corn silage | \n|
Dual-purpose corn silage | \n|
Brown midrib corn silage | \n|
Corn silage with lower cell-wall content | \n|
Corn silage with higher cell-wall content | \n|
Control corn silage | \n|
Brown midrib corn silage | \n|
Control corn silage | \n|
Brown midrib corn silage | \n|
Control corn silage | \n|
Brown midrib corn silage | \n|
Dual-purpose corn hybrid | \n|
Leafy corn silage hybrid | \n|
Dual-purpose corn silage | \n|
High fiber corn silage | \n|
Dual-purpose corn silage | \n|
\n | Brown midrib corn silage | \n
Effects of silage varieties with enhanced 30-h IVNDFD on milk yield. Data have been taken from a number of publications in Journal of Dairy Science (JDS from 1999 to 2010).
aCorrelation analysis between the two variables was performed using the CORR procedure of SAS with the Pearson correlation method, because the variable data are normally distributed. Average of milk yield (38.2 ± 4.360), average of IVNDFD (50.39 ± 9.162).
Relationship between in vitro NDFD (30 h) and milk yield with the prediction equation.
Relationship between in vitro NDFD (30 h) and DMI with the prediction equation.
Fiber digestibility is largely dependent on plant maturity. The effect of harvest maturity of whole-crop annual forages is more variable concerning fiber content. Rosser et al. reported a reduction in NDF content by advancing the maturity of barley and oat forage from head elongation to fully ripe, with a reduction in NDF content from 13.8 to 9.6% [86, 87]. By contrast, the NDF concentration of whole-crop barley was not changed during the milk and soft dough stages, but it increased somewhat between the soft and hard dough stages while this change was not observed in whole-crop oat forage [88]. Bolsen and Berger reported a reduction in total-tract DM digestibility of barley silage at milk stage, compared to advanced, mature stage due to the increasing grain content [89]. By contrast, Rustas et al. found no changes in DM or NDF digestibilities for wheat forage ensiled at milk and dough stages. However, the response regarding NDF digestibility varied for barley forage that was ensiled at milk and dough stages depending on location [89].
\nWith advancing the maturity of grasses silage, their digestibility dramatically drops because the tensile strength of stems increases to support the weight of the plant, besides the leaf-to-stem ratio declines [15, 18]. In grass silage, organic matter digestibility dropped from 79% in early growth to 73% in late growth, and NDFD decreased from 73% in early growth to 66% when the plant maturity reached late growth stage. In legumes, NDFD is less than the grasses or small grains during the early vegetative stage of growth but drops slower with advancing maturity.
\nIn corn silage, the stage of maturity has an impact on fiber fraction. The fibrous content has been observed to decline with increasing maturity in whole-corn plants, but no significant change in lignin concentration from early dent to black layer [90]. Coors et al. suggested the observed drop in fiber concentration with increasing maturity to the dilution effect with increasing percentage of grain as the corn plant matures [91]. Fiber concentration of corn stover increases as maturity increases [92, 93].
\nIncreasing the height of cutting, which results in leaving a larger proportion of less digestible stalk in the field, may increase the feeding value of silage for lactating dairy cows. It has been reported that corn silage digestibility was enhanced at cutting heights of 45–50 cm. but this at the expense of DM yield [94, 95]. Kruczyńska et al. reported a reduction in hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin and greater effective degradability of silage that was cut at 50 versus 10 cm [96]. Neylon and Kung examined the effects of corn plant-cutting height and maturity on silage nutrient value. Plants were cut at 12.7 and 45.7 cm as well as harvested between one-third and two-third milk line and then again at black layer [97, 98]. As anticipated, NDF tended to be less in silages that were cut higher, and ADF content decreased significantly. At later maturity, the lignin contents were not influenced by increasing cutting height. The cutting height only influenced in vitro NDF digestibility, with the higher cut being more digestible. By increasing the cutting height of corn silage, the nutritive value was increased by decreasing NDF, ADF, and acid detergent lignin concentration and increasing the starch concentration. They also found that as corn plants were cut higher, there was a tendency for increased milk production and increased feed efficiency in dairy cows. Kung et al. also observed a decrease in fiber fraction concentrations, as well as an increase in starch, and crude protein concentrations as cutting height, was increased [97, 98]. These observations are all logical, because when cutting height is increased, more lignified and less digestible stems are left in the field while increasing the concentration of more digestible leaves and kernels.
\nIt is well established that the nitrogen fertilization can increase the protein content and forage yield and decrease the fiber content. Campos et al. reported a reduction in hemicellulose content and arabinose proportion of the fiber fraction in Milenio grass by N fertilization. They also found that the fertilization increased fiber digestibility due to increase in (arabinose + glucose):xylose ratio [99].
