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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7877",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Perioperative Care for Organ Transplant Recipient",title:"Perioperative Care for Organ Transplant Recipient",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is addressed to physicians and researchers working in the ever-expanding research and practice fields of transplantation medicine. Its purpose is to present the transplantation community with a collection of works written by prominent experts in a variety of transplant-related fields, encompassing the most recent scientific and practical developments and accomplishments in the highly specialized segment of transplantation medicine, such as perioperative care for organ transplant candidates and recipients.",isbn:"978-1-78984-423-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-422-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-242-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77696",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"perioperative-care-for-organ-transplant-recipient",numberOfPages:160,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f392542b05ddea5e08e4662dbc1dc8f7",bookSignature:"Alexander Vitin",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7877.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8655,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:17,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 22nd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 3rd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 1st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 22nd 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"201176",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Vitin",slug:"alexander-vitin",fullName:"Alexander Vitin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201176/images/system/201176.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vitin graduated cum laude from Kharkov State Medical University in 1981 (MD). He did his residency in surgery and worked as a surgeon, then as a research fellow. Dr. Vitin obtained his Ph.D. on extracorporeal detoxication in End stage Liver Disease patients. \r\nCurrently he is working as an attending anesthesiologist, faculty and an associate professor at the Department of Anesthesiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA. Since 2014, he is UNOS-appointed Director of Transplant Anesthesia. His main area of expertise and research interests are anesthesia and perioperative care for solid organ transplantation (liver, kidney, pancreas, intestine and combinations).",institutionString:"University of Washington",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Washington",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"202",title:"Surgery",slug:"surgery"}],chapters:[{id:"67806",title:"Introductory Chapter: Tour De Force of Transplantation Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87078",slug:"introductory-chapter-tour-de-force-of-transplantation-science",totalDownloads:696,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Alexander A. Vitin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67806",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67806",authors:[{id:"201176",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Vitin",slug:"alexander-vitin",fullName:"Alexander Vitin"}],corrections:null},{id:"65660",title:"Perioperative Care for Kidney Transplant Recipients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84388",slug:"perioperative-care-for-kidney-transplant-recipients",totalDownloads:1823,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Transplantation carries significant mortality benefit compared to dialysis in end-stage kidney disease. Increased perioperative risk, however, results in a higher mortality in the first 3 months post-transplantation compared to remaining on haemodialysis. Consequently, optimal perioperative management is essential. Patients presenting for kidney transplantation require rapid assessment and preparation for theatre to minimise ischaemic times and improve mortality and graft outcomes. This task is often complicated by the presence of multiple medical comorbidities. Furthermore, early complications of hypotension, delayed graft function, renovascular and ureteric surgical complications and rejection render the perioperative phase of transplant challenging for the recipient and for the transplant team. In this chapter, we outline current practices in the assessment and management of kidney transplant recipients during the perioperative period, particularly focusing on their clinical application and the evidence underpinning them.",signatures:"Sebastian Hultin, Carmel M. Hawley, David W. Johnson and Ross S. Francis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65660",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65660",authors:[{id:"172329",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmel",surname:"Hawley",slug:"carmel-hawley",fullName:"Carmel Hawley"},{id:"172331",title:"Dr.",name:"Ross",surname:"Francis",slug:"ross-francis",fullName:"Ross Francis"},{id:"178936",title:"Prof.",name:"David",surname:"Johnson",slug:"david-johnson",fullName:"David Johnson"},{id:"283620",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",surname:"Hultin",slug:"sebastian-hultin",fullName:"Sebastian Hultin"}],corrections:null},{id:"66962",title:"Viral Infections after Kidney Transplantation: CMV and BK",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86043",slug:"viral-infections-after-kidney-transplantation-cmv-and-bk",totalDownloads:1534,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Opportunistic infections commonly occur during the first 6 months after kidney transplant, including cytomegalovirus (CMV) and polyomaviruses. Viral pathogens such as CMV and polyomaviruses, JC or BK virus (BKV), are able to replicate in the kidney and/or cause systemic disease, and symptomatic infection with these agents can be associated with significant morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised host. While BK virus usually replicates in kidney transplant causing BK virus nephropathy (BKN) with characteristic decoy cells in the urine, CMV infection more often leads to systemic infection involving the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), lungs, or liver and can only sporadically be detected in renal transplant. In both cases, the disease is most often due to reactivation of a latent virus. Prevention and early treatment of posttransplant infection are therefore crucial with kidney transplant recipients. Since BKV viruria and viremia can be seen without renal injury and viral nephropathy, a diagnosis of BKN must be confirmed by renal biopsy. To date, preemptive treatment is the best strategy for CMV infection, while no available standard therapy, except for reduction of immunosuppression, is available for BKV infection.",signatures:"Večerić-Haler Željka and Kojc Nika",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66962",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66962",authors:[{id:"249591",title:"Prof.",name:"Nika",surname:"Kojc",slug:"nika-kojc",fullName:"Nika Kojc"},{id:"285874",title:"Prof.",name:"Željka",surname:"Večerić-Haler",slug:"zeljka-veceric-haler",fullName:"Željka Večerić-Haler"}],corrections:null},{id:"66702",title:"Antibody Mediated Rejection in Kidney Transplant Recipients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85886",slug:"antibody-mediated-rejection-in-kidney-transplant-recipients",totalDownloads:1799,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Antibody mediated rejection (ABMR) presents a significant challenge for long term graft survival in kidney transplantation. New technologies, including genomic studies and assays to detect and define donor-specific antibodies, have provided important insights into the pathophysiology and diagnosis of