Same materials have been obtained as single crystals by the means of solid-state reaction.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6804",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Carbon Capture, Utilization and Sequestration",title:"Carbon Capture, Utilization and Sequestration",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is divided in two sections. Several chapters in the first section provide a state-of-the-art review of various carbon sinks for CO2 sequestration such as soil and oceans. Other chapters discuss the carbon sequestration achieved by storage in kerogen nanopores, CO2 miscible flooding and generation of energy efficient solvents for postcombustion CO2 capture. The chapters in the second section focus on monitoring and tracking of CO2 migration in various types of storage sites, as well as important physical parameters relevant to sequestration. Both researchers and students should find the material useful in their work.",isbn:"978-1-78923-765-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-764-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-716-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73109",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"carbon-capture-utilization-and-sequestration",numberOfPages:196,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"bc6cd79987121b45dfa7f4cc6ba0ca1b",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",publishedDate:"September 12th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6804.jpg",numberOfDownloads:15777,numberOfWosCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:51,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:104,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 15th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 5th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 6th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 25th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 24th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",middleName:null,surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38519/images/system/38519.jpg",biography:"Professor Ramesh K. Agarwal is William Palm Professor of Engineering at Washington University in St. Louis, USA. From 1994 to 2001, he was Sam Bloomfield Distinguished Professor and Executive Director of the National Institute for Aviation Research at Wichita State University in Kansas. From 1978 to 1994, he worked in various scientific and managerial positions at McDonnell Douglas Research Laboratories in St. Louis; he became the Program Director and McDonnell Douglas Fellow in 1990. Dr. Agarwal received a PhD in Aeronautical Sciences from Stanford University in 1975, an MS in Aeronautical Engineering from the University of Minnesota in 1969, and a BS in Mechanical Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India in 1968. Dr. Agarwal has worked in computational fluid dynamics and its applications to problems in aerospace and mechanical engineering, and energy and the environment.",institutionString:"Washington University in St. Louis",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Washington University in St. Louis",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"784",title:"Environmental Technology",slug:"engineering-environmental-engineering-environmental-technology"}],chapters:[{id:"63073",title:"Carbon Sequestration in Soils: The Opportunities and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79347",slug:"carbon-sequestration-in-soils-the-opportunities-and-challenges",totalDownloads:3867,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Recently, the contributions of the soil in various ecosystems have become more prominent with the recognition of its role as a carbon sink and the potential of that in reducing the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2), which is a vital greenhouse gas, from the atmosphere. Conversely, the soil capacity to increase the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere through mineralization of organic matter is also a source of concern. Mineralization of only 10% of the soil organic carbon pool globally is believed to be equivalent to about 30 years of anthropogenic emissions. This underscores the need to preventing carbon loss (emission) from the soil resource. Globally, the soil contains a large carbon pool estimated at approximately 1500Gt of organic carbon in the first one meter of the soil profile. This is much higher than the 560 Gt of carbon (C) found in the biotic pool and twice more than atmospheric CO2. By holding this huge carbon stock, the soil is preventing carbon dioxide build up in the atmosphere which will confound the problem of climate change. There are a lot of strategies used in sequestering carbon in different soils, however, many challenges are being encountered in making them cost effective and widely acceptable.",signatures:"Ahmed Chinade Abdullahi, Chamhuri Siwar, Mohamad Isma’il\nShaharudin and Isahak Anizan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63073",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63073",authors:[{id:"242472",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Abdullahi",slug:"ahmed-abdullahi",fullName:"Ahmed Abdullahi"},{id:"243316",title:"Prof.",name:"Chamhuri",surname:"Siwar",slug:"chamhuri-siwar",fullName:"Chamhuri Siwar"},{id:"243317",title:"Dr.",name:"Anizan",surname:"Isahak",slug:"anizan-isahak",fullName:"Anizan Isahak"},{id:"243318",title:"Mr.",name:"Shaharuddin",surname:"Mohamad",slug:"shaharuddin-mohamad",fullName:"Shaharuddin Mohamad"}],corrections:null},{id:"62458",title:"Enhancing Carbon Sequestration Using Organic Amendments and Agricultural Practices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79336",slug:"enhancing-carbon-sequestration-using-organic-amendments-and-agricultural-practices",totalDownloads:1866,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Carbon sequestration (CS) is an important strategy for the mitigation of climate change (CC) as well as for improving the soil fertility of agricultural soils. Carbon sequestration in crop lands and rangelands requires a certain amount of organic matter (OM) presence in the soil called soil organic matter (SOM). Organic amendments like animal and poultry manures, the incorporation of different crop residues, different types of compost, sugarcane bagasse, peat soils, different wood chips, biochar and good agricultural practices like cover crops, nutrient management, mulching, zero and no-tillage techniques, soil biota management and mulching are effectively used for this purpose. These enhance the SOM and improve the soil’s physical and chemical properties which help to sequester more C in soil which ultimately contributes towards CS and CC mitigation.",signatures:"Zia Ur Rahman Farooqi, Muhammad Sabir, Nukshab Zeeshan,\nKhurram Naveed and Muhammad Mahroz Hussain",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62458",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62458",authors:[{id:"250964",title:"Mr.",name:"Zia Ur Rahman",surname:"Farooqi",slug:"zia-ur-rahman-farooqi",fullName:"Zia Ur Rahman Farooqi"},{id:"261006",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sabir",slug:"muhammad-sabir",fullName:"Muhammad Sabir"},{id:"261007",title:"Mr.",name:"Nukshab",surname:"Zeeshan",slug:"nukshab-zeeshan",fullName:"Nukshab Zeeshan"}],corrections:null},{id:"61834",title:"Blue Carbon on Polar and Subpolar Seabeds",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78237",slug:"blue-carbon-on-polar-and-subpolar-seabeds",totalDownloads:1527,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"When marine organisms eat and grow they capture and store carbon, termed blue carbon. Polar seas have extreme light climates and sea temperatures. Their continental shelves have amongst the most intense phytoplankton (algal) blooms. This carbon drawdown, storage and burial by biodiversity is a quantifiable ‘ecosystem service’. Most of that carbon sinks to be recycled by microbes, but some enters a wider food web of zooplankton and their predators or diverse seabed life. How much carbon becomes stored long term or buried to become genuinely sequestered varies with a wide range of factors, e.g. geography, history, substratum etc. The Arctic and Antarctic are dynamic and in a phase of rapid but contrasting, complex physical change and marine organismal carbon capture and storage is altering in response. For example, an ice shelf calving a 5000 km2 iceberg actually results in 106 tons of additional blue carbon per year. Polar blue carbon increases have resulted from new and longer climate-forced, phytoplankton blooms driven by sea ice losses and ice shelf collapses. Polar blue carbon gains with sea ice losses are probably the largest natural negative feedback against climate change. Here the current status, variability and future of polar blue carbon is considered.",signatures:"David Keith Alan Barnes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61834",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61834",authors:[{id:"244831",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Barnes",slug:"david-barnes",fullName:"David Barnes"}],corrections:null},{id:"62476",title:"Carbon Dioxide Utilization and Sequestration in Kerogen Nanopores",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78235",slug:"carbon-dioxide-utilization-and-sequestration-in-kerogen-nanopores",totalDownloads:1112,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbon dioxide (CO2) has been injected into oil reservoirs to maximize production for decades. On the other hand, emitted CO2 from industrial processes is captured and stored in geological formations to mitigate greenhouse gas effects. As such, greater attention is drawn to the potential of utilizing the captured CO2 in EOR processes. A significant portion of the injected CO2 remains trapped due to capillary forces and through dissolution in residual liquids. In organic-rich shales, the presence of isolated kerogen nanopores add to the sequestration process due to the adsorptive nature of the surface and its preference to CO2 over methane (CH4), in addition to the sealing capacities of these formations. This work summarizes the latest findings of the literature with the purpose of defining further areas of investigation to