\nEnvironmental temperature has a significant impact on forage digestibility. The forages grown under higher environmental temperature had the higher amount of lignin [100]. Altering the time of seeding can shift the stage of maturity when plants are exposed to greater ambient temperature, moisture availability, and photoperiod intensity. Chow et al. found that the exposure of forages to a lower environmental temperature during heading stage increased IVNDFD [101].
\nSilage inoculants can be added to the freshly harvested forages to obtain good-quality silage. The first studies on adding inoculants for improving the quality of silage used the inoculants that contain homolactic bacteria (LAB) such as
The first and second generation of inoculants focused only on improving the silage stability without addressing improving the nutrient availability by animals. The main reason for the limited effect in the first and second generation was the inoculants did not produce enzymes that digest the plant cell walls. Thus, the third-generation silage was introduced more recently, through feeding silage inoculated with lactic acid bacteria with ferulic acid esterases activity. Previous studies by Yu et al. have shown that
There is increasing interest in using exogenous enzymes as a cost-effective method for improving animal productivity. The main enzyme products marketed for livestock are derived mainly from only four bacterial (
\n | |||
---|---|---|---|
\n | \n|||
DMI (kg/day) | \n7.13 | \n7.05 | \n0.40 | \n
Average daily gain (kg) | \n1.43 | \n1.41 | \n0.70 | \n
Gain: feed DM ratio | \n0.20 | \n0.20 | \n0.65 | \n
\n | \n|||
DMI (kg/day) | \n7.6 | \n7.1 | \n0.02 | \n
Average daily gain (kg) | \n1.29 | \n1.31 | \n065 | \n
Gain: feed DM ratio | \n0.17 | \n0.19 | \n0.02 | \n
Effects of silage inoculants on feedlot steers performance fed whole-crop barley silage diets inoculated or uninoculated using first and third generation.
Exogenous feed enzymes with fibrolytic activities have been reported to enhance fiber digestion in the rumen [121, 122]. Most of the commercial products that have been investigated in dairy cows have had cellulases and xylanases activates, with proteases and amylases being tested in a minor number of studies. Table 5 showed some studies that have been performed in dairy cows fed TMR supplemented with enzymes that were characterized by cellulase and/or xylanase activities. It appeared that the preparations of the current enzyme do not introduce novel enzyme activity into the rumen as they finally increase only the rate and not the extent of digestion of the cell wall [123, 124]. Beauchemin et al. reported that DMI would increase by 1.0 ± 1.3 kg/d and milk yield by 1.1 ± 1.5 kg/d with the addition of fibrolytic exogenous enzymes to dairy cow diets [125]. It is evident from the dispersion of data from the mean of the responses to the addition of enzymes fibrolytic to ruminant diets were fluctuating. Therefore, it not surprising that the use of enzyme fibrolytic products in the dairy commercial operations is not built broadly.
\n\nIt is well established that the application of the exogenous enzymes before feeding is more effective when it is applied as a liquid form than as a powder. Meanwhile, spraying enzymes on the wet feed such as silage seems to be more effective than on dry feed such as hay and grain, where the wet feed is easier for enzymes to decompose the complex carbohydrates from polymers. This hydrolysis may enhance and simplify the microbial attachment, and hence reduce the lag time required for microbial colonization [126].
\nIn high-producing dairy cattle, the stage of lactation has an important effect on the efficiency of enzyme additives. For instance, Schingoethe et al. found that the cows in early lactation responded to enzyme supplementation, but they did not detect any effect for enzymes on the cows in mid-lactation [127]. Differences in the response of early- and mid-lactation cows to enzyme supplementation were also reported in other studies [128, 129].
\nEnzymes that bind to feed seem to be more active, perhaps due to better resistance to proteolytic inhibition in the rumen. In general, the rumen ecosystem was found to have a minor effect on exogenous enzymes as a result of glycosylation [130]. It has also been found that nonglycosylated enzymes could sustain in the rumen and resist the proteolytic activity by ruminal microbiota, but this will be dependent on microbial sources of enzymes [131].