ABMR. Unfortunately, this progress has not yet translated into better outcomes for patients, as in the absence of a drug able to suppress antibody generation by plasma cells, available therapies can only slow down graft destruction. This chapter reviews the current understanding of ABMR, and details its diagnosis, and treatments, both those established in current routine clinical practice and those on the horizon.",signatures:"Nika Kojc and Željka Večerić Haler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66702",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66702",authors:[{id:"249591",title:"Prof.",name:"Nika",surname:"Kojc",slug:"nika-kojc",fullName:"Nika Kojc"},{id:"285874",title:"Prof.",name:"Željka",surname:"Večerić-Haler",slug:"zeljka-veceric-haler",fullName:"Željka Večerić-Haler"}],corrections:null},{id:"66282",title:"Perioperative Care for Lung Transplant Recipients: A Multidisciplinary Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85277",slug:"perioperative-care-for-lung-transplant-recipients-a-multidisciplinary-approach",totalDownloads:1079,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lung transplantation has evolved as the gold standard for selective patients with end-stage lung disease since the first clinical lung transplant was performed in 1983 in the United States. Over the last few decades, lung transplantation volume has increased worldwide with steadily improving outcomes; however, access to lung transplantation remains limited due to the critical shortage of donor organs. Factors that have contributed to improved outcomes include a multidisciplinary management approach supported by advancements in surgical and anesthetic techniques, nursing and critical care, immunosuppressive therapy, transplant immunobiology, and the perioperative use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) and ex vivo lung perfusion (EVLP). Excellent outcomes have been achieved in selective patients with high-risk comorbidities such as age over 65 years, concomitant severe coronary artery disease (CAD), and preexisting sensitization with donor-specific antibodies (DSAs). Such comorbidities are no longer considered absolute contraindications to lung transplantation. This chapter provides an overview of perioperative care of lung transplant recipients with focus on a multidisciplinary approach and highlights management strategies for patients with concomitant severe coronary artery disease and end-stage lung disease as well as those with preexisting sensitization with DSAs.",signatures:"Stacey H. Brann, Steven S. Geier, Olga Timofeeva, Norihisa Shigemura, Francis Cordova and Yoshiya Toyoda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66282",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66282",authors:[{id:"283188",title:"Dr.",name:"Stacey",surname:"Brann",slug:"stacey-brann",fullName:"Stacey Brann"},{id:"288392",title:"Prof.",name:"Steven",surname:"Geier",slug:"steven-geier",fullName:"Steven Geier"},{id:"288393",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",surname:"Timofeeva",slug:"olga-timofeeva",fullName:"Olga Timofeeva"}],corrections:null},{id:"65734",title:"Cytokine Biomarkers as Indicators of Primary Graft Dysfunction, Acute Rejection, and Chronic Lung Allograft Dysfunction in Lung Transplant Recipients: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84661",slug:"cytokine-biomarkers-as-indicators-of-primary-graft-dysfunction-acute-rejection-and-chronic-lung-allo",totalDownloads:752,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lung transplantation is well accepted form of treatment for end-stage lung disease in selected patients. The number of lung transplants performed worldwide has increased annually with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease being the leading cause. The morbidity and mortality in the early period are due to nonspecific primary graft dysfunction (PGD) and acute lung rejection (ALR). Chronic lung allograft dysfunction (CLAD) is the cause of long-term complications following lung transplantation and seen in almost half of the patient during the first 5 years. Activation of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines has been described during various phases of lung transplantation recovery. We reviewed the literature for cytokine activity associated with PGD, ALR, and CLAD. This review aims to summarize the specific associations between bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and plasma cytokine levels and the association of PGD, ALR, and CLAD.",signatures:"John Hallsten and Wickii T. Vigneswaran",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65734",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65734",authors:[{id:"268004",title:"Prof.",name:"Wickii",surname:"Vigneswaran",slug:"wickii-vigneswaran",fullName:"Wickii Vigneswaran"},{id:"284431",title:"Mr.",name:"John",surname:"Hallsten",slug:"john-hallsten",fullName:"John Hallsten"}],corrections:null},{id:"67081",title:"Delirium Management, Treatment and Prevention Solid Organ Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86297",slug:"delirium-management-treatment-and-prevention-solid-organ-transplantation",totalDownloads:975,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Delirium following solid organ transplant is a very common complication. Post-operative delirium has been shown to be associated with longer length of stays, increased post-operative complications, increased readmission rates, higher costs, and increased mortality. Therefore, every healthcare provider who is involved in the care of transplant recipients should be well educated in the importance of early diagnosis of delirium, treatment of potential contributing factors, and optimizing management. Routine delirium screening to allow prompt diagnosis and workup is paramount to the care of post-operative transplant patients. Identifying high risk individuals for pre-operative rehabilitation to help decrease post-operative delirium rates, as well as focusing on functional and cognitive recovery following delirium are important preventative and rehabilitation efforts to optimize outcomes for transplant patients. This chapter will highlight a proactive approach to delirium prevention and management in the transplant population.",signatures:"Clark D. Kensinger and Jon S. Odorico",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67081",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67081",authors:[{id:"128410",title:"Prof.",name:"Jon S.",surname:"Odorico",slug:"jon-s.-odorico",fullName:"Jon S. Odorico"},{id:"285935",title:"Dr.",name:"Clark",surname:"Kensinger",slug:"clark-kensinger",fullName:"Clark Kensinger"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6211",title:"Medical and Surgical Education",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c32a9763401f2d6e07b50f3e6451870",slug:"medical-and-surgical-education-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Georgios Tsoulfas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6211.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6705",title:"Organ Donation and Transplantation",subtitle:"Current Status and Future Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e1ab81caf9179b0618c80dcd9bfd84a3",slug:"organ-donation-and-transplantation-current-status-and-future-challenges",bookSignature:"Georgios Tsoulfas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6705.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9790",title:"Surgical Management of Head and Neck Pathologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ae195fe1164fd55b69b775d596f1e8a",slug:"surgical-management-of-head-and-neck-pathologies",bookSignature:"Ho-Hyun (Brian) Sun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9790.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"184302",title:"Dr.",name:"H. 