fully capitalize on the potential of CO2 sequestration and utilization in kerogen nanopores.",signatures:"Cudjoe Sherifa and Barati Reza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62476",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62476",authors:[{id:"194161",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",surname:"Barati",slug:"reza-barati",fullName:"Reza Barati"},{id:"246162",title:"Dr.",name:"Sherifa",surname:"Cudjoe",slug:"sherifa-cudjoe",fullName:"Sherifa Cudjoe"}],corrections:null},{id:"62098",title:"CO2 Miscible Flooding for Enhanced Oil Recovery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79082",slug:"co2-miscible-flooding-for-enhanced-oil-recovery",totalDownloads:1961,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbon capture aims to mitigate the emission of CO2 by capturing it at the point of combustion then storing it in geological reservoirs or applied through enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in a technology known as miscible flooding, so reduce CO2 atmospheric emissions. Miscible CO2-EOR employs supercritical CO2 to displace oil from a depleted oil reservoir. CO2 improve oil recovery by dissolving in, swelling, and reducing the oil viscosity. Hydrocarbon gases (natural gas and flue gas) used for miscible oil displacement in some large reservoirs. These displacements may simply amount to “pressure maintenance” in the reservoir. In such flooding techniques, the minimum miscibility pressure determined through multiple contact experiments and swelling test to determine the optimum injection conditions.",signatures:"Abdelaziz Nasr El-hoshoudy and Saad Desouky",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62098",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62098",authors:[{id:"201556",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelaziz",surname:"El-Hoshoudy",slug:"abdelaziz-el-hoshoudy",fullName:"Abdelaziz El-Hoshoudy"},{id:"253401",title:"Prof.",name:"Saad",surname:"Desouky",slug:"saad-desouky",fullName:"Saad Desouky"}],corrections:null},{id:"61782",title:"An Innovative Approach in Post Combustion Carbon Capture and Sequestration towards Reduction of Energy Penalty in Regeneration of Solvent",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78394",slug:"an-innovative-approach-in-post-combustion-carbon-capture-and-sequestration-towards-reduction-of-ener",totalDownloads:1108,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"India as a fast growing economy is pursuing strategic knowledge mission for focused research in the area of climate change. Our R&D in Carbon Capture & Sequestration (CCS) will be initially focused on post combustion carbon capture on coal fired power plants. India is 3rd largest emitter of world after China and US with a share of 6.9% in global emission of CO2, however, India’s per capita GHG emission is only 1.6 MT per annum (MTPA) which is well below the world average 7.5 MTPA. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change aims to develop a better understanding of Climate Science impacts and challenges. The planning commission has announced the Government’s interest in adding a ninth mission i.e. ‘Clean Coal Technologies mission’ that would include Carbon Capture & Sequestration. As regards Carbon Capture & Sequestration (CCS) on coal fired power plants in India is concerned, an innovative concept of integrating solar thermal for steam production will pave way for reducing energy penalty in regeneration of solvents from a level of over 15% to around 05%. This chapter deals with an innovative approach of CCS in which the major issues of energy penalty reduction have been taken care of through use of Solar Steam Generation, through concentrated solar plant (CSP) with 24 × 7 thermal energy storage (TES).",signatures:"Vinod Krishna Sethi and Partha S. Dutta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61782",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61782",authors:[{id:"242972",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinod Krishna",surname:"Sethi",slug:"vinod-krishna-sethi",fullName:"Vinod Krishna Sethi"},{id:"253427",title:"Dr.",name:"Partha Sarthi",surname:"Dutta",slug:"partha-sarthi-dutta",fullName:"Partha Sarthi Dutta"}],corrections:null},{id:"62027",title:"Chemical Absorption by Aqueous Solution of Ammonia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78545",slug:"chemical-absorption-by-aqueous-solution-of-ammonia",totalDownloads:1188,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbon capture is proposed as a viable way of exploiting the fossil resources for power plants and industrial processes. The post-combustion capture by chemical absorption in amine aqueous solutions has been in use in chemical and petrochemical areas for decades. As an alternative, the absorption in aqueous ammonia has received great attention recently. The carbon capture by aqueous ammonia is based on the conventional absorption-regeneration scheme applied to the ternary system CO2–NH3–H2O. It can be implemented in a chilled and a cooled process, depending upon the temperatures in the absorber and, hence, the precipitation of salts. The process simulation can be conducted in two manners: the equilibrium and the rate-based approaches. The specific heat duty is as low as 3.0, for the cooled process, and 2.2 MJ/kgCO2, for the chilled one. Moreover, the index SPECCA is as low as 2.6, for the cooled, and 2.9 MJ/kgCO2, for the chilled one. The overall energy performances from the simulations in the rate-based approach, compared against those in the equilibrium approach, result only slightly penalized. From an economic perspective, the carbon capture via chemical absorption by aqueous ammonia is a feasible retrofitting solution, yielding a cost of electricity of 82.4 €/MWhe and of avoided CO2 of 38.6 €/tCO2 for the chilled process.",signatures:"Gianluca Valenti and Davide Bonalumi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62027",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62027",authors:[{id:"214376",title:"Prof.",name:"Gianluca",surname:"Valenti",slug:"gianluca-valenti",fullName:"Gianluca Valenti"},{id:"243535",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Davide",surname:"Bonalumi",slug:"davide-bonalumi",fullName:"Davide Bonalumi"}],corrections:null},{id:"63227",title:"Geophysical Monitoring of CO2 Injection at Citronelle Field, Alabama",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78386",slug:"geophysical-monitoring-of-co2-injection-at-citronelle-field-alabama",totalDownloads:942,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbon dioxide (CO2) injection at the Citronelle oil field in Alabama has been deployed to determine the feasibility of carbon storage and enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in the depleted oil field. Citronelle is a small size city right above the oil field, hence, to detect geohazard risks, geophysical testing method using wireless sensor, and passive seismic technique is used: the non-intrusive measurements were made at well sites along two linear arrays. The outcomes of the geophysical monitoring at the Citronelle oil field are shear-wave velocity profiles that are correlated to the static stress distribution at different injection stages. Injection history interpretation using the stress wave monitoring indicates that CO2 injection resulted in the stressing of the strata.",signatures:"Shen-En Chen and Yangguang Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63227",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63227",authors:[{id:"92720",title:"Prof.",name:"Shenen",surname:"Chen",slug:"shenen-chen",fullName:"Shenen Chen"},{id:"255735",title:"Dr.",name:"Yangguang",surname:"Liu",slug:"yangguang-liu",fullName:"Yangguang Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"62470",title:"Tracking CO2 Migration in Storage Aquifer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79296",slug:"tracking-co2-migration-in-storage-aquifer",totalDownloads:1137,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Monitoring technologies for CO2 in geological carbon sequestration are based upon the physico-chemical and electromagnetic properties of the CO2-water/brine and rock system as well as the induced events such as micro-seismicity. As CO2 migrates in the subsurface, its interactions with elements like rock, water/brine can be used to track its presence and direction. For deep subsurface storage of CO2, methods like electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), seismicity, capillary pressure and relative permeability as well as geochemical measurements can be reliably employed in monitoring CO2. Other methods like membrane-sensor technique and gas accumulation chamber are mainly suitable for shallow geological sequestration. However, prior to the full-scale deployment, it is necessary to understand the principles of operations and limitations of the adopted technologies as well as obtain experimental and practical information from them. In the field application, pre-injection baseline assessment is necessary followed by critical assessments during the storage process and post-injection period. Accuracy in leakage quantification and identification of sinks are also important. Factors that can influence the results of these technologies include fluctuations of pressure, temperature, initial salinity level, initial pH level, porosity, fluid properties, porosity, tortuosity, pore size distribution, wettability, reservoir mineralogy and surface chemistry.",signatures:"Luqman Kolawole Abidoye and Diganta Bhusan Das",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62470",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62470",authors:[{id:"241382",title:"Dr.",name:"Luqman",surname:"Abidoye",slug:"luqman-abidoye",fullName:"Luqman Abidoye"}],corrections:null},{id:"62800",title:"Interfacial Tension and Contact Angle Data Relevant to Carbon Sequestration",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79414",slug:"interfacial-tension-and-contact-angle-data-relevant-to-carbon-sequestration",totalDownloads:1079,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Interfacial tension (IFT) between “native reservoir fluid” and “injected CO2” and the contact angle (CA) among the reservoir rock, native reservoir fluid, and injected CO2 are major factors that dictate the relative permeability and capillary pressure characteristics which in turn control the fluid flow and distribution characteristics in the reservoir and cap rocks. This chapter is a comprehensive review on the state-of-the-art of the experimentally measured and theoretically predicted IFT and CA data of water/brine-CO2-quartz/calcite/mica systems that are relevant to CO2 sequestration. Experimental techniques used to generate the IFT and CA data and details of molecular simulations used to predict the data are discussed. Respective comparisons of the IFT and CA data reported by various research groups are also made. Possible reasons for disagreements in the published literature are discussed, and suggestions are made for future research in this area to address the potential technical issues in order to obtain reproducible data.",signatures:"Prem Bikkina and Imran Shaik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62800",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62800",authors:[{id:"244106",title:"Dr.",name:"Prem",surname:"Bikkina",slug:"prem-bikkina",fullName:"Prem Bikkina"},{id:"248257",title:"Mr.",name:"Imran",surname:"Shaik",slug:"imran-shaik",fullName:"Imran Shaik"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1992",title:"Recent Advances in Aircraft Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"67fa903d68a094013f66d01b38882107",slug:"recent-advances-in-aircraft-technology",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1992.