\nDue to the occurrence of internal fibrolytic enzymes yielded from the rumen bacteria, it is not easy in many cases to define the potential of exogenous enzymes to directly digest carbohydrates alone [132]. There is a synergy between the internal ruminal fibrolytic enzymes and the exogenous enzymes, where exogenous enzymes can enhance the microbial attachment to the forage fiber, here then improving fiber digestibility [133], but the mechanism by which this occurs is not known. It has been found that increasing amount of exogenous enzymes may suppress the ruminal bacteria that digest the fiber, fiber, for example, White et al. [134]. found the lower amount of exogenous enzymes enhanced the rumen bacteria attachment to fiber, in contrast, increase a number of enzymes decrease the microbial activity where exogenous enzymes have competed with ruminal bacteria enzymes for cellulose hydrogen binding sites on forage fiber. Thus, it is recommended to complement the rumen bacterial enzymes with the exogenous enzymes.
\nSilage contains a high content of neutral detergent fiber. Even under optimum conditions, NDF digestibility in the rumen is frequently less than 50%. Improving ruminal fiber degradability could allow cattle to consume more feed and hence increase milk yield. Selecting forage with higher NDFD could be a practical approach to increasing digestible carbohydrate and feed intake in dairy cattle. Ferulic acid-producing bacteria that are targeted at breaking the bonds between ferulic acid and hemicellulose could be the key to increasing fiber digestibility in ruminants. Addition of enzymes to feeds would increase NDFD. However, responses to feed enzymes are expected to be greatest in situations where digestible energy is the first limiting nutrient in the diet.
\nThe Ministry of Agriculture Strategic Feed Research Chair (PY) research programs have been supported by grants from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC-Individual Discovery Grants and CRD grants), Saskatchewan Agricultural Development Fund (ADF), Ministry of Agriculture Strategic Feed Research Chair Program, Western Grain Research Foundation (WGRF), Saskatchewan Forage Network, SaskPulse, SaskCanola, SaskMilk, etc.
\nElectrophysiological signal recordings are used in medicine for research, clinical diagnosis and follow-up of diseases as well as for providing guidance to their treatment. For example; “Electrocardiogram (ECG)” is used daily as inpatient and as outpatient, it is the most basic electrophysiological signal recording in which five waves (P, Q , R, S, and T) are interpreted. When all monitorization activities performed at the bedside of the patient are taken into consideration, recording electrophysiological signals with well-calibrated equipment and correct interpretation of the obtained results by doctors and healthcare staff seems to be at the crossroads of correct diagnosis, follow-up and treatment. In sleep monitorization, electrophysiological signal recordings are performed by multiple electrodes and provide us with important clinical information. In fact, monitoring wakefulness as much as sleep is quite important in clinical practice; it helps to establish a correct diagnosis in clinical practice and sometimes provides the opportunity to have access to unsuspected information. If PSG could be used as frequently as ECG by well-trained medical doctors and healthcare personnel in sleep medicine, sleep health and sleep disorders of the individuals in the society could be understood much better. Therefore, health could be evaluated not only in wakefulness but also in sleep leading to a continuum. During its preliminary years, sleep related studies attracted the attention of physiologists and as time passed clinical information regarding sleep disorders increased significantly and the possibility to treat all these diseases brought the attention of clinicians into this field. For human physiology and especially for the central nervous system to continue its functioning; there needs to be a healthy interaction and an organism specific balance between wakefulness and sleep cycles. Sleep is a physiological need; a state where the response of the brain to environmental stimuli has stopped reversibly. The insufficiency or absence of this need negatively influences the interactions in the neuronal circuits and pathways that are responsible for the wakefulness of the brain. It is very well known that many functions of the organism change during sleep and different physiological mechanisms come into play during NREM and REM sleep. Diseases also show changes during sleep and during NREM and REM phases. Electrophysiological studies could assist in the understanding of basic mechanisms in neurological sciences. Electrophysiological methods and PSG that are geared to understand the nights as well as the days aim at not only establishing correct diagnosis and delineating pathophysiological mechanisms but also engaging in innovation and developing novel diagnostic and therapeutic methods.