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\r\n\tExpert systems are the branch of artificial intelligence dealing with utilizing human expertise for solving problems. They are defined as computer systems that are capable of solving problems in the same way as a human expert would do when they face the same problem. With the current stream of digital transportation and an enormous amount of interest in intelligent systems, they will be a potential area of research for providing better intelligence to systems. They will also motivate the researchers to generate systems with more and more expertise. In this book, a general introduction to expert systems will be provided after a brief introduction to Artificial Intelligence. Detailed information about Expert Systems will be defined concerning their basic features and architectures as well as main characteristics and basic differences from traditional computer systems. Various applications of expert systems will also be provided. Potential readers will find both theoretical progress as well as practical applications. They will find a great amount of information to ease their research and implementation of intelligent systems.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-422-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-421-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-423-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"514907388f7a2b291f71f9b93b58b795",bookSignature:"Prof. Ercan Oztemel",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11912.jpg",keywords:"Artificial Intelligence, Intelligent Systems, Smart Systems, Computational Intelligence, Knowledge Base, Knowledge Representation, Knowledge Management, Inference Engine, Manufacturing Applications, Finance Applications, Smart Factories, Health Applications",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 29th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 28th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 16th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 15th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"16 hours",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Dr. Oztemel graduated from the Istanbul Technical University and received his Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical, Electronics and Systems Engineering of the University of Wales, UK. He worked as a Chief Researcher at the Information Technologies Institute of Turkish Science and Technology Council (TUBITAK). He also served as the vice president of the Turkish Measurement and Placement Center of Turkey and as a member of the Executive Board in the TUBITAK Public Research Group.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"306974",title:"Prof.",name:"Ercan",middleName:null,surname:"Oztemel",slug:"ercan-oztemel",fullName:"Ercan Oztemel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/306974/images/system/306974.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Ercan Oztemel was born in 1962 in Elazig of Turkey. He graduated from the Department of Industrial Engineering, Sakarya Engineering Faculty of Istanbul Technical University in 1984. He completed his postgraduate studies at Boğaziçi University between 1985-1987, and his doctorate study at the Department of Electrical, Electronics and Systems Engineering of University of Wales between 1988-1992. Between 1993 and 2006, he worked as a lecturer at Sakarya University. In addition to his academic life, he worked as a Chief Researcher at Information Technologies Institute of Turkish Science and Technology Council (TUBITAK), between 1993 and 2011. In this institute, he conducted research on Artificial Intelligence applications, especially in the military domain. He carried out projects that were the first of their kind, such as placing simulation systems on military training aircraft (flying simulator), Artificial combat Pilot, nurse robots, war fare exercises in the virtual world. Between 1997 and 2010, he carried out research in the Western European Union Armament Group, as well as a Member of the Executive Board in the 11th and 15th Groups, and a member of the System Analysis and Simulation (SAS) Panel within NATO between 2001-2006. On the other hand, he supported the creation and execution of many sub-projects as a Member of the Executive Board in the IPROMS (Intelligent Production and Mechanization Systems) Center of Excellence project opened within the scope of the European Union 6th Framework Program. He served as the vice president of Turkish Measurement and Placement Center of Turkey between 2011 and 2015, and as the member of the Executive Board in the TUBITAK Public Research Group between 2012 and 2017. He conducts research in areas such as artificial intelligence, intelligent manufacturing systems, management information systems, simulation and modeling, strategic planning, quality management. He has many articles, papers and books on these subjects. 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Antipov and Patrice Mégret",authors:[{id:"4725",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Fotiadi",fullName:"Andrei Fotiadi",slug:"andrei-fotiadi"},{id:"107849",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrice",middleName:null,surname:"Mégret",fullName:"Patrice Mégret",slug:"patrice-megret"},{id:"133847",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Antipov",fullName:"Oleg Antipov",slug:"oleg-antipov"}]},{id:"8437",title:"Polarization Coupling of Light and Optoelectronics Devices Based on Periodically Poled Lithium Niobate",slug:"polarization-coupling-of-light-and-optoelectronics-devices-based-on-periodically-poled-lithium-nioba",signatures:"Xianfeng Chen, Kun Liu, and Jianhong Shi",authors:[{id:"4180",title:"Professor",name:"Xianfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Xianfeng Chen",slug:"xianfeng-chen"},{id:"133851",title:"Prof.",name:"Kun",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Kun Liu",slug:"kun-liu"},{id:"133853",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianhong",middleName:null,surname:"Shi",fullName:"Jianhong Shi",slug:"jianhong-shi"}]},{id:"8438",title:"All-Optical Wavelength-Selective Switch by Intensity Control in Cascaded Interferometers",slug:"all-optical-wavelength-selective-switch-by-intensity-control-in-cascaded-interferometers",signatures:"Hiroki Kishikawa, Nobuo Goto and Kenta Kimiya",authors:[{id:"4400",title:"Professor",name:"Nobuo",middleName:null,surname:"Goto",fullName:"Nobuo Goto",slug:"nobuo-goto"},{id:"133356",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroki",middleName:null,surname:"Kishikawa",fullName:"Hiroki Kishikawa",slug:"hiroki-kishikawa"},{id:"133358",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenta",middleName:null,surname:"Kimiya",fullName:"Kenta Kimiya",slug:"kenta-kimiya"}]},{id:"8439",title:"Nonlinear Optics in Doped Silica Glass Integrated Waveguide Structures",slug:"nonlinear-optics-in-doped-silica-glass-integrated-waveguide-structures",signatures:"David Duchesne, Marcello Ferrera, Luca Razzari, Roberto Morandotti, Brent Little, Sai T. Chu and David J. 