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5136",title:"Recent Progress in Some Aircraft Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6855bfb94011b56313a07020fa05ead6",slug:"recent-progress-in-some-aircraft-technologies",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5136.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. 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Neimyer, Kailey Roberts,\nWendy Lichtenthal, Jun Hu and Matthias Rauterberg",dateSubmitted:"September 5th 2017",dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 18th 2017",book:{id:"6456",title:"Proceedings of the Conference on Design and Semantics of Form and Movement",subtitle:"Sense and Sensitivity, DeSForM 2017",fullTitle:"Proceedings of the Conference on Design and Semantics of Form and Movement - Sense and Sensitivity, DeSForM 2017",slug:"proceedings-of-the-conference-on-design-and-semantics-of-form-and-movement-sense-and-sensitivity-desform-2017",publishedDate:"October 18th 2017",bookSignature:"Miguel Bruns Alonso and Elif Ozcan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6456.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"156855",title:"Dr.",name:"Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",slug:"elif-ozcan",fullName:"Elif Ozcan"}],productType:{id:"2",title:"Proceeding",chapterContentType:"conference paper",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"221149",title:"Dr.",name:"Wan Jou",middleName:null,surname:"She",fullName:"Wan Jou She",slug:"wan-jou-she",email:"lave@lavendershe.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"57127",slug:"toward-the-development-of-a-monitoring-and-feedback-system-for-predicting-poor-adjustment-to-grief",signatures:"Wan Jou She, Laurie Burke, Robert A. 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Psychometrics include objective measurement of cognitive functions (intelligence, memory, attention, reaction times, etc.), characteristics of personality (e.g. hypochondria, hysteria, paranoia, social introversion, psychotic traits), emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, surprise), behavior, and socio-educational qualities. Their constructs are also applied to emotional and mental disorders (especially anxiety and depression). Psychometric measures are inferred through mathematical models based on observation and statistical analysis conducted on a sample of subjects in comparison with the general population that leads to the planning of mental tests, scales, and open or close-ended questionnaires. Psychometricians usually possess specific qualifications such as those of psychologists and other operators with experience and training in psychometrics and with knowledge in measurements theories.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to provide an update on theoretical approaches, instruments, and procedures of modern psychometrics. Authors are encouraged to include examples of psychometric assessments in human experimental models and possible clinical applications in human disorders.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-189-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-188-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-190-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"c0fb1dfb98e0ae76496610595407145e",bookSignature:" Sandro Misciagna",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11441.jpg",keywords:"Psychometrics, Mathematical Base, Statistical Base, Psychometric Instrument, Psychometric Procedure, Human Cognition, Personality Testing, Clinical Application, Psychometric Experiments, Questionnaires, Neuropsychology, Psychological Testing",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 24th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 23rd 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Sandro Misciagna is a clinical neurologist and researcher in cognitive sciences with experience in the diagnosis and treatment of patients with cognitive disorders or affected by epilepsy. 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In 2003, he obtained a Ph.D. in Neuroscience with a thesis about the behavioural and cognitive profile of frontotemporal dementia. Dr. Misciagna has worked in various neurology departments, Alzheimer’s clinics, neuropsychiatric clinics, and neuro-rehabilitative departments. Since 2016, he has worked at the Neuroscience Department of Belcolle Hospital, Viterbo, dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of epilepsy.",institutionString:"Belcolle Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Ospedale di Belcolle",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444318",firstName:"Nika",lastName:"Karamatic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444318/images/20011_n.jpg",email:"nika@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The samples may be prepared as single crystals, polycrystalline powder, or a thin film. Glass and amorphous samples are from another class of materials. In this chapter, we discuss only the methods of synthesis of single crystals.
\nThe discovery of new materials passes necessarily by the X-ray single crystal method. Usually, the polycrystalline powder and thin film are designed for the known materials, where their structures have been determined by X-ray single crystal diffraction. It is possible to determine the crystal structure of the polycrystalline samples, but generally it shows some difficulty. However, powder XRD is generally dedicated to materials that cannot be prepared as single crystals like some pharmaceutical compounds.
\nThe four most adopted methods of synthesis of single crystals are solid-state, hydrothermal, slow evaporation at room temperature, and flux methods. Here, we discuss also the crystal structure prediction method at high pressure. Each method is controlled by several controllable and/or uncontrollable parameters. The parameters influence the obtaining of phase, morphology, and size of single crystals. The most important criterion in determining the crystal structure is the size of the single crystal and the crystallinity. These two parameters may be checked before the X-rays single crystal diffraction by using the binocular magnifying glass and the polarizing microscope.
\nThe solid-state method is the simplest method. The number of acting parameters is relatively few but difficult to control. This method is commonly used for the synthesis of the single crystals and polycrystalline powders of phosphates and arsenates of transition metals and monovalent cations [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
\nThe crystallization is a phenomenon which generally occurs during a phase change and accompanied by a thermal effect. It is carried out in two stages: germination and growth. The germination begins at a point where the phases are not in equilibrium, a condition can be favored by several factors such as crucible wall, impurity, amorphous. This step consists of the appearance within the reaction mixture of “germs.” The growth takes place in several stages: reorganization of the atoms, adsorption on the surface of the solid, diffusion, and fixation of the atoms on their final sites. Successive layers therefore aggregate on the faces of the crystal which sees its volume increase.
\nThe solid-state synthesis can be done into two steps:
Equipment used in solid-state synthesis.
The disadvantages of this method are that it is very slow and needs a lot of energy. In fact, the reaction occurs at high temperatures (500–2000°C) for several hours and for same time for several days. The heating at these temperatures may decompose the desired compound.
\nExperimentally, oxides and nitrates are bad reagents in the synthesis of single crystals, and they often give crystals with small size which is insufficient to do the x-ray single crystal diffraction. The mechanical grinding can be used to decrease the grain sizes and increase the specific surface then increase the reactivity.
\nThe cooling rate is a very important factor to obtain a single crystal with good crystallinity. The cooling rate should be as slow as possible and at least up to 50°C below the crystallization temperature. The choice of the size and the confirmation of the crystallinity of single crystals are initially done using a binocular magnifier (Figure 2) then by using the polarizing microscope. This choice is confirmed by the intensity and the width of the diffracted X-rays.
\nImage of a single crystal of the phase Na1.25Co2.187Al1.125(AsO4)3 [
\nTable 1 summarized that same materials have been obtained as single crystals by the means of solid-state reaction. The different parameters of the synthesis (reagents, pre-treatment temperature, temperature of synthesis, pre-treatment time, synthesis time, and cooling rate) are regrouped in the table.