Sleep is a physiological and behavioral process that an individual requires to carry out his daily functions. This process is completed in a regular and continuous manner every night. As a part of biological rhythm, human brain has a healthy functioning by differentiating dark and day hours of the day. From controlling hormone levels to muscle tone, from regulating pace of breathing to contents of our thought; sleep influences all bodily and mental functions. It is not surprising that sleep can make these changes happen in the body because sleep causes significant changes in the electrical activity of the brain as a whole [1]. Sleep characterizes itself by not responding to one’s surroundings and by drifting away from perception; yet it is a reversible behavior. During 1940–1950, physiologists believed that sleep was initiated as a result of tiredness that developed during the day and by a slowing down in the activation of the fore brain from weakening in the activation of the reticular activating system. Later, based on transection studies, brain stem was shown to be responsible for generating sleep especially studies in cats; where total sections performed on pontine tegmentum induce sleeplessness. Physiologist Nathaniel Kleitman was working at Chicago University and he discovered REM sleep together with his colleague Dement in 1959 leading to a revolution in the field of sleep medicine. Two colleagues demonstrated the nature of sleep and the relation of eye movements with sleep by recording spontaneous whole night sleep. During their observations, it was understood for the first time that sleep consisted of 90–120 minutes cycles, it first got deep and then became superficial, and that during this superficial stage rapid eye movements appeared and then sleep deepened once again. Through the same series of observations it was found that, during the first half of the night deep sleep was more frequent and that REM sleep constituted 20–25% of the total length of the sleep [2, 3]. Sleep has an important function in an individual and sleep deprivation for a couple of days can hinder an individual’s cognitive and physical performance, general productivity and health. The vital role of sleep on homeostasis can be clearly demonstrated by the possible death of rats who suffer from sleep deprivation for 2–3 weeks. Despite the obvious importance of sleep, we still have limited information about why it is an obligatory part of life. Sleep has two main types of physiological effects: First, its effect on the nervous system itself and second its effects on other functional systems of the body. There is no doubt that the effects on the nervous system are important. Long lasting wakefulness generally leads to progressive impairments of thought processes and even to abnormal behavioral activities (thoughts are blurred, as the duration of wakefulness lengthens irritability and psychosis ensues). Therefore, sleep is considered to protect the normal order of brain activity by different means and to preserve the normal “balance” between the different functions of the central nervous system [4, 14].
In the regulation of wakefulness and sleep brain stem, hypothalamus, basal fore brain and their neurotransmitters all play a role. When we analyze
Sleep is a complex mix of physiological and behavioral processes. Typically, sleep takes place while the individual is in a horizontal position, immobile with closed eyes and when all other indicators point out to sleep. There are two distinct stages of sleep: The one with non-rapid eye movements (NREM) and the one with rapid eye movements (REM). These stages are differentiated from one another and from wakefulness with clear margins. NREM sleep is classically divided into three stages based on EEG. EEG patterns usually consist of a mixture of synchronous sleep spindles, regular waves like K-complexes and high voltage slow waves. Based on the depth of sleep, there are three NREM stages, during the first two stages, wake-up thresholds are generally low and during the third stage it is at its highest or a body that can move and for a brain that can regulate, NREM sleep is a relatively inactive state going together with minimal and fragmental activity. On the other hand, during REM stage, the body is immobile because of muscular atonia, in EEG shows activation and episodic rapid eye movements can be observed. Sleep cycle starts with NREM (calm, synchronized sleep, deep wave sleep); nearly every 90 minutes NREM and REM (mobile, desynchronized, paradoxical sleep) follow one another. Slow wave sleep dominates the first one third of the night and is related to the duration of wakefulness before sleep. REM sleep dominates the last one-third portion of the night and is related to the circadian rhythm. First stage of sleep, namely NREM-1 lasts only for a couple of minutes after the initiation of sleep and it goes together with low wake-up threshold and provides the transition from wakefulness to sleep. NREM-2 stage of sleep is identified by the presence of sleep spindles and K-complexes on EEG. To wake-up, there needs to be a more intense stimulus during NREM-2 compared to NREM-1. If stimuli given during NREM-1 are administered during NREM-2, there is no arousal; but K-complexes will appear. NREM-2 gradually progresses to high voltage slow activity and transforms into NREM-3 stage. In a young healthy individual, the percentage of slow waves in sleep pattern should be 20–50%. NREM-REM cycles of sleep follow throughout the night by repetitions. First NREM-REM cycle lasts about 70–100 minutes, the second and further cycles last around 90–120 minutes. In young adults, during the first one third of the night deep sleep is predominantly seen during NREM stage, whereas during the last one-third portion of the night REM sleep dominates. Short wake-up periods usually happen when shifting to REM sleep [10, 11].