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Smith, Kyriacos Kalli and Kate Sugden",authors:[{id:"4668",title:"Dr.",name:"Graham",middleName:"N",surname:"Smith",fullName:"Graham Smith",slug:"graham-smith"},{id:"133360",title:"Prof.",name:"Kyriacos",middleName:null,surname:"Kalli",fullName:"Kyriacos Kalli",slug:"kyriacos-kalli"},{id:"133361",title:"Prof.",name:"Kate",middleName:null,surname:"Sugden",fullName:"Kate Sugden",slug:"kate-sugden"}]},{id:"8441",title:"Magneto-Optical Devices for Optical Integrated Circuits",slug:"magneto-optical-devices-for-optical-integrated-circuits",signatures:"Vadym Zayets and Koji Ando",authors:[{id:"4688",title:"Dr.",name:"Vadym",middleName:null,surname:"Zayets",fullName:"Vadym Zayets",slug:"vadym-zayets"},{id:"133363",title:"Prof.",name:"Koji",middleName:null,surname:"Ando",fullName:"Koji Ando",slug:"koji-ando"}]},{id:"8442",title:"Tunable Hollow Optical Waveguide and Its Applications",slug:"tunable-hollow-optical-waveguide-and-its-applications",signatures:"Mukesh Kumar, Toru Miura, Yasuki Sakurai and Fumio Koyama",authors:[{id:"63461",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar",slug:"mukesh-kumar"},{id:"133388",title:"Prof.",name:"Toru",middleName:null,surname:"Miura",fullName:"Toru Miura",slug:"toru-miura"},{id:"133402",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuki",middleName:null,surname:"Sakurai",fullName:"Yasuki Sakurai",slug:"yasuki-sakurai"},{id:"133404",title:"Prof.",name:"Fumio",middleName:null,surname:"Koyama",fullName:"Fumio Koyama",slug:"fumio-koyama"}]},{id:"8443",title:"Regenerated Fibre Bragg Gratings",slug:"regenerated-fibre-bragg-gratings",signatures:"John Canning, Somnath Bandyopadhyay, Palas Biswas, Mattias Aslund, Michael Stevenson and Kevin Cook",authors:[{id:"5461",title:"Professor",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Canning",fullName:"John Canning",slug:"john-canning"},{id:"133394",title:"Dr.",name:"Somnath",middleName:null,surname:"Bandyopadhyay",fullName:"Somnath Bandyopadhyay",slug:"somnath-bandyopadhyay"},{id:"133395",title:"Prof.",name:"Palas",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",fullName:"Palas Biswas",slug:"palas-biswas"},{id:"133396",title:"Prof.",name:"Mattias",middleName:null,surname:"Aslund",fullName:"Mattias Aslund",slug:"mattias-aslund"},{id:"133397",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Stevenson",fullName:"Michael Stevenson",slug:"michael-stevenson"},{id:"133400",title:"Prof.",name:"Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Cook",fullName:"Kevin Cook",slug:"kevin-cook"}]},{id:"8444",title:"Optical Deposition of Carbon Nanotubes for Fiber-based Device Fabrication",slug:"optical-deposition-of-carbon-nanotubes-for-fiber-based-device-fabrication",signatures:"Ken Kashiwagi and Shinji Yamashita",authors:[{id:"5133",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Kashiwagi",fullName:"Ken Kashiwagi",slug:"ken-kashiwagi"},{id:"38416",title:"Mr.",name:"Shinji",middleName:null,surname:"Yamashita",fullName:"Shinji Yamashita",slug:"shinji-yamashita"}]},{id:"8445",title:"High Power Tunable Tm3+-fiber Lasers and Its Application in Pumping Cr2+:ZnSe Lasers",slug:"high-power-tunable-tm3-fiber-lasers-and-its-application-in-pumping-cr2-znse-lasers",signatures:"Yulong Tang and Jianqiu Xu",authors:[{id:"5449",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianqiu",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Jianqiu Xu",slug:"jianqiu-xu"},{id:"110808",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulong",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",fullName:"Yulong Tang",slug:"yulong-tang"}]},{id:"8446",title:"2 µm Laser Sources and Their Possible Applications",slug:"2-m-laser-sources-and-their-possible-applications",signatures:"Karsten Scholle, Samir Lamrini, Philipp Koopmann and Peter Fuhrberg",authors:[{id:"4951",title:"Dr.",name:"Karsten",middleName:null,surname:"Scholle",fullName:"Karsten Scholle",slug:"karsten-scholle"},{id:"133366",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"Lamrini",fullName:"Samir Lamrini",slug:"samir-lamrini"},{id:"133370",title:"Prof.",name:"Philipp",middleName:null,surname:"Koopmann",fullName:"Philipp Koopmann",slug:"philipp-koopmann"},{id:"133371",title:"Mr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Fuhrberg",fullName:"Peter Fuhrberg",slug:"peter-fuhrberg"}]},{id:"8447",title:"Designer Laser Resonators based on Amplifying Photonic Crystals",slug:"designer-laser-resonators-based-on-amplifying-photonic-crystals",signatures:"Alexander Benz, Christoph Deutsch, Gernot Fasching, Karl Unterrainer, Aaron M. Maxwell, Pavel Klang, Werner Schrenk and Gottfried Strasser",authors:[{id:"4537",title:"DI",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Benz",fullName:"Alexander Benz",slug:"alexander-benz"},{id:"135394",title:"Prof.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Deutsch",fullName:"Christoph Deutsch",slug:"christoph-deutsch"},{id:"135395",title:"Prof.",name:"Gernot",middleName:null,surname:"Fasching",fullName:"Gernot Fasching",slug:"gernot-fasching"},{id:"135396",title:"Prof.",name:"Karl",middleName:null,surname:"Unterrainer",fullName:"Karl Unterrainer",slug:"karl-unterrainer"},{id:"135397",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Maxwell",fullName:"Aaron Maxwell",slug:"aaron-maxwell"},{id:"135398",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Klang",fullName:"Pavel Klang",slug:"pavel-klang"},{id:"135399",title:"Prof.",name:"Werner",middleName:null,surname:"Schrenk",fullName:"Werner Schrenk",slug:"werner-schrenk"},{id:"135400",title:"Prof.",name:"Gottfried",middleName:null,surname:"Strasser",fullName:"Gottfried Strasser",slug:"gottfried-strasser"}]},{id:"8448",title:"High-Power and High Efficiency Yb:YAG Ceramic Laser at Room Temperature",slug:"high-power-and-high-efficiency-yb-yag-ceramic-laser-at-room-temperature",signatures:"Shinki Nakamura",authors:[{id:"4143",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",fullName:"Shinki Nakamura",slug:"shinki-nakamura"}]},{id:"8449",title:"Polarization Properties of Laser-Diode-Pumped Microchip Nd:YAG Ceramic Lasers",slug:"polarization-properties-of-laser-diode-pumped-microchip-nd-yag-ceramic-lasers",signatures:"Kenju Otsuka",authors:[{id:"4259",title:"Professor",name:"Kenju",middleName:null,surname:"Otsuka",fullName:"Kenju Otsuka",slug:"kenju-otsuka"}]},{id:"8450",title:"Surface-Emitting Circular Bragg Lasers – A Promising Next-Generation On-Chip Light Source for Optical Communications",slug:"surface-emitting-circular-bragg-lasers-a-promising-next-generation-on-chip-light-source-for-optical-",signatures:"Xiankai Sun and Amnon Yariv",authors:[{id:"4201",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiankai",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Xiankai Sun",slug:"xiankai-sun"},{id:"122981",title:"Dr.",name:"Amnon",middleName:null,surname:"Yariv",fullName:"Amnon Yariv",slug:"amnon-yariv"}]},{id:"8451",title:"Novel Enabling Technologies for Convergence of Optical and Wireless Access Networks",slug:"novel-enabling-technologies-for-convergence-of-optical-and-wireless-access-networks",signatures:"Jianjun Yu, Gee-Kung Chang, Zhensheng Jia and Lin Chen",authors:[{id:"8503",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianjun",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",fullName:"Jianjun Yu",slug:"jianjun-yu"},{id:"133376",title:"Prof.",name:"Gee-Kung",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",fullName:"Gee-Kung Chang",slug:"gee-kung-chang"},{id:"133378",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhensheng",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",fullName:"Zhensheng Jia",slug:"zhensheng-jia"},{id:"139599",title:"Prof.",name:"Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Lin Chen",slug:"lin-chen"}]},{id:"8452",title:"Photonic Crystal Multiplexer/Demultiplexer Device for Optical Communications",slug:"photonic-crystal-multiplexer-demultiplexer-device-for-optical-communications",signatures:"Sahbuddin Shaari and Azliza J. M. Adnan",authors:[{id:"19951",title:"Dr.",name:"Sahbudin",middleName:null,surname:"Shaari",fullName:"Sahbudin Shaari",slug:"sahbudin-shaari"}]},{id:"8453",title:"Improvement Scheme for Directly Modulated Fiber Optical CATV System Performances",slug:"improvement-scheme-for-directly-modulated-fiber-optical-catv-system-performances",signatures:"Hai-Han Lu, Ching-Hung Chang and Peng-Chun Peng",authors:[{id:"4684",title:"Professor",name:"Hai-Han",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Hai-Han Lu",slug:"hai-han-lu"},{id:"62688",title:"Prof.",name:"Peng-Chun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Peng-Chun Peng",slug:"peng-chun-peng"}]},{id:"8454",title:"Optical Beam Steering Using a 2D MEMS Scanner",slug:"optical-beam-steering-using-a-2d-mems-scanner",signatures:"Yves Pétremand, Pierre-André Clerc, Marc Epitaux, Ralf Hauffe, Wilfried Noell and N.F. de Rooij",authors:[{id:"5054",title:"Dr.",name:"Yves",middleName:null,surname:"Petremand",fullName:"Yves Petremand",slug:"yves-petremand"},{id:"135512",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre-Andre",middleName:null,surname:"Clerc",fullName:"Pierre-Andre Clerc",slug:"pierre-andre-clerc"},{id:"135514",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Epitaux",fullName:"Marc Epitaux",slug:"marc-epitaux"},{id:"135516",title:"Prof.