\nSingle crystal | \nReagents | \nT1 (°C) | \nT2 (°C) | \nt1 | \nt2 | \nR | \nRef. | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LiCo2As3O10\n | \nLi2CO3 + CoCl2.6H2O + NH4H2AsO4\n | \n350 | \n730 | \n12 h | \n3days | \n5 K/h | \n[2] | \n
NaCo2As3O10\n | \nNaNO3 + Co(NO3)2 .6H2O + As2O5\n | \n400 | \n670 | \n24 h | \n3 days | \n5 K/h | \n[3] | \n
Na4Co7(AsO4)6\n | \nNaNO3 + Co(NO3)2 .6H2O + NH4H2AsO4\n | \n350 | \n750 | \n24 h | \n3 days | \n5 K/h | \n[4] | \n
K0.13Na3.87MgMo3O12\n | \nNa2CO3 + K2CO3 + (NH4)2Mo4O13 + Mg(NO3)2.6H2O | \n400 | \n600 | \n12 h | \n5 days | \n5 K/h | \n[5] | \n
Na2.77K1.52Fe2.57(AsO4)4\n | \nNa2CO3 + K2CO3 + Fe(NO3)3.9H2O + NH4H2AsO4\n | \n400 | \n850 | \n24 h | \n3 days | \n5 K/h | \n[6] | \n
K0. 86Na1.14CoP2O7\n | \nNaNO3 + KNO3 + Co(NO3)2.6H2O + NH4H2PO4\n | \n400 | \n660 | \n12 h | \n4 days | \n5 K/h | \n[7] | \n
Na2CoP1.5As0.5O7\n | \nNaNO3 + Co(NO3)2.6H2O + NH4H2PO4\n | \n350 | \n620 | \n12 h | \n3 days | \n5 K/h | \n[8] | \n
Na1.25Co2.187Al1.125(AsO4)3\n | \nNa2CO3 + Co(NO3)2 .6H2O + NH4H2AsO4\n | \n350 | \n800 | \n12 h | \n3 days | \n5 K/h | \n[9] | \n
Na3Co2(As0. 52P0. 48)O4As2O7\n | \nNa2CO3 + Co(NO3)2.6H2O + NH4H2AsO4 + NH4H2PO4\n | \n350 | \n700 | \n12 h | \n3 days | \n5 K/h | \n[10] | \n
K0.405Bi0.865AsO4\n | \nK2CO3 + Bi2O3 + NH4H2AsO4\n | \n400 | \n850 | \n12 h | \n30 days | \n5 K/h | \n[11] | \n
(Na0. 71Ag0. 29)2CoP2O7\n | \nNaNO3 + AgNO3 + Co(NO3)2·6H2O + NH4H2PO4\n | \n400 | \n620 | \n24 h | \n5 days | \n5 K/h | \n[12] | \n
Ag4Co7(AsO4)6\n | \nAgNO3 + Co(NO3)2·6H2O + As2O5\n | \n400 | \n1005 | \n24 h | \n5 days | \n5 K/h | \n[13] | \n
Na4Li0. 62Co5. 67Al0. 71(AsO4)6\n | \nNa2CO3 + LiOH.H2O + Co(NO3)2.6H2O + Al2O3 + NH4H2AsO4\n | \n400 | \n870 | \n24 h | \n5 days | \n5 K/h | \n[14] | \n
Ag3.68Co2(P2O7)2\n | \nAgNO3 + Co(NO3)2·6H2O + NH4H2PO4\n | \n350 | \n610 | \n12 h | \n3 days | \n5 K/h | \n[15] | \n
Na2Co2(MoO4)3\n | \nNaNO3+ Co(NO3)2·6H2O + (NH4)6Mo7O24\n | \n350 | \n650 | \n24 h | \n4 days | \n5 K/h | \n[16] | \n
Na7Li0.8K0.2Co5(As3O10)2(As2O7)2\n | \nNaNO3 + Co(CH3COO)2.4H2O + As2O5\n | \n400 | \n670 | \n12 h | \n7 days | \n5 K/h | \n[17] | \n
Same materials have been obtained as single crystals by the means of solid-state reaction.
T1, pre-treatment temperature; T2, temperature of synthesis; t1, pre-treatment time; t2, synthesis time; R, cooling rate.
The different parameters of the synthesis (reagents, pre-treatment temperature, temperature of synthesis, pre-treatment time, synthesis time, and cooling rate) are regrouped in the table.
The resolution of the structure same crystals needs the knowledge of its compositions by using elementary analysis such as the energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) (Figure 3).
\nSEM micrograph and EDX analysis of a single crystal of Na2CoP1.5As0.5O7 [
The synthesis of the single crystal by the means of hydrothermal method occurs usually in water at temperatures between 180 and 300°C. The reactor can be an autoclave (Figure 4) or a sealed glass tube (Figure 5). The pressure is controlled by the gas law [P =
Autoclave.
Sealed glass tube.
The hydrothermal conditions of an aqueous medium correspond to temperatures and pressures above 100°C and 1 bar, respectively. These conditions allow to considerably modify the chemistry of the cations in solution. They favor the formation of complex metastable structures of lower symmetry and involving smaller variations in enthalpy and entropy than under “normal” conditions [18, 19]. Hydrothermal conditions are also those of the geological processes during which many minerals were formed. In the laboratory, such conditions are achieved by heating a solution in a closed enclosure (autoclave and sealed glass tube) at temperatures of the order of 200–400°C.
\nThe thermodynamic properties of water up to temperatures of 1000°C and pressures of several tens of kilobars are well known [18]. Quantitative data are collected in numerous review articles [18, 19, 20, 21]. There are three essential points to remember.
The dielectric constant of water drops when the temperature increases. It increases by pressure increase [22] (Figure 6). The hydrothermal solutions are therefore characterized by low dielectric constants and the electrolytes which are completely dissociated under normal conditions preferentially form pairs of ions or complexes of low electrostatic charge.
The viscosity of water decreases with the increase of temperature [23], which leads to greater mobility of the dissolved species than under normal conditions.
The ionic product of water increases strongly with temperature [24] (Figure 7). The conductivity measurements allow establishing the law of variation of the ionic product as a function of temperature
Variation of the dielectric constant of water as a function of the temperature and the pressure [
Variation of the ionic product Ke of water as a function of the temperature and the density of the liquid [
The phosphate AgNi3PO4(HPO4)2 [25] has been obtained after 3 weeks of heating at 300°C in sealed glass tube filled with the mixture to about 25% in volume (Figure 5). The phase has been prepared from an aqueous solution of AgNO3, Ni(NO3)2.6H2O, and H3PO4 in the atomic ratio Ag:Ni:P = 2:1:2.
\nIn the other hand, most of the single crystals of the borophosphate family have been obtained by the hydrothermal rout. Kniep et al. [26] have prepared a lot of new borophosphates as a single crystal and they have developed an approach of the borophosphate crystal chemistry. They have classified the different existing materials in this family as the B/P ratio and as the coordination number of the bore [26].
\nIt is possible to obtained hybrid (organic/inorganic) materials by using this synthesis method. For example, the hybrid material with general formula Bis[4,4′-(propane-1,3-diyl)dipiperidinium]β-octamolybdate (VI) [27] (Figures 8 and 9) has been synthesized as single crystals by using the hydrothermal method in an autoclave at 150°C for 2 days.
\nProjection of the crystal structure of (C13H28N2)2[Mo8O26] along c-axis [
Representation of the inorganic part [Mo8O26]4− and the organic part (C13H28N2)2+ of (C13H28N2)2[Mo8O26] [
The effect of pressures on the crystal structure of same materials as the transformation of the ZnO from wurtzite to rock salt from 9 to 13 GPa is well known [28]. Another example is the transformation of the olivine structure at high pressure from the hexagonal close packing into the cubic close packing of the spinel structure [29]. Upon high pressure conditions (6 GPa, 1173 K) olivine-like LiMAsO4 (M = Fe, Co, Ni) transforms to spinel-like compounds where Li+ and M+2 ions randomly occupy 16d octahedral positions and the As+5 cations occupy the tetrahedral 8a sites [29] (Figure 10).