During wakefulness electroencephalogram (EEG) reflects an active cerebral cortex engaged in perception and cognitive functions that shows relatively low voltage, high frequency and rapid activity. The discharge by a single neuron or a single nerve fiber can never be recorded from the scalp surface. Only when thousands even millions of neurons or fibers are simultaneously fired, electrical potentials pertaining to a single neuron or a single fiber can be recorded as this much of an electrical potential would suffice to make such a measurement from scalp surface [1]. When eyes are closed, several neurons show synchronous discharges at a frequency of 12 per second constituting alpha waves. When the eyes are opened afterwards, the activity of the brain increases to a greater degree; but the synchronicity of the signals decrease which leads to the canceling out of the brain waves. As a result of this, weak waves of higher but irregular frequency which are called beta waves appear. If the cortex does not have any connection with the thalamus, then alpha waves are not generated. Stimulation of non-specific reticular nuclei that surround thalamus and stimulation of diffuse nuclei that are located inside the thalamus result in the generation of waves in the thalamocortical system with a frequency of 8–13 per second which is the natural frequency for alpha waves. That is why it is possible that alpha waves appear from the spontaneous negative feedback impulses in the diffuse thalamocortical system that also includes brain stem activating system. Delta waves include all the waves in EEG that have a frequency of less than 3–5 per second. They appear during very deep sleep, they also appear in the experimental animal studies where cortex has been separated from the thalamus with a subcortical section. Therefore, delta waves can appear in the cortex independent of the activities in the lower parts of the brain. Sleep spindles are produced by the thalamus. They appear as 12–15 Hz oscillations in between slow waves during NREM sleep in human EEGs. The production mechanism of these oscillations is related to the degree of hyperpolarization in thalamocortical cells. While shifting from wakefulness to sleep, the membrane potentials of thalamocortical cells are exposed to a progressive hyperpolarization, thus synaptic responsiveness decreases and sensory information transfer is prevented. When a sufficient level of hyperpolarization is achieved, we start seeing rhythmic bursting in nucleus reticularis neurons belonging to thalamus at a frequency interval which is in correlation with sleep spindle. Furthermore, slow wave oscillations due to membrane hyperpolarization also take place. It is accepted that sleep homeostasis is significantly affected by the size and characteristics of the sleep spindles that are formed [11, 12, 13, 14].
“Polysomnography” “PSG” is the recording of sleep via electrophysiological signals. Sleep recordings that appear on a sheet of paper or on a computer screen are called “Polysomnogram”. Throughout one night electrophysiological signals recorded during wakefulness and sleep are as follows: “Electroencephalogram (EEG), electromyogram (EMG; jaw, arm and leg), electrooculogram (EOG), electrocardiogram (ECG), snoring, oro-nasal air flow (L/s) (liter/second) chest and abdomen movements (respiratory effort recordings), O2 saturation, and body position and real time-video-image recordings”. “Penile tumescence, gastroesophageal reflux and blood pressure” are other electrophysiological signals that are recorded, despite not being performed for all patients. Polysomnography is the procedure where different physiological or pathophysiological parameters are recorded during sleep for six or more hours, evaluation of these by a medical doctor and generation of a report (Figure 1).
Examination of a polysomnogram by a medical doctor.
Polysomnography is performed for two main purposes: (1) Understanding physiological (normal) sleep and meanwhile demonstrating the changes that take place in the organism (for example heart rate changes can be analyzed) (2) Identification of abnormal events that take place during sleep; diagnosis of different sleep disturbances, guide in their treatments. PSG starts by explaining the procedure to the patient in great detail. The patient should understand that there would not be any pain involved with the procedure, that no medications would be used. The patients are informed that their natural sleep will be recorded through superficial electrodes to be placed on their bodies. The patients should be reminded that they would not be spending the night by themselves, and that a technician would be present to follow the process from a monitor. After the patient puts on his sleepwear, electrodes are placed for an overnight sleep test and calibration process is initiated. First, the calibration of PSG equipment is made. This is performed before the electrodes are placed. Afterwards the electrodes are calibrated. This is done after the electrodes are placed in the electrode box. Lastly, physiological calibration is performed. This calibration is performed via the electrodes that transmit physiological changes through EEG, EOG, and EMG, leg movements, chest and abdomen movements. The PSG records of electrophysiological signals features are as follows (Figure 2):
The PSG records of electrophysiological signals.
Scoring of sleep corresponds to staging of sleep. For the staging of sleep polysomnography recordings are separated into 30 second-long intervals (epoch); each epoch is scored with a sleep stage. Sleep stages are as follows: “Stage N1 (or NREM1), Stage N2 (or nREM2), Stage N3 (or NREM3), Stage R (REM), Stage W (wakefulness)”. Each 30 second interval needs to match with one of these stages. Three main electrophysiological signals are used when sleep stages are identified: “EEG, EMG, EOG”. There three parameters are evaluated for each epoch and one sleep stage is matched with each 30 second interval. There are certain rules to be respected when staging of sleep is performed:
Stage-N1.
Stage-N2.
Stage-N3.
REM sleep.