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Hauffe",fullName:"Ralf Hauffe",slug:"ralf-hauffe"},{id:"135518",title:"Prof.",name:"Wilfried",middleName:null,surname:"Noell",fullName:"Wilfried Noell",slug:"wilfried-noell"},{id:"135519",title:"Prof.",name:"N.F.",middleName:null,surname:"De Rooij",fullName:"N.F. De Rooij",slug:"n.f.-de-rooij"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10415",title:"Application of Optical Fiber in Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"665046cdf24d3e32a07a4ea354bc34b9",slug:"application-of-optical-fiber-in-engineering",bookSignature:"Sulaiman Wadi Harun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14201",title:"Dr.",name:"Sulaiman Wadi",surname:"Harun",slug:"sulaiman-wadi-harun",fullName:"Sulaiman Wadi Harun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11049",title:"Thin Films Photovoltaics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2da6baae76c6fa2f7e62f32cebe249f2",slug:"thin-films-photovoltaics",bookSignature:"Beddiaf Zaidi and Chander Shekhar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11049.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"230574",title:"Dr.",name:"Beddiaf",surname:"Zaidi",slug:"beddiaf-zaidi",fullName:"Beddiaf Zaidi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2478",title:"Optical Communication",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8af14196b5429d6bf9fcb7db0a39199",slug:"optical-communication",bookSignature:"Narottam Das",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2478.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15357",title:"Dr.",name:"Narottam",surname:"Das",slug:"narottam-das",fullName:"Narottam Das"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2992",title:"Current Trends in Short- and Long-period Fiber Gratings",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ea3b8fc542d07312526928ba5bac062",slug:"current-trends-in-short-and-long-period-fiber-gratings",bookSignature:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2992.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"29543",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Cuadrado-Laborde",slug:"christian-cuadrado-laborde",fullName:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",body:'Cutaneous melanoma (CM) is a disease that arises in transition of dermis and epidermis, where the melanocytes are localized. The melanogenesis process starts due to DNA damage secondary to a UV exposition, which can be chronic or acute intermittent exposure. Furthermore, other risk factors are associated with melanoma as frequency of sunbathing, ultraviolet A exposure, low skin phototypes, atypical nevus syndrome, skin sunburn events mostly during childhood and adolescence, a large number of skin moles (congenital or not), familiar or personal history of CM or skin cancer not melanoma. The DNA damage alters the proliferation and cell cycle, culmining in dysregulated apoptosis mechanisms. The CM is characterized by the high invasiveness, a high metastatic capacity, causing a short survival period and high mortality rates due to pharmacological resistance [1, 2].
For the systemic treatment of the patient with high-risk disease to metastasis, pharmacotherapy is used with drugs that can manifest collateral effects, in addition to presenting inefficient mechanisms to guarantee the survival of patients [3]. In this sense, several literatures have indicated biochemical therapy as a promising adjuvant in the CM management [4], even so it is urgent researchers to develop new options for a rise in patients’ survival [1]. Therefore, many research science teams have been engaged to discover melanoma treatment and an interesting alternative to this would be to use natural substances, such as phenolic compounds that can have anticancer effects [5].
An efficient and rapid diagnosis is a priority among the medical and scientific community [6]. Furthermore, correctly and effectively pharmacological therapy promotes better prognosis and better quality of life for the melanoma cutaneous illness. Taking into consideration, the aim of this chapter was to provide an overview of potential modulations of the purinergic system in the treatment of cutaneous melanoma. Thus, initially, the cutaneous melanoma will be characterized based on epidemiology and therapeutics, as well as the purinergic system with its details, and finally, show that some natural compounds have potential in modulating purinergic signaling in melanoma.
Cutaneous melanoma is a disease that has a wide spectrum in relation to the prognosis of the patient who develops this disease. The diagnosis can be made from when the neoplasm is still restricted to the epidermis (
Also, North America and some European countries have high incidence rates of this disease. In the United States alone, 99,780 new cases and 7650 deaths from melanoma are expected in 2022 [9]. In the Scandinavian region, the incidence ranges from 15 to 18 cases/100,000 inhabitants; Northern European countries vary from 12 to 28 cases/100,000 inhabitants [10]. In Asia, Africa, and South America, the number of cases is lower, although there are regional differences as is the case in Brazil, where the South and Southeast regions have the highest number of cases when compared with other areas of the country [11, 12, 13, 14].
Early detection of cutaneous melanoma is a fundamental factor in reducing mortality. Individuals diagnosed in the early stages have a 98% survival rate, while those diagnosed in advanced stages have a significantly decreased survival rate—between 63.8 and 15%. Patients diagnosed with stage III and IV melanoma have survival rates (5 years) of 70% and 30%, respectively. For most human malignancies, the use of chemotherapy for systemic treatment changed the natural history of the disease, and in melanoma the reality, until recently, was different with response rates comparable to the use of placebo [15]. Since the introduction of chemotherapy for adjuvant treatment of malignant neoplasms, numerous therapeutic regimens have been tried in patients with metastatic melanoma [16, 17].
The most widely used treatment for patients with disseminated disease was dacarbazine, but only about 15–20% had some degree of response and 2% were still alive after 5 years of follow-up: a response rate comparable to the placebo-treated group of patients in the early clinical trials [15]. The use of high-dose interleukin-2 (IL-2) was the first treatment that changed the natural history of a small portion of patients with stage IV melanoma, but resulted in severe side effects that often affected survival [18, 19]. In the following years, molecules with direct action on pathways were responsible for controlling cell growth and division emerged, which were called “targeted therapy,” such as BRAF and MEK inhibitors [19, 20]. However, only part of the melanoma patients can benefit from these inhibitors, because it is necessary that the genes involved in these pathways are mutated in order to get a response [21].
With the development of immunotherapy, other molecules called “immune system checkpoint inhibitors”, such as pembrolizumab and nivolumab (programmed cell death protein-1 [PD-1] inhibitors), and ipilimumab (cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 [CTLA-4] inhibitor), have been routinely used as adjuvant and neoadjuvant treatments in melanoma patients with prognostic factors associated with poor survival [22, 23]. However, only 20% of patients show complete and lasting response with this type of therapy, and no biomarkers have been defined yet that can predict who will benefit from the use of these drugs [23, 24, 25].