\nStructures of olivine-, Na2CrO4-, and spinel-like LiCoXO4 (X = P, As) [
Since 2006, the prediction of the structure at high pressures became an area of intense activity thanks to the development of the new computer program USPEX [30] by Oganov et al. The code was used with success to predict many new crystal structures, and the results were confirmed by the synthesis of same predicted materials such as Na-Cl system: Na3Cl, Na2Cl, Na3Cl2, Na4Cl3, NaCl3, and NaCl7 [31] and H-Cl system: H2Cl, H3Cl, H5Cl, and H4Cl7 [32, 33]. This result allows the discovery of new generation of materials where the core electrons can participate in the formation of chemical bonds. Thus, obviously, we will have very interesting physical and chemical properties.
\nIt is the simplest method, but it is suitable only for certain materials. The preparation protocol consists in weighing the reagents in the desired proportion and adding water or an organic base in a ratio that should be determined experimentally. Then the solution must be heated to reach the saturation.
\nThis method takes a few hours to obtain crystals as in the synthesis of NH4H2AsO4 or NH4H2PO4, and for other materials, it needs a few days. The condensation of ions in aqueous solution forms entities in which cations, identical or different, are linked by different types of oxygenated bridges, HO− or O2−. Thus, the value of pH is a very important factor in this method. In fact, the choice of pH must be chosen to co-precipitate the various reagents simultaneously. For example, in the ternary system H2O-NH3-As2O5, the adjusting of the pH at 4.3 allows the formation of NH4H2AsO4, and for a basic value of pH, the preparation gives a second phase: (NH4)2HAsO4.
\nThe following phosphate KCdHP2O7.2H2O (Figure 11) [34] has been obtained by slowly evaporation at room temperature. The method consists in the preparation of a saturated solution containing the reagents in the desired proportion. The reagents are dissolved in water then heated at 100°C for a few minutes to have a saturated solution. The solution obtained is transferred into a petri dish and left in a corner in the laboratory.
\nPerspective view of the structure of KCdHP2O7.2H2O showing the hydrogen bonds (dashed lines) and the location of the alkali metal cations [
The hybrid materials (organic base+ salt) may be synthesized by slow evaporation at room temperature. The best solvent can be used is the water. It is possible to add other solvent with water such as alcohol like in the preparation of (C7H7N2)2[CuCl4].2H2O [35]. In this type of materials, the organic part and the inorganic part are linked via hydrogen bond and π▬π bond as shown in Figure 12.
\nProjection of the structure of (C7H7N2)2[CuCl4].2H2O showing the alternating stacking of the organic and inorganic layers connected through hydrogen bonds. The face-to-face π▬π stacking between parallel organic molecules is noteworthy with a centroid-centroid distance of 3.968 (3) [
Another example may be sited in this section, the synthesis and the crystal structure of (C3H6N3)4Bi2Cl10 [36] which was grown by a slow evaporation of an aqueous solution of bismuth chloride (BiCl3) and 3-aminopyrazole (C3H5N3) in molar amount (1: 2) with a small excess of hydrochloric acid (HCl). The single crystals were obtained after 7 months of slow evaporation (Figure 13).
\nBi2Cl10 octahedron surrounded by aminopyrazolium entities, showing the H-Cl contacts [
Many organic compounds also have been crystallize by slow evaporation at room temperature such as alkyl-2-(2-imino-4-oxothiazolidin-5-ylidene) acetate [37], 3,4-
Usually, the flux method is used to grow materials as single crystals [40]. The main objective of this method is to decrease the crystallization temperature. This technique has been used to grow high melting phosphate crystals, arsenates, oxides, minerals, and ceramic crystals which cannot be obtained by the conventional solid-state method (Section 1). In this growth technique, the basic materials (solute precursors to crystallize) are reduced to a liquid form in an appropriate flow and the growth process starts when the solution reaches critical supersaturation. The resulting supersaturation and crystal growth are achieved by flow evaporation, solution cooling, or a transport process in which the solute is caused to flow from the hottest region to the coldest region.
\nThe understanding of the phase information about the materials is indispensable to optimize the crystal growth of multi-component system. Practically, binary or other above compositional systems can be easily described using the phase diagram. The phase diagram shows the crystallization or solidification within a material as a function of the material composition (% elements) and material temperature.
\nThe solvent can be a single element, compound, or combination of chemical compounds. The solute is an element or a compound with a melting point generally higher than that of the solvent but in principle it is quite possible to grow crystals from eutectic systems in which the “solvent” has a higher melting point.
\nFor more clarification, taking the example of LiPr(PO3)4 [40]. The material has been synthesized as a single crystal by the means of flux method. A mixture of Li2CO3 and Pr6O11 with stoichiometric ratio was dissolved in an excess of phosphoric acid H3PO4 (85%). The mixture was heated to 200°C for 12 h, then to 325°C for 5 days. Finally, the mixture was cooled slowly to room temperature. The single crystal was separated from the excess phosphoric acid by washing in boiling water [40].
\nWhen a solid is heated, some physical and chemical changes sintering, melting, and thermal decomposition can be observed. Sintering process results from crystal growth at the contact area between adjacent crystallites. As to conclude, the crystallites connect to each other, and the size increases [41, 42, 43].
\nIn high temperatures, as a result of ion movements, melting occurs. The ordered lattice array is replaced by the short-range order of the liquid state. Crystallization may proceed in the light of several different ways:
Vapor-solid (condensation)
Solution-solid (precipitation)
Melt-solid (freezing)
Solid A-Solid B (transformation)
It is well-known that there is a remarkable correlation between stability and energy. Stable states have low energy values. For the processes, final energy values of solids must be lower from the free energy of initial state of the systems. It should be noted that crystal formation process forms from two steps. First step is the formation of a new nucleus. Second step is the growth of the nucleus formed to form a particle of appreciable size. Crystals may contain some defects. In terms of the determination of crystal properties, these defects are quite important. In addition to these defects, distortion of lattice also may be possible. This condition is called as dislocation. Many important properties of crystals are due to the regions and numbers of these dislocations. Crystal growths can be via the following types:
growth from melt
high-temperature solution growth
flux growth
chemical vapor transport
hydrothermal synthesis
high-pressure synthesis
electrolytic reduction of fused salts
In high-temperature solution growth, the constituents of the crystals are dissolved in a suitable solvent and then when the solution becomes over saturated, crystallization occurs. In flux growth, crystals like ceramics and ferrites have been grown by the slow cooling of a solution in a molten flux. Chemical transport reactions are widely considered in the preparation of single crystals like magnetite.
\nIn this chapter, the methods of synthesis of crystalline materials and their stages are discussed. These methods are the most adopted and the most common in solid-state chemistry. Each synthesis method brings back to crystalline materials of different sizes returning to the synthesis conditions. The change of one of the parameters such as temperature, pressure, and reactional environment can influence the crystallinity and the size of the sample obtained. For this, the control of these parameters is essential in the synthesis of crystallized materials and in their reproducibility.
\nPhytoplankton live near the water surface to capture sufficient light for photosynthesis and act as the primary producer of the plankton community. They form the bottom levels of the marine and aquatic food webs, and their existence not only makes life in the water possible but also makes the ocean an important food source for mankind. Phytoplankton play a crucial role in the biogeochemical cycles of many important chemical elements, not only carbon but also of other elements, such as silica and nitrogen [1, 2, 3, 4]. The release and uptake of CO2 and CH4, and the excretion of dimethylsulphide by phytoplankton influence the atmosphere and climate [5]. As a result of the changes in their living condition, their composition and concentration vary over space and time, which in turn can influence the whole ecosystem, such as through the changes in the size structure, formation of harmful algal blooms and development of hypoxic regions. Blooms and hypoxia can disrupt food-webs and threaten human health.