American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) has published the rules for scoring sleep, sleep associated events as well as respiratory events. Based on these rules, abnormal respiratory occurrences that are observed during sleep are “apnea, hypopnea, arousal associated with respiratory effort, hypoventilation and Cheyne-Stokes breathing”. Electrophysiological signal recordings that are required for interpreting respiratory problems in PSG are: “O2 saturation, nasal/oronasal air flow (nasal cannula, thermistor), thoracic, abdominal respiratory effort, EEG recordings (absolutely required to identify arousal), body position, tracheal microphone, ECG, leg EMG recordings”. To detect respiratory effort the following methods are used: (1)
The first step in the evaluation of a patient with a sleep disorder is to identify the main symptom. A detailed history of the sleep and wakefulness cycle constitutes the second step. This is followed by the medical history of the patient, a list of previously used medications, family history, detailed information about school, work, family and social life and a physical exam of bodily systems. Relevant laboratory tests are performed for differential diagnosis. PSG establishes the definitive diagnosis. Despite developments in the field of sleep medicine, we see that neither the society nor the physicians are adequately informed about sleep and sleep disturbances. However, diseases associated with sleep are frequent in the population and can have significant consequences: they can negatively influence the individual’s “work or school success, social life, marriage and other relationships as well as leading to occupational and traffic accidents. Sleep disturbances can hinder the cognitive functions of an individual and can increase the risk of having psychiatric and other system related diseases. Sleep apnea syndrome has a role in the etiology of severe diseases namely hypertension, myocardial infarction, heart failure, stroke and diabetes. Sleep deprivation can result in an increase in the number of seizures in a patient with epilepsy. Complaints of patients with diseases of other systems can be related to sleep disorders: in a patient having a follow-up with a Holter recording for hypertension, the reason behind an increase in blood pressure during sleep can be sleep apnea syndrome. Frequent arousals during the night, chest pain, not being able to climb the stairs during the day, tiredness, complaints about sleepiness are evaluated as angina by cardiologists and angiograms are performed. However, a PSG to be performed on this patient can establish the correct diagnosis of central apnea syndrome. In a patient with goiter disease, during an overnight sleep test, it is possible to diagnose sinusal bradycardia. Likewise, patients having severe OSAS can have predominant depression symptoms and can therefore admit to psychiatry outpatient departments. Children admitting to pediatric neurology outpatient departments with sleep episodes are valuated multidimensionally and then treated for epilepsy. However, if these children were to undergo PSG and MSLT (multiple sleep latency test), correct diagnoses of underlying sleep apnea syndrome, central hypersomnia and narcolepsy could have been established.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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Developing nations are a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialised and have lower per capita income levels than developed countries. This chapter will discuss clean water for drinking water purposes. Pollution concerns of water in developing countries will be categorised in terms of physical, chemical and biological pollutants such as turbidity, organic matter and bacteria. Natural and anthropogenic pollution concerns linking with seasonal factors will be outlined. The multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment will be discussed. Abstraction points used will be researched. Water treatment systems, medium- to small-scale approaches, will be discussed. The processes involved in removing the contaminants including physical processes such as sedimentation, filtration such as slow-sand filtration, coagulation and flocculation, and disinfectant processes such as chlorination will be reviewed. Other important methods including solar disinfection, hybrid filtration methods and arsenic removal technologies using innovative solid phase materials will be included in this chapter. Rainwater harvesting technologies are reviewed. Safe storage options for treated water are outlined. Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas will be outlined.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Josephine Treacy",authors:[{id:"238173",title:"Dr.",name:"Josephine",middleName:null,surname:"Treacy",slug:"josephine-treacy",fullName:"Josephine Treacy"}]},{id:"44219",doi:"10.5772/54973",title:"Disaster Management Discourse in Bangladesh: A Shift from Post-Event Response to the Preparedness and Mitigation Approach Through Institutional Partnerships",slug:"disaster-management-discourse-in-bangladesh-a-shift-from-post-event-response-to-the-preparedness-and",totalDownloads:4124,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"C. 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Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. The major advantages indicated in the articles are “Learning/Academic Achievement,” “Motivation,” and “Attitude”.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Rabia M. 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Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2328,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Abílio",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"52475",title:"Teenage Pregnancies: A Worldwide Social and Medical Problem",slug:"teenage-pregnancies-a-worldwide-social-and-medical-problem",totalDownloads:8293,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood are a cause for concern worldwide. From a historical point of view, teenage pregnancies are nothing new. For much of human history, it was absolutely common that girls married during their late adolescence and experienced first birth during their second decade of life. This kind of reproductive behavior was socially desired and considered as normal. Nowadays, however, the prevention of teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood is a priority for public health in nearly all developed and increasingly in developing countries. For a long time, teenage pregnancies