The purinergic system is a sophisticated cell-cell communication and ubiquitously expressed in the human body that orchestrates numerous cellular responses in the context of health and disease, displaying several biological processes. Most discussed extracellular signaling molecules include nucleotides such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), adenosine monophosphate (AMP), and the nucleoside adenosine (Ado) [26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. The components belonging to this system are divided between receptors, according to the signaling molecule, as well as in enzymes. Thus, the P2 receptor is sensitized by adenine nucleotides, such as ATP, ADP, and AMP, being subdivided into P2X (1–7) and P2Y (1–12), while the P1 group is signaled Ado molecules and differentiated into A1, A2, A2B, A3 [31]. The levels of signaling molecules are controlled by enzymes known as ectonucleotidases, expressed on the surface of cells. They are nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 1 (NTPDase-1/CD39), 5′-nucleotidase (5’-NT/CD73), and adenosine deaminase (ADA) enzymes, which metabolize ATP/ADP into AMP, AMP into adenosine (Ado), and finally this into inosine, respectively [32, 33, 34, 35] (Figure 1).
Purinergic system components and functions. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), key molecule of the purinergic system, can be released in an extra-cell environment and act as agonist on P2XR and P2YR. Furthermore, the ectonucleotidases presenting on cell surface are capable to hydrolyze the ATP into others nucleotides, such as adenosine monophosphate (AMP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and nucleosides, such as adenosine (ado). Between the purinergic receptors, only P1 (P1R) have Ado as agonist. The ectonucleotidase pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase (E-NPPS) has potential to break ATP straight to AMP, whereas ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase-CD39) can break ATP to ADP or ADP to AMP. In this enzyme orchestra, only one ectoenzyme is capable of hydrolyzing AMP to Ado, the ecto-5′-nucleotidase (E-5’-NT-CD73). In the end of the purinergic cascade, the adenosine deaminase (ADA) converts Ado to inosine (Ino). Source: The authors (2022).
In this context, it is well known that this system is involved in cancer dynamics and has a close relationship with the immune responses, such as in lung cancer [36, 37], leukemia [38], cutaneous melanoma [30, 39], pancreatic cancer [40], and gastric cancer [41]. Likewise, it has been reported that ATP is considered a pivotal molecule, which largely influences immune responses in peripheral and central tissues, can be released from the inflammatory and tumor cells
Thus, yet few studies have been performed to understand the involvement of purinergic signaling in melanoma, some robust evidence showed that this cell pathway plays an important role in this disease. In this sense, a component-system widely reported is the P2X7 receptor, which is expressed by cancer cells, as in melanoma, and is mostly associated with tumor cell killing
Given the pleiotropic actions, the role of P2X7R depends on the nucleotide receptor-interactions, as well as concentration, being that these interactions can promote or inhibit melanoma. Taking account, recently it was reinforced that P2X7 is overexpressed in patients affected by metastatic malignant melanoma and that its expression closely correlates with reduced overall survival. This is because P2X7 stimulation is capable of miRNA-containing microvesicles and exosomes from melanoma cells [54]. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that the Warburg effect is possibly linked to P2X7 modulation by ATP in melanoma. Once activated by ATP, the PI3K-AKT pathway upregulates glycolytic cascade enzymes, which promotes lactate generation and acidification of the TME. Acidification of extracellular microenvironment alters immune response and supporting cancer [5].
Conversely, Hattori et al. [55] by treatment of B16 melanoma cells with oxidized ATP (oxATP) found significantly decreased cell proliferation at concentrations between 300 and 500 mM in low pH conditions. From this, they proposed that the P2X7R is a promising target for treatment of solid tumors. The same way, White et al. [56] after an experimental incubation of melanoma cells with P2X7-agonist 2′–3′-O-(4-benzoylbenzoyl) adenosine 5′-triphosphate found decrease in cell number. In the immunological scenario, P2X7 activity has been associated with tumor-infiltrating T cells (TILs), which leads to senescence and limits tumor suppression, in addition to affected cell cycling of effector T cells and resulting in generation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) and p38 MAPK-dependent upregulation of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1A [57].
Although the P2X are widely related, other receptors also have been involved in melanoma disease. The P2Y1 receptor was indicated as potential to reduce melanoma cell proliferation; however, P2Y2 usually appears to increase cell numbers [58]. Still, the P2Y12 seems to promote tumor metastasis by platelet activation in melanoma cells [59, 60]. Interestingly, one factor, which leads to skin cancer, UV-B irradiation, seems to have a relationship with purinergic signaling, and severe effects have been associated between irradiation type and reduced P2X1 and P2Y2 receptors, as well as to destruction of P2X7 receptors, with the possibility of contributing to malignant transformation of keratinocytes [61].
From the Ado-stimulated receptor perspective, the A2AR and A3AR seem to lead to melanoma cells’ death
On the other side, ectonucleotidases that control the purinergic chain also are involved in neoplasias. The CD39 decreased activity mitigates ATP hydrolysis, leading to extracellular accumulation of this nucleotide. This was evidenced by Manica et al. [50] that showed that post-surgery CM patients present high ATP levels in microenvironment compared with the healthy controls, suggesting being the cause of poor prognosis [50]. Thus, the ectonucleotidases action seems to play an important role in cancer context as well as in other purinergic components.
Although the CD39 and CD73 dynamics are responsible for forming most Ado extracellular content, another enzyme involved is the E-NPP, which hydrolyzes AMP to Ado. Several studies have evidenced that these ectoenzymes are increased in cancer context [45, 67, 68, 69]. In melanoma, studies suggested high expression of the CD73 in patients [70, 71, 72]. Also, in the melanoma mouse model, a CD73 inhibitor improved T and B cell-mediated antitumor immunity and reduced tumor growth [73]. The hydrolysis CD73 capacity is known and involved in melanoma; however, recently a nonenzymatic action of this enzyme was related, playing a role in cell migration on extracellular matrix through focal adhesion kinase (FAK) [74].
Considering the need for new therapies and therapeutic targets for the treatment of cutaneous melanoma, studies with compounds that modulate the purinergic system and have antitumor effects have been carried out, as is the case with phenolic compounds and vitamin D [75, 76]. Figure 2 represents some possible modulatory mechanisms of natural compounds on the purinergic system in the CM context.
Purinergic system modulation in cutaneous melanoma by means of natural compounds. The literature has been evidenced in the adjuvant therapeutic perspective that several compounds derived from nature can act against carcinogenesis and cutaneous melanoma. Resveratrol, from the grape, has the potential both to increase CD73 expression and modulate P2X7 receptors, which control the growth progression and metastasis. Rosmarinic acid, a phenolic acid from rosemary, can block the P2X7 receptor and inhibits the agonist mechanism by ATP, as well as have antagonism ADP-like on the P2Y12 receptor, leading to a decrease of tumor mass formation. Two important derivatives of coffee, the caffeic acid and caffeine, have been shown as interesting modulators of P1 receptors. These adenosinergic receptors are intimately related to tumor immunity, and these two molecules can act modulating the antitumor immunity. The vitamin D also showed a significant compound with purinergic system modulation, since it is capable of increasing CD73 expression and controlling the adenosine amount, which seems to play a great role in cutaneous melanoma. Source: The authors (2022).
Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites present in plants, whose function is to participate in their development and protect them from pathogens and UV radiation [77]. More than 8000 compounds have been identified so far, and most of these compounds have some beneficial property to humans [78]. Their therapeutic actions are related to the structure, mainly to the phenolic rings, in which these compounds are classified by the number of rings and structural elements they have, forming four major groups: phenolic acids, stilbenes, lignans, and flavonoids [79]. The most cited group of polyphenols in the literature with therapeutic actions including antitumor effect is flavonoids, which are present in foods consumed daily such as fruits, vegetables, vegetables, red wine, coffee, and green tea [80, 81, 82].
Resveratrol (3,5,4-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene) is found in red wine and in the skin of dark grapes, a polyphenol with antitumor activity, considered a candidate for the treatment of cutaneous melanoma, which has been shown to modulate the expression and activity of CD73, ADA enzyme, and P2X7 and A2A receptors, which are closely related to tumor progression [83, 84, 85, 86]. Tannic acid, a polyphenol, was shown to be able to induce cell death in several types of cancer cells, such as cutaneous melanoma, prostate cancer, glioblastoma [87, 88].
Thus, Bona et al. [89] tested the antitumor effect of this substance in rats with glioblastoma and the interference with ectonucleotidases, in which tannic acid was able to increase the hydrolysis of ATP and AMP nucleotides and decrease the hydrolysis of ADP in platelets of the animals treated compared with untreated. In the lymphocytes of the animals with the disease that received tannic acid, this polyphenol decreased the hydrolysis of ATP and ADP and the degradation of adenosine in relation to the group with the disease that did not receive the substance. When comparing the levels of ectonucleotidases in control mice, those with glioblastoma and those with glioblastoma treated with tannic acid, it was observed that the substance was able to maintain levels similar to those in mice without the disease. Bearing in mind that the purinergic system is able to modulate tumor progression, the aggressiveness of this type of cancer, and the results obtained in the study in question, tannic acid can be considered a promising agent for the treatment of cancer [89].
Regarding purinergic system modulation and the antitumor effect on cutaneous melanoma, Silva et al. [5] proposed the hypothesis that rosmarinic acid, a polyphenol with antitumor effect, would be able to modulate purinergic signaling and prevent tumor progression and metastasis by two-way means: by blocking the P2X7 receptor or by antagonizing the P2Y12 receptor. Interestingly, a paper that focused on Salvia
Coffee (
Quercetin, an abundant flavonoid in plants, also demonstrated antitumor activity in cell lines of bladder cancer, glioblastoma, and hepatocarcinoma and inhibited the activity and expression of ecto-5′- NT/CD73, leaving less Ado available in the TME, consequently preventing immunosuppression [94, 95, 96].
Apigenin (4′,5,7-trihydroxyflavone) is a flavonoid present in significant amounts in parsley, onion, celery, orange, chamomile, oregano, and basil that has shown a beneficial effect in diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer’s, diabetes, and depression [97, 98]. Cutaneous melanoma cells (A375) were treated with these substance and, in addition to the decrease in cell viability, they had an increase in ATPase activity and a concomitant reduction in the ATP/ADP ratio related to the apoptotic process of cancer cells, demonstrating that the present substance has an effect antitumor in addition to acting in purinergic system [99].
The carcinogenesis can be initiated by the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), since the antioxidant defenses cannot neutralize these molecules. From this, the antioxidant compounds seem to be important against tumor formation, such as the phenolic acids, which can prevent DNA alterations and genome instability. The literature has shown that rosmarinic acid is an example of a powerful antioxidant for the protection of the DNA against UV and H2O2 [100].
Vitamin D, in turn, is a fat-soluble vitamin, in which its deficiency is closely related to carcinogenesis [101]. This vitamin is available in two forms: vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol), where it can be obtained through the diet, but 90% of the daily needs are produced by the skin itself and later must be hydroxylated by the liver and kidneys, in order to obtain 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, the metabolically active form of vitamin D [102]. In metastatic melanoma cells, SK-Mel-28-treated with 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, there was decrease in cell viability, as well as the expression and activity of the CD73 enzyme and the levels of Ado, which has a suppressive function of tumor immunity and is essential for progression tumor, becoming a promising candidate for the adjuvant treatment of cutaneous melanoma [103].
As evidenced, cutaneous melanoma is a malignant neoplasm of great medical importance due to high rates of resistance to treatments and relapses, and for this reason, it is necessary to search for new and effective pharmacological therapies. In this context, the potential of some compounds in modulations of this pathway signaling, such as rosmarinic acid, resveratrol, tannic acid, as well as vitamin D, has been elucidated in this study. Of course, more research needs to be done to open up new horizons in the treatment of melanoma by the purinergic signaling, but the discovery of new ways to improve the anticancer pharmacological perspective has already begun.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
MDB acknowledges grant support by Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq, proj. No 310606/2021–7) and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa e Inovação do Estado de Santa Catarina (FAPESC, proj. No 2021TR1543). GBS, DM, MM, and MDB also thank Fundo de Apoio à Manutenção e ao Desenvolvimento da Educação Superior (FUMDES/UNIEDU) for the graduate scholarships.