Phytoplankton pigments capture sunlight. The resulting photosynthesis and its products, especially the oxygen and organic compounds, all rely on the light energy captured by the different phytoplankton pigments [6, 7, 8]. Chlorophyll
Light absorbed by phytoplankton pigments provides the initial energy for carbon cycles, and is also one of the major factors influencing the appearance of water color [13, 14, 15, 16]. To study this important water column phenomenon, ocean color remote sensing was first proposed in late 1970s. Satellite-based ocean color remote sensing provides unique observational capability to scientists for phytoplankton studies by providing synoptic views of the ocean with high spatial and temporal resolution. Since the Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) mission, chlorophyll
What follows, based on the most recent research findings from the ocean color community, is a brief review of how phytoplankton pigments are estimated from water samples, how pigment maps are derived from satellite measurements and what are the existing challenges and opportunities for the estimates and application of remote sensed pigments. This chapter is not meant to present a comprehensive list of all possible topics related to satellite-based pigment observations, but rather its focus is on the history of pigment retrievals with several examples showing major findings. For interested readers, a full breadth and depth knowledge in this field can be obtained by reading the refereed literature and technical reports compiled on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ocean color website (https://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov) and by International Ocean Color Coordinating Group (http://www.ioccg.org).
Optical properties of phytoplankton, especially the absorption coefficients of the pigments inside them (Figure 1), play a key role in determining not only the use of this radiant energy for photosynthesis, but also the penetration of the radiant energy within water. These pigment absorption coefficients are important for identifying and quantifying phytoplankton groups [12] and size class distributions (IOCCG report 15 and references therein), understanding of photosynthetic rate [11, 21], and in particular for ocean color interpretation.
Weight-specific (or pigment-specific) in vitro absorption spectra of various pigments derived from measuring the absorption spectra of individual pigments in solvent and shifting the maxima of the spectra according to Bidigare et al. [
Light absorption properties of phytoplankton cells from laboratory cultures as experimental materials have received a great deal of attention in fundamental photosynthesis research [22, 23]. However, the phytoplankton pigment absorption properties from natural water is the information needed in ocean color remote sensing. The collection of phytoplankton pigment information has been obtained from measurement of the spectral absorption of phytoplankton, usually through filtration onto a filter pad because of the low
Using data on pigment concentrations and their absorption properties, Kirkpatrick
Hoepffner and Sathyendranath [29] proposed Gaussian decomposition of phytoplankton absorption spectra. For the first time, this method decomposed the absorption spectra into Gaussian curve components and linked them to the light absorption coefficients of multiple pigments inside phytoplankton cells. Several studies followed this proxy to estimate multiple phytoplankton pigments for different water bodies [31, 32, 33] but were limited to using only
A portion of the light absorbed by phytoplankton pigments can be emitted at a longer wavelength in a physical process called fluorescence [36]. The energy dissipated in fluorescence is secondary to the amount absorbed and used for photosynthesis, but it is still significant enough to be observed in ocean color remote sensing data. Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll
Several factors influence phytoplankton fluorescence: nutrient conditions, stage of growth, physiological state of phytoplankton, pigment content and ratios, taxonomic position of algae, and photoadaptation [39, 40, 41].
Historically, chlorophyll
The introduction of pigment analyses by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) [48, 49] facilitated easy and accurate separation, identification, and quantification of phytoplankton pigments. Pigment detection based on HPLC methods enables quantification of over 50 phytoplankton pigments [11, 50]. Some of the pigments can be used as diagnostic pigments for phytoplankton groups (e.g., fucoxanthin for diatoms, peridinin for dinoflagellates, alloxanthin for cryptophytes, chlorophyll
Ocean color or aquatic remote sensing refers to the use of optical measurements made from aircraft or satellites to obtain information about the constituents of the waters.
Remote sensing can be classified as active or passive based on the energy source. Active remote sensing shots signal from the sensor platform (satellite or aircraft) to the water body and detects the return signal from it. Passive remote sensing observes the light that is reflected or emitted by the water body. The most commonly used light source for passive remote sensing is sunlight. Sensors detect the reflected or backscattered light coming from the water body. The launch of the first ocean color sensor Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) in 1978, started the era for passive satellite ocean color remote sensing.
Passive ocean-color remote sensing is conceptually simple (Figure 3). The signals captured by remote sensors provide information on the types and concentrations of the various constituents of the water body. The concentrations of optically-active substances present in the water can be estimated by inverting bio-optical algorithms with remote sensing data. Although this process can be fraught with difficulties, our understanding of the oceans has been completely revolutionized by ocean color remote sensing from daily to decadal temporal scales and local to global spatial scales
Conceptual figure of passive satellite ocean color remote sensing with Western Lake Erie as an example:
For a better understanding of phytoplankton in the global ocean from large spatial and temporal scales, ocean color remote sensing is the most efficient tool, with the advantages of cost-free satellite imagery access from NASA and others, thus providing a data source for hypothesis testing and more efficient utilization of limited
Phytoplankton pigments have a major effect on ocean color and are one of the primary reasons for studying it. Following the launch of CZCS, unprecedented data for studying the biology of the oceans have been obtained [55]. For the first time, chlorophyll
In the past decades, the identification of phytoplankton pigments from satellite remote sensing has been mainly focused on chlorophyll
In the process of obtaining phytoplankton pigment, especially chlorophyll
These methods account for regional variabilities in water properties and
For remote sensing of accessory pigments, Pan
Eq. (1) shows the polynomial algorithm for pigments, in which the blue-green band ratio was empirically related to pigment concentrations (Cpigs):
Where λ1 and λ2 represent the spectral band around blue (440–520) and green (555) region respectively, and
The semi-analytical algorithms obtain pigments from
Semi-analytical algorithms are relatively more complex. Based on the radiative transfer equation, remote sensing reflectance was defined as the ratio of upwelling radiance to downwelling irradiance, and its relationship with inherent optical properties of water constituents can be expressed as:
Where G is a parameter related to the environment and solar and sensor viewing geometry. The absorption coefficients of water (
Pigment concentrations can be estimated from phytoplankton absorption coefficients from Gaussian decomposition (Eqs. 3 and 4) or by using pigment specific absorption coefficients (Eq. 5). Figure 4 shows an example of Chl-a global distribution map obtained from MERIS ocean color data using a semi-analytical algorithm.
Chlorophyll
where σ
With
The measuring of ocean color from space and the increasing accuracy of
Empirical algorithms used to calculate chlorophyll
In recent years, the use of pigment data to map phytoplankton population and composition in the water column has become an established and convenient way of studying field phytoplankton [100]. Phytoplankton biomass and the structure of phytoplankton community have been widely quantified and assessed using photosynthetic pigment biomarkers [52, 100]. Photosynthetic pigments also function as indicators of the physiological condition of a phytoplankton community, which may be affected by environmental and trophic conditions [101]. Photosynthetic carotenoids (PSC) are dominant in high productivity waters, whereas photoprotective carotenoids (PPC) are more dominant in low productivity waters [102, 103]. In addition, intensive light increases the PPC:PSC ratio [104, 105]. Thus, the PPC:PSC ratio can be used as a good indicator of changes in environmental factors. Figure 5 shows the global maps of PPC and PSC from Wang et al. [74].
Global maps of photoprotective (PPC) and photosynthetic carotenoids (PSC) from Wang et al. [
The sustained time series of these phytoplankton properties from ocean color remote sensing has provided major advances in our understanding of carbon dynamics, plankton annual cycles and their responses to climate variations. Simply, the satellite ocean color remote sensing of pigment will further improve the research revolution in oceanography.
Although ocean color remote sensing observations enabled advances in our understanding of phytoplankton in the ocean, there are several fundamental limitations in the passive radiometric technique. The major uncertainties of remote sensing pigment estimates are from atmospheric correction errors, as a result of the high signal contribution of components other than the targeted water to radiances measured by ocean color instruments, such as reflection from the ocean surface, surface foam, subsurface bubbles, and atmospheric constituents, including clouds, aerosols, and air molecules. A small error from the correction of these atmospheric contribution results in large errors in the obtained remote sensing reflectance and the associated pigment information ([106] and references therein).
Another challenge with ocean color remote sensing comes from the interferences of the optical properties of retrieved water components, including absorption by phytoplankton pigments, colored dissolved matter, and nonalgal particles, and backscattering by suspended particles. This makes the uncertainties from these properties and the derived geophysical parameters from them hard to reduce. The upcoming PACE mission is designed with expanded spectral range and resolution to address this problem [107].
Finally, clouds and strongly scattering aerosol layers have been significant limitation factors of the availability of satellite ocean color data. On average, about 70% of the Earth’s ocean area were covered by clouds on the daily scene obtained from a sensor. For broken cloud or aerosol interfered scenes, the accuracy of ocean color retrievals can be compromised compared to clear sky pixels. In high altitude regions, specifically the polar regions, cloud conditions and low sun angles limited ocean color sampling from late fall through early spring of next year. The lack of sampling for this long period of time makes it impossible for a complete understanding of the biogeochemistry and plankton annual cycles of some of the most productive waters [108].
Other issues are from the limitation of spectral, spatial, and temporal resolutions of the existing satellite sensors: some harmful algal blooms occurring in small lakes and ponds are not able to be detected by satellite sensors with low spatial resolution (~1 km); while the high spatial resolution sensors (e.g., Landsat 8) cannot provide timely coverage of bloom events due to their low temporal resolution.
The satellite ocean color remote sensing has been tasked to acquire remote sensing imagery, validate and monitor its accuracy, process the radiometric data into geophysical information using different algorithms, and apply the final products into scientific research. One of the principles of
Compared to passive ocean color remote sensing, lidar shows many advantages, such as operating at night and high latitudes, and can generally penetrate to the subsurface chlorophyll maximum [112, 113]. Airborne lidar is particularly useful for mapping the depth distribution of phytoplankton. The characteristic depth profiles of phytoplankton provide useful information for differentiation of phytoplankton species as described in Moore et al. [114] two different species of harmful Cyanobacteria in Lake Erie, USA can be identified by the differences in their characteristic depth profiles.
Combining the observations from lidar and ocean color sensors, especially the advanced upcoming PACE mission, would enable the achievement of greater synergies. The pairing of an ocean-optimized satellite profiling lidar with a passive ocean color sensor would provide maximized global data coverage, and enable three-dimensional reconstruction of ocean ecosystems, which would further favor the algorithm development, and expand the retrieval of geophysical properties.
We thank the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for providing the MERIS imagery, and the support from the NASA Advanced Information Systems Technology (AIST) program.
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Everyone must undergo this phase of life at his or her own time and pace. In the broader sense, ageing reflects all the changes taking place over the course of life. These changes start from birth—one grows, develops and attains maturity. To the young, ageing is exciting. Middle age is the time when people notice the age-related changes like greying of hair, wrinkled skin and a fair amount of physical decline. Even the healthiest, aesthetically fit cannot escape these changes. Slow and steady physical impairment and functional disability are noticed resulting in increased dependency in the period of old age. According to World Health Organization, ageing is a course of biological reality which starts at conception and ends with death. It has its own dynamics, much beyond human control. However, this process of ageing is also subject to the constructions by which each society makes sense of old age. In most of the developed countries, the age of 60 is considered equivalent to retirement age and it is said to be the beginning of old age. In this chapter, you understand the details of ageing processes and associated physiological changes.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Shilpa Amarya, Kalyani Singh and Manisha Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"226573",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shilpa",middleName:null,surname:"Amarya",slug:"shilpa-amarya",fullName:"Shilpa Amarya"},{id:"226593",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalyani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kalyani-singh",fullName:"Kalyani Singh"},{id:"243264",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"manisha-sabharwal",fullName:"Manisha Sabharwal"}]},{id:"55388",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68944",title:"Beauty, Body Image, and the Media",slug:"beauty-body-image-and-the-media",totalDownloads:7594,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter analyses the role of the mass media in people’s perceptions of beauty. We summarize the research literature on the mass media, both traditional media and online social media, and how they appear to interact with psychological factors to impact appearance concerns and body image disturbances. There is a strong support for the idea that traditional forms of media (e.g. magazines and music videos) affect perceptions of beauty and appearance concerns by leading women to internalize a very slender body type as ideal or beautiful. Rather than simply being passive recipients of unrealistic beauty ideals communicated to them via the media, a great number of individuals actually seek out idealized images in the media. Finally, we review what is known about the role of social media in impacting society’s perception of beauty and notions of idealized physical forms. Social media are more interactive than traditional media and the effects of self‐presentation strategies on perceptions of beauty have just begun to be studied. This is an emerging area of research that is of high relevance to researchers and clinicians interested in body image and appearance concerns.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Jennifer S. Mills, Amy Shannon and Jacqueline Hogue",authors:[{id:"202110",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mills",slug:"jennifer-s.-mills",fullName:"Jennifer S. Mills"}]},{id:"59227",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73385",title:"Differentiating Normal Cognitive Aging from Cognitive Impairment No Dementia: A Focus on Constructive and Visuospatial Abilities",slug:"differentiating-normal-cognitive-aging-from-cognitive-impairment-no-dementia-a-focus-on-constructive",totalDownloads:1314,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Constructive and visuospatial abilities in normal and in pathological aging (cognitive impairment, no dementia, CIND) are investigated. The sample includes 188 participants over 60 years of age, divided in 2 groups: healthy subjects (MMSE ≥28), without cognitive complaints, and individuals with CIND (MMSE between 24 and 27 and subjective cognitive complains). Drawing of cube and drawing of house, Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT), and Block design are used to test the hypothesis that short visuoconstructive and visuospatial tests can distinguish normal from pathological cognitive aging in its very early stages. Results proved the discriminative sensitivity of BVRT general assessment criteria and of omissions and distortions in CIND. The diagnostic sensitivity of a modification of Moore and Wike [1984] scoring system for house and cube drawing tasks was confirmed as well. Drawing of cube and house could be used for quick screening of CIND in subjects over 60. Principal component analysis with oblimin rotation was performed to explore the different dimensions in the visuospatial and visuoconstructive abilities in old age. A four-factor structure was established, all four factors explaining 71% of the variance.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Radka Ivanova Massaldjieva",authors:[{id:"75907",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Radka Ivanova",middleName:null,surname:"Massaldjieva",slug:"radka-ivanova-massaldjieva",fullName:"Radka Ivanova Massaldjieva"}]},{id:"59658",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74748",title:"Ageing Better in the Netherlands",slug:"ageing-better-in-the-netherlands",totalDownloads:1158,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Dutch National Care for the Elderly Programme was an initiative organized by the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMw) between 2008 and 2016. The aim of the programme was to collect knowledge about frail elderly, to assess their needs and to provide person-centred and integrated care better suited to their needs. The budget of EUR 88 million was provided by the Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sports. Putting the needs of elderly people at the heart of the programme and ensuring their active participation were key to the programme’s success. The programme outcomes included the establishment of eight geriatric networks around the medical universities with 650 organisations and the completion of 218 projects. These projects, involving 43,000 elderly people and 8500 central caregivers, resulted in the completion of 45 PhD theses and the publication of more than 400 articles and the development of 300 practice toolkits, one database and a website, www.beteroud.nl. The Dutch National Care for the Elderly Programme has since developed into a movement and continues under the consortium Ageing Better, made up of eight organisations. Through the use of ambassadors, Ageing Better promotes the message that ageing is not a disease but a new phase of life.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Betty Meyboom-de Jong, Klaske Wynia and Anjo Geluk-Bleumink",authors:[{id:"224997",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Betty",middleName:null,surname:"Meyboom-De Jong",slug:"betty-meyboom-de-jong",fullName:"Betty Meyboom-De Jong"},{id:"232900",title:"Dr.",name:"Klaske",middleName:null,surname:"Wynia",slug:"klaske-wynia",fullName:"Klaske Wynia"},{id:"232901",title:"Mrs.",name:"Anjo",middleName:null,surname:"Geluk-Bleumink",slug:"anjo-geluk-bleumink",fullName:"Anjo Geluk-Bleumink"}]},{id:"60424",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75435",title:"Characteristics of Hearing in Elderly People",slug:"characteristics-of-hearing-in-elderly-people",totalDownloads:1227,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The authors define the term presbycusis and discuss the prevalence of hearing loss in elderly people, its etiology, and methods of diagnostics (anamnesis, evaluation of the peripheral and central parts of the hearing system). The authors emphasize that central auditory processing disorder (CAPD) significantly impairs speech perception in elderly people and makes difficult the rehabilitation of patients with presbycusis. The possibility of improving speech intelligibility by using auditory training is considered. Improved functioning of the central auditory pathways in hearing aid (HA) users with moderate to moderately severe chronic sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) and symptoms of CAPD was shown after the auditory training with the use of two approaches (“bottom-up” and “top-down”). The algorithm of the auditory training was designed based on distinction between nonverbal and verbal stimuli of varying complexity, as well as tasks to improve memory (e.g., memorizing poetry). The benefits of the auditory training in the rehabilitation of HA users with low speech intelligibility were demonstrated. Improvement of speech intelligibility in elderly patients with SNHL proves that plasticity of the auditory regions of the brain remains possible throughout the life. Options of the presbycusis prophylaxis are summarized.