were associated with severe medical problems; however, most of data supporting this viewpoint have been collected some decades ago and reflect mainly the situation of per se socially disadvantaged teenage mothers. According to more recent studies, teenage pregnancies are not per se risky ones. A clear risk group are extremely young teenage mothers (younger than 15 years) who are confronted with various medical risks, such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and small for gestational age newborns but also marked social disadvantage, such as poverty, unemployment, low educational level, and single parenting. In the present study, the prevalence and outcome of teenage pregnancies in Austria are focused on.",book:{id:"5392",slug:"an-analysis-of-contemporary-social-welfare-issues",title:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues",fullTitle:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues"},signatures:"Sylvia Kirchengast",authors:[{id:"188289",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Kirchengast",slug:"sylvia-kirchengast",fullName:"Sylvia Kirchengast"}]},{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8832,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"58894",title:"Research Ethics",slug:"research-ethics",totalDownloads:3371,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Research ethics is closely related to the ethical principles of social responsibility. This research covers a wide context of working with people, so the researchers raised a task not only to gain confidence in the respondents’ eyes, to receive reliable data, but also to ensure the transparency of the science. This chapter discusses the theoretical and practical topics of research, after evaluation of which ethical principles of organization and conducting the research are presented. There is a detailed description of how and what ethical principles were followed on the different stages of the research.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"23",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83053",title:"Apologies in L2 French in Canadian Context",slug:"apologies-in-l2-french-in-canadian-context",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106557",abstract:"This article presents the results of an analysis of apology strategies in native and non-native French in Canadian context. The data used were obtained through a Discourse Completion Task questionnaire that was completed by a group of native French speakers (FL1) and a group of learners of French as a second language (FL2). The goal was to identify and compare pragmatic and linguistic choices made by both groups when apologizing in three different situations. Several differences and similarities emerged between the two groups regarding the use of exclamations to introduce apologies, direct apologies, indirect apologies, and supportive acts. For instance, it was found that the FL1 speakers used “expressions of regret”, “offers of apology” 15 and “requests for forgiveness” to apologize directly, while the FL2 speaking informants used 16 only “expressions of regret” and “offers of apology”. While the respondents of both groups 17 mostly chose “offers of repair” to apologize indirectly, they displayed divergent preferences 18 regarding the use of other indirect apology strategies. Differences were also documented 19 with respect to the use of intensification devices in direct apologies and the use of supportive acts. Implications of the findings for L2 French pedagogy were also discussed.",book:{id:"11480",title:"Second Language Acquisition - Learning Theories and Recent Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11480.jpg"},signatures:"Bernard Mulo Farenkia"},{id:"83049",title:"An Ethnographic Study on Sense of a Community: The “Awramba” Experience",slug:"an-ethnographic-study-on-sense-of-a-community-the-awramba-experience",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105953",abstract:"The study was conducted on “Awramba” Community who are living in “Amhara” region, south “Gondor” Zone, Ethiopia. The general objective of this study was to capture an understanding of sense of community in “Awramba” community. The study tried to answer the following questions: How the community was established? What are the criteria to be part of the community? What are the shared values of social practice that has survived for the test of time? What is the historical background of the “Awramba” Community? The researcher used realist ethnography method to achieve the above objective and to answer the questions. In-depth interview and observational guide techniques were applied to collect reliable data for the study. The observation and in-depth interview data were analyzed qualitatively. The study showed the following themes: Membership criteria of the community are based on adhering to the community norm. They have a strong sense of community based on shared story, cooperative work, marriage and mourning values, religious view, gender equality, commitment to be honest, and solving their problem by themselves. The emotional connection of the “Awramba” community is strengthened by their common celebration of the yearly anniversary of New Year and scheduled meeting.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Nassir-Maru Yesuf"},{id:"83014",title:"Culture: A Pillar of Organizational Sustainability",slug:"culture-a-pillar-of-organizational-sustainability",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106523",abstract:"Sustainability is a concern that permeates all levels of society and is premised on meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. More recently, policies and research have emerged that guide organizations to align their activities with the broader sustainable development agendas, including cultural issues, not just economic, social, and environmental ones. Culture is the material and immaterial attribute of society. It incorporates social organizations, literature, religion, myths, beliefs, behaviors and entrepreneurial practices of the productive segment, use of technology, and expressive art forms on which future generations depend. Thus, cultural sustainability is a fundamental issue and is configured as the fourth pillar of sustainability, equal to social, economic, and environmental issues, which has to do with the ability to sustain or continue with cultural beliefs and practices, preserve cultural heritage as its entity, and try to answer whether any culture will exist in the future. The importance of cultural sustainability lies in its power to influence people. Their beliefs are in the decisions made by society. Thus, there can be no sustainable development without including culture.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Clea Beatriz Macagnan and Rosane Maria Seibert"},{id:"82949",title:"Corruption and Deterioration of Democracy: The Brazilian Lesson",slug:"corruption-and-deterioration-of-democracy-the-brazilian-lesson",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106194",abstract:"Although it has emerged, nationally and internationally, as one of the largest investigations against political corruption, Operation Car Wash—at its peak of popular prestige—cleared the path for the political rise of Jair Bolsonaro to the Presidency of the Republic of Brazil. And by doing so, to a certain extent, it paved the way for a set of arbitrary practices that today threaten and weaken the main Brazilian democratic institutions. Brazilian democracy today pays a high price for the Judiciary’s lethargic and condescending response to the unorthodox and illegal practices of Federal Judge Sérgio Moro during the golden years of Operation Car Wash (2014–2018). The lesson that the Brazilian episode brings to the international legal community is that the constant disrespect for the rules of due criminal procedure in large cases of corruption erodes the institutional bases that support the proper confrontation of this type of crime. The pertinent fight against corruption in a democracy can only take place in strict obedience to the law.",book:{id:"11772",title:"Corruption - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11772.jpg"},signatures:"Fabio Roberto D’Avila and Theodoro Balducci de Oliveira"},{id:"82903",title:"Walking Accessibility to Primary Healthcare Services: An Inequity Factor for Olders in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (Portugal)",slug:"walking-accessibility-to-primary-healthcare-services-an-inequity-factor-for-olders-in-the-lisbon-met",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106265",abstract:"This chapter discusses the walking accessibility to primary healthcare by the olders in Lisbon Metropolitan Area (LMA), Portugal, and its contribution for age-friendly environments as a factor of inequity. Constrains emerged from the collation of the supply approach, represented by service catchment areas based on walking distance time, and the demand approach, through a survey. The location and density of primary health network are a major factor, as it is related to distinct land use patterns within the LMA. The settlement structure influences the potential walkability to primary healthcare. The discrepancy between the potential walking accessibility and the real options is notorious, as olders` choices are diversified in terms of transportation modes and destinations, but mostly keeping relatively short time distances. This phenomenon is also influenced by factors such as personal preference, difficulty to walk, negative perceptions about the surroundings, and insufficient care support. This debate is already an effective concern of local authorities with spatial planning, social and health competences, insofar as solutions in terms of service flexibility and new travel solutions adapted to the specific needs of the olders are a growing reality in the LMA, promoting more age-friendly, health, and inclusive environments, and hence an equitable metropolis.",book:{id:"11479",title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - Selected Challenges, Analyses, and Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11479.jpg"},signatures:"Eduarda Marques da Costa, Ana Louro, Nuno Marques da Costa, Mariana Dias and Marcela Barata"},{id:"82834",title:"Perspective Chapter: Social Work Education in University Curricula for Sustainable Development",slug:"perspective-chapter-social-work-education-in-university-curricula-for-sustainable-development",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106246",abstract:"Universities of both global North and South have been changing from the traditional teaching-learning centers to cater to sustainability issues of those countries. Yet, there is a remarkable difference between the universities in the developed and the developing world. It has been found out that the different disciplines of university curricula can be integrated to address and minimize the adverse effects of unsustainability issues. The graduates of the universities will be the future leaders who have to cater to the needs and cope with the challenges of the next generation. There is a dearth of professional social workers to provide the necessary services as numerous catastrophes occur. The global society needs individuals who are equally sound in the knowledge of theory and the experience of practice. As the contemporary global issues become complex, the world needs competent social workers who can serve in different fields of practice. Social work could be the pivotal discipline in understanding common tragedies of the people to apply problem-solving model with the practitioners who are equipped with twenty-first century skills. Social work has to take a transition from a unidisciplinary to a multi- and trans-disciplinary perspective in achieving this objective.",book:{id:"11095",title:"Social Work - Perspectives on Leadership and Organisation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11095.jpg"},signatures:"Upul Lekamge"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:146},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. His main interest is in prosthodontics, dental material, TMD and regenerative dentistry.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:49,paginationItems:[{id:"83087",title:"Role of Cellular Responses in Periodontal Tissue Destruction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106645",signatures:"Nam Cong-Nhat Huynh",slug:"role-of-cellular-responses-in-periodontal-tissue-destruction",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Periodontology - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11566.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"83073",title:"Dental and Orofacial Trauma Impacts on Oral-Health-Related—Quality of Life in Children: Low- and Middle-Income Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105845",signatures:"Yolanda Malele-Kolisa, Nazia Khan, Mpho P. Molete, Maphefo D. 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She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. 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