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Due to its advantages of abundant resources, less in cost, great workability and high physical properties, fly ash leads to achieving high mechanical properties. Fly ash is considered as one of the largest generated industrial solid wastes or so-called industrial by-products, around the world particularly in China, India, and USA. The characteristics of fly ash allow it to be a geotechnical material to produce geopolymer cement or concrete as an alternative of ordinary Portland cement. Many efforts are made in this direction to formulate a suitable mix design of fly ash-based geopolymer by focusing on fly ash as the main prime material. The physical properties, chemical compositions, and chemical activation of fly ash are analyzed and evaluated in this review paper. Reference has been made to different ASTM, ACI standards, and other researches work in geopolymer area.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Aissa Bouaissi, Long Yuan Li, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Romisuhani Ahmad, Rafiza Abdul Razak and Zarina Yahya",authors:null},{id:"73729",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93500",title:"Solar Energy and Its Purpose in Net-Zero Energy Building",slug:"solar-energy-and-its-purpose-in-net-zero-energy-building",totalDownloads:603,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The Net Zero Energy Building is generally described as an extremely energy-efficient building in which the residual electricity demand is provided by renewable energy. Solar power is also regarded to be the most readily available and usable form of renewable electricity produced at the building site. In contrast, energy conservation is viewed as an influential national for achieving a building’s net zero energy status. This chapter aims to show the value of the synergy between energy conservation and solar energy transfer to NZEBs at the global and regional levels. To achieve these goals, both energy demand building and the potential supply of solar energy in buildings have been forecasted in various regions, climatic conditions, and types of buildings. Building energy consumption was evaluated based on a bottom-up energy model developed by 3CSEP and data inputs from the Bottom-Up Energy Analysis System (BUENAS) model under two scenarios of differing degrees of energy efficiency intention. The study results indicate that the acquisition of sustainable energy consumption is critical for solar-powered net zero energy buildings in various building styles and environments. The chapter calls for the value of government measures that incorporate energy conservation and renewable energy.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan",authors:[{id:"317852",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Esmaeili Shayan",slug:"mostafa-esmaeili-shayan",fullName:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan"}]},{id:"67105",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86279",title:"Social Innovation and Environmental Sustainability in Social Housing Policies: Learning from Two Experimental Case Studies in Italy",slug:"social-innovation-and-environmental-sustainability-in-social-housing-policies-learning-from-two-expe",totalDownloads:1011,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This chapter critically examines approaches and solutions developed by social housing to sustainably respond to the housing emergency plaguing contemporary cities and Italian cities in particular. In a broader perspective, we also investigate how housing has become ‘difficult’ in Europe and the poorest segments of the population run the risk of having their right to housing dramatically denied. Analysing housing in terms of its procedural dimension, we focus on two Italian case studies that evoke a new way of inhabiting the city, cases in which high standards characterised social housing and yet remain accessible to all. The Sharing hotel residence in Turin and Zoia social housing in Milan combine housing with other socially innovative measures in a framework of sustainability and avant-garde construction. These are significant examples that speak to issues such as temporariness, flexibility and the coordination of measures. These two cases both pursued objectives having to do with social, planning, architectural and environmental quality, albeit each in their own way. There are by now numerous examples of social housing in Europe and these have recently attracted growing interest in Italy as well; in this country, however, such projects represent valid instances of experimentation but are not at all widespread.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Rossana Galdini and Silvia Lucciarini",authors:[{id:"281246",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Lucciarini",slug:"silvia-lucciarini",fullName:"Silvia Lucciarini"},{id:"282958",title:"Prof.",name:"Rossana",middleName:null,surname:"Galdini",slug:"rossana-galdini",fullName:"Rossana Galdini"}]},{id:"67084",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86278",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1362,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"57401",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71325",title:"Basic Schemes: Preparations for Applying Control Science to Sustainable Design",slug:"basic-schemes-preparations-for-applying-control-science-to-sustainable-design",totalDownloads:1223,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"It is the ultimate goal for humankind to deal with various problems and achieve sustainability. Control science can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks and has already produced remarkable results. Accordingly, applying control science to the task of achieving sustainability is a rational and reliable approach. In order to apply control science to sustainability issues, our first study has shown the “basic control system for sustainability” as well as the “model of sustainability.” After that, in order to identify system components of practical control systems for promoting sustainable design, we have devised “two-step preparatory work for sustainable design.” The two steps of this preparatory work are “determining the relationships between the standard human activities and sustainability” and “sustainability checkup on human activities as an object.”",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71982",title:"Net-Zero Energy Buildings: Principles and Applications",slug:"net-zero-energy-buildings-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:2226,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Global warming and climate change are rising issues during the last couple of decades. With residential and commercial buildings being the largest energy consumers, sources are being depleted at a much faster pace in the recent decades. Recent statistics shows that 14% of humans are active participant to protect the environment with an additional 48% sympathetic but not active. In this chapter, net-zero energy buildings design tools and applications are presented that can help designers in the commercial and residential sectors design their buildings to be net-zero energy buildings. Case studies with benefits and challenges will be presented to illustrate the different designs to achieve a net-zero energy building (NZEB).",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Maher Shehadi",authors:null},{id:"57400",title:"Case Study: Detached House Designed by Following the Control System",slug:"case-study-detached-house-designed-by-following-the-control-system",totalDownloads:1548,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The previous chapter has demonstrated the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Following this control system, we have actually designed and constructed a detached house. To be concrete, the homeowner and the architects of the housing manufacture have designed the home’s parts, or elements, so that as much as possible the elements’ variables meet their desired values. The sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist have been readily accepted because the material and spatial elements are equivalent to real parts of the home. After the home started to be used, we have obtained external evaluations of the home’s sustainability performance. For example, CASBEE for Detached Houses, a comprehensive assessment system, has readily ranked the house in the highest “S.” An energy-saving performance assessment has shown that this home has reduced energy consumption by over 70%, as compared with the average home. On the other hand, the reactions of the occupants and visitors have indicated the comfort, healthiness and safety of this house. Furthermore, this home has received a sustainable housing award, especially due to its extremely high sustainability and energy-saving performance.",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"67084",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1362,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"65804",title:"Effects of Street Geometry on Airflow Regimes for Natural Ventilation in Three Different Street Configurations in Enugu City",slug:"effects-of-street-geometry-on-airflow-regimes-for-natural-ventilation-in-three-different-street-conf",totalDownloads:1401,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Efficient natural ventilation is dependent on the micro climate conditions of an urban environment. This is affected by ambient wind flow, radiation and air temperatures. The airflow within the urban street can be cultivated into two regions. The first is a recirculation region, which forms in the near wake of each building. The Second is a ventilated region downstream of the recirculation region, formed when the street is sufficiently wide. The development of the flow into these two regions depends on geometry. This chapter looks at the impacts of street geometry on these regions of airflow cultivation in three different street configurations in high density residential settlements in Enugu city. It utilized schematic analysis of airflow regimes to identify the behaviors of flow in these street configurations relative to the height and width ratios of the street canyon. This schematic analysis can be utilized in preliminary design studies by city and building designers for justifying street dimensions and configurations in tropical regions where natural ventilation is paramount.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Jideofor Anselm Akubue",authors:[{id:"139659",title:"Dr.",name:"Akubue",middleName:"Jideofor",surname:"Anselm",slug:"akubue-anselm",fullName:"Akubue Anselm"}]},{id:"66000",title:"Fundamentals of Natural Ventilation Design within Dwellings",slug:"fundamentals-of-natural-ventilation-design-within-dwellings",totalDownloads:962,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Along with acoustical and lighting comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort upon households are essential to maintain a proper indoor environment, therefore ensuring a welfare toward the occupants. Nevertheless, sometimes, these features are neglected by building designers and constructers, causing problems such as the so-called sick building syndrome (SBS) and thermal discomfort, among others. Although there are short-term solutions such as purifiers, extractors, fans, and air conditioning, eventually these methods become not sustainable activities that consume energy and emit polluting gases such as chlorofluorocarbons. One alternative to this is natural ventilation, understood as the airflow throughout a building caused by changes of pressures naturally produced. In this chapter, the role of the early-stage building design as well as the correct occupant behavior is presented as essential to develop a naturally ventilated dwelling, which is an excellent alternative to achieve proper levels of indoor environment in a sustainable manner.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez",authors:[{id:"282172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Oropeza-Perez",slug:"ivan-oropeza-perez",fullName:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"128",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He has taught at Thompson Rivers University, Canada; University of Paris-Est, France; Osnabruck University of Applied Science, Germany; and Shanghai Institute of Technology and Tianjin University of Technology, China. He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. 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This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/209537",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"209537"},fullPath:"/profiles/209537",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()