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Maria Boboshko, Ekaterina Zhilinskaya and Natalia Maltseva",authors:[{id:"229552",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Boboshko",slug:"maria-boboshko",fullName:"Maria Boboshko"},{id:"229568",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Maltseva",slug:"natalia-maltseva",fullName:"Natalia Maltseva"},{id:"232968",title:"Dr.",name:"Ekaterina",middleName:null,surname:"Zhilinskaia",slug:"ekaterina-zhilinskaia",fullName:"Ekaterina Zhilinskaia"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60564",title:"Ageing Process and Physiological Changes",slug:"ageing-process-and-physiological-changes",totalDownloads:6785,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Ageing is a natural process. Everyone must undergo this phase of life at his or her own time and pace. In the broader sense, ageing reflects all the changes taking place over the course of life. These changes start from birth—one grows, develops and attains maturity. To the young, ageing is exciting. Middle age is the time when people notice the age-related changes like greying of hair, wrinkled skin and a fair amount of physical decline. Even the healthiest, aesthetically fit cannot escape these changes. Slow and steady physical impairment and functional disability are noticed resulting in increased dependency in the period of old age. According to World Health Organization, ageing is a course of biological reality which starts at conception and ends with death. It has its own dynamics, much beyond human control. However, this process of ageing is also subject to the constructions by which each society makes sense of old age. In most of the developed countries, the age of 60 is considered equivalent to retirement age and it is said to be the beginning of old age. In this chapter, you understand the details of ageing processes and associated physiological changes.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Shilpa Amarya, Kalyani Singh and Manisha Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"226573",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shilpa",middleName:null,surname:"Amarya",slug:"shilpa-amarya",fullName:"Shilpa Amarya"},{id:"226593",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalyani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kalyani-singh",fullName:"Kalyani Singh"},{id:"243264",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"manisha-sabharwal",fullName:"Manisha Sabharwal"}]},{id:"55388",title:"Beauty, Body Image, and the Media",slug:"beauty-body-image-and-the-media",totalDownloads:7605,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter analyses the role of the mass media in people’s perceptions of beauty. We summarize the research literature on the mass media, both traditional media and online social media, and how they appear to interact with psychological factors to impact appearance concerns and body image disturbances. There is a strong support for the idea that traditional forms of media (e.g. magazines and music videos) affect perceptions of beauty and appearance concerns by leading women to internalize a very slender body type as ideal or beautiful. Rather than simply being passive recipients of unrealistic beauty ideals communicated to them via the media, a great number of individuals actually seek out idealized images in the media. Finally, we review what is known about the role of social media in impacting society’s perception of beauty and notions of idealized physical forms. Social media are more interactive than traditional media and the effects of self‐presentation strategies on perceptions of beauty have just begun to be studied. This is an emerging area of research that is of high relevance to researchers and clinicians interested in body image and appearance concerns.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Jennifer S. Mills, Amy Shannon and Jacqueline Hogue",authors:[{id:"202110",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mills",slug:"jennifer-s.-mills",fullName:"Jennifer S. Mills"}]},{id:"56505",title:"Aesthetics of the Naked Human Body: From Pornography (Sexualised Lust Object) to Iconography (Aesthetics of Human Nobility and Wisdom) in an Anthropology of Physical Beauty",slug:"aesthetics-of-the-naked-human-body-from-pornography-sexualised-lust-object-to-iconography-aesthetics",totalDownloads:2053,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In many religious circles and philosophies of life, the human body is excluded from the realm of spirituality and meaning. Due to a dualistic approach, nudity is viewed as merely a physical and corporeal category. In social media, there is the real danger that the naked human body is exploited for commercial gain. Advertisements often leave the impression that the body, very specifically the genitals, is designed merely for physical desire and corporeal chemistry. They become easily objects for lust, excluded from the beauty of graceful existence and noble courage. It is argued that the naked human body is not designed for pornographic exploitation and promiscuous sensuality but for compassionate intimacy and nurturing care in order to instil a humane dimension in human and sexual encounters. In this regard, antiquity and the Michelangelesque perspective can contribute to a paradigm shift from abusive exploitation to the beauty of vulnerable sensitivity. In order to foster an integrative approach to theory formation in anthropology, the methodology of stereometric thinking is proposed.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Daniel J Louw",authors:[{id:"200645",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Johannes",surname:"Louw",slug:"daniel-louw",fullName:"Daniel Louw"}]},{id:"56059",title:"A Plastic Surgeon’s Perspective on Stereotyping and the Perception of Beauty",slug:"a-plastic-surgeon-s-perspective-on-stereotyping-and-the-perception-of-beauty",totalDownloads:1866,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In the world of plastic surgery, misconceptions may lead to irrational requests or outcomes not appreciated by patients. Those who manage aesthetics should always listen and recognize the variability of cultural identities, desires, attitudes, anxieties and uncertainties of the patient. Emerging from a diversity of cultures and its transforming trends, the scope of cosmetic surgery and its practice reflect not only the individual’s personality, but also the culture as a whole. When counseling an individual, one has to recognize that even in groups of seemingly identical social or cultural standards; there are subtle differences in expectations. To illustrate the potential for inaccuracy of ethnic profiling in the field of plastic surgery authors quote their own work on Asian subjects and facial beauty and resort to experience of others. To reaffirm their opinion and to exemplify how sometimes “fine” differences in the perception of beauty exist, an original study that evaluates the preferences among selected groups of Latina women in respect to buttock aesthetics has been included. This dissertation will focus on how cultural factors influence beauty perception; strengthen the fact that beauty is in the eye of the beholder and how variable differences exist even between small subgroups.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Johanna D’Agostino and Marek Dobke",authors:[{id:"17590",title:"Dr.",name:"Marek K.",middleName:null,surname:"Dobke",slug:"marek-k.-dobke",fullName:"Marek K. Dobke"},{id:"201244",title:"Dr.",name:"Johanna",middleName:null,surname:"D'Agostino",slug:"johanna-d'agostino",fullName:"Johanna D'Agostino"}]},{id:"55690",title:"Animae Pulchrae: Depiction of Saintly Images in Byzantine Mural Painting",slug:"animae-pulchrae-depiction-of-saintly-images-in-byzantine-mural-painting",totalDownloads:1704,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter investigates the visual aspects of physical beauty of the saintly images depicted within the painterly ensembles of Byzantine art in the period between sixth and fifteenth centuries. It also examines the processes of transposition of beauty as a religious and ideological notion into the visual sphere of its iconographic and aesthetic significance. During the millennium of development of Byzantine mural painting, the different categories of saints have evolved in assemblies of respectable and influential characters with whom the believers could communicate through silent prayers, as well as through their own self-comparison. In that process of ideological interaction between the faithful and the saints as the “constitutional members” of the painted microcosmos of Christian temples, the physical appearance of the saintly images was, by all means, a strong argument in the religious discourse regarding their role in the mission for salvation of humanity. In that regard, each saintly category has received different visual concept of aesthetic values related to their specific physical attraction. Hence, different saintly categories have acquired different aesthetic codes for visual configuration of beauty in the structural design of their iconographic appearance throughout the era of Byzantine artistic production.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Elizabeta Dimitrova",authors:[{id:"201062",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Elizabeta",middleName:null,surname:"Dimitrova",slug:"elizabeta-dimitrova",fullName:"Elizabeta Dimitrova"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1241",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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