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1. Introduction
Food emulsions are produced from two immiscible liquids (usually oil and water), which in the presence of an emulsifier and by applying an emulsification method, can be dispersed one into another. Some typical examples include mayonnaise, salad dressings, sauces, milk, ice cream, and sausages. These systems can be used to encapsulate, protect, and deliver biocompounds, including vitamins, flavors, colorants, and nutraceuticals [1]. Emulsifiers are food additives acting by forming a physical barrier between the oil and water, enabling their compatibilization. Effective emulsifiers must be quickly adsorbed at the oil–water interfaces leading to a rapid decrease in the interfacial tension, preventing droplets aggregation. Moreover, they must generate strong repulsive interactions promoting emulsion stability [2, 3].
Synthetic emulsifiers (e.g., Tweens and Spans) are well-known for their ability to form highly stable emulsions. However, consumers’ preferences for healthy, sustainable and natural lifestyle habits have increased worldwide. Moreover, some studies have reported intestinal dysfunctions caused by synthetic emulsifiers [4, 5]. In this context, natural emulsifiers have emerged as great alternatives to replace their conventional counterparts, namely proteins [6], polysaccharides [7], phospholipids [8] and saponins [9]. Concerning protein-based natural emulsifiers, the most use ones come from animal sources (e.g., whey proteins, caseins, egg protein, gelatin) [10]. However, plant-based proteins have demonstrated to be good alternatives for their replacement in products with dietary restrictions (e.g., lactose-free) and in vegetarian and vegan foods. Moreover, plant-based proteins are more sustainable as they have a lower carbon footprint [11, 12]. Examples include pea [13, 14] and soy proteins [15], which have been reported for emulsions production.
Aligned with natural emulsifiers, Pickering stabilizers (in particular organic-based colloidal particles) are emerging as promising solutions. Pickering emulsions or particle-stabilized emulsions present high resistance to coalescence and Oswald ripening due to the tight fixation of the particles to the droplets surface [16]. Several food-grade particles have been studied, namely particles based on proteins [17], polysaccharides [18], and protein/polysaccharide complexes [19]. Furthermore, natural emulsifiers from microbial origin such as biosurfactants and bioemulsifiers are also potential alternatives to be explored in food emulsions [20, 21].
This chapter covers a bibliographic review focused on the last 10-years on natural emulsifiers and emulsion technology field. Research and market trends are also highlighted, showing the most relevant natural emulsifier families. Basic concepts concerning emulsion production, classification, and stabilization methods are introduced. A special emphasis is given to Pickering emulsions regarding novel trends in food emulsion systems.
1.1 Bibliometric and market trend analysis
According to the Research and Markets report, amidst the Covid-19 crisis, the global emulsifiers’ market is projected to reach US$ 6.1 Billion by 2027, growing at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 4.8% over the forecast period (2020–2027). Particularly, natural emulsifiers’ area is estimated to get US$ 3.3 Billion, recording a 5.4% CAGR [22]. In agreement, the “Global Food Emulsifiers Market 2020-2027 report” from MarketResearch, foresees a high potential for the plant-based emulsifiers in the global food emulsifiers market [23].
Concurrently, scientific literature corroborates the global food emulsifiers report’s projections. More than 8,000 documents were found using the terms “natural emulsifier*” OR “bioemulsifier*” OR “bio-emulsifier*” OR “biosurfactant*” OR “bio-surfactant*” OR “Pickering emulsion*” searched in title, abstract, keywords and Keywords plus sections using the Web of Science Core Collection (SCI-EXPANDED), in the 2010–2020 period. Excluding documents with early publication and applying the “Food Science and Technology” filter from WOS, 792 documents were found. By removing 4 documents from 2021 in a final manual screening, 788 documents were analyzed using Biblioshiny app from the Bibliometrix-R package (RStudio) [24] and VosViewer software [25]. The survey was performed on April 25th, 2021.
Table 1 presents some of the retrieved 788 documents concerning the application of natural emulsifiers or Pickering stabilizers in emulsion formation/stability, including their use in biocompound delivery systems. Some works regarding the production of bioemulsifiers or biosurfactants by microorganisms were also found [31, 32]. Several studies addressing Pickering emulsions and the use of high-pressure homogenization were identified.
Studies reporting the use of natural molecules and Pickering stabilizers selected from the retrieved 788 documents of the bibliometric search.
Figure 1a shows the wordcloud from Author’s Keyword. The higher font size indicates an increased frequency of the keyword. Figure 1b also illustrates keyword co-occurrence network analysis; the terms distributed in the same cluster present the higher similarity, in comparison with the terms distributed in different clusters.
Figure 1.
(a) Wordcloud from Author’s keywords (100 keywords; minimum frequency of 5); (b) keyword co-occurrence network (9 clusters; Author’s keywords; number of occurrences 5).
“Pickering emulsions” is the most frequent keyword, followed by biosurfactant (Figure 1). Other keywords (e.g., whey protein, sodium caseinate, glycolipid, sophorolipids, rhamnolipids, Quillaja saponin) appeared in the wordcloud.
These findings substantiate the keyword co-occurrence analysis (Figure 1). 93 keywords (Author’s keywords) were organized in 9 clusters. The number of occurrences indicates the number of documents where the keyword appears. Each circle represents a keyword with at least 5 occurrences, being their areas proportional to the number of occurrences. The clusters are characterized by different colors and their words can be related.
Some clusters present words associated to recent trends in the area of natural emulsifiers. Clusters 1, 6, 8 and 9 refer to “Pickering emulsions” and other inter-related words, including nanoparticles, Pickering stabilization, and some commonly used Pickering stabilizers such as starch granules, cellulose nanocrystals and kafirin. Clusters 1 and 2 comprise terms related to the rheological properties of emulsions, an important parameter in food applications. The words included in clusters 4 and 5 are associated with microorganisms (e.g., Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Starmerella bombicola; Bacillus subtilis) and the biosurfactants they produce (e.g., rhamnolipids; sufactin; sophorolipids). P. aeruginosa is a food-borne pathogen and a source of rhamnolipids [33]. Starmerella bombicola is a non-pathogenic yeast producing sophorolipids, whereas B. subtilis is a non-pathogenic bacteria yielding surfactin [31, 34]. Some of these biosurfactants have been applied in food emulsion systems (e.g., surfactin in O/W food emulsions [20]) due to their high ability to stabilize emulsions, and present antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. However, some aspects, especially safety, require attention as biosurfactants may be produced by pathogenic bacteria [35].
Cluster 7 and 9 are centered in words related to the biocompounds delivery systems, namely bioavailability/bioaccessibility, controlled release, encapsulation and examples of used biocompounds, such as beta-carotene, curcumin, and vitamin E. Clusters 8 and 9 refer to proteins, phospholipids, saponins and polysaccharides, such as whey protein isolate, soy lecithin, Quillaja saponin, and pectin, respectively. Some of these natural emulsifiers also appeared in the wordcloud analysis, being the most used ones in the food science and technological fields.
In a general overview, the analysis showed the progressive interest in natural emulsifiers due to their relevance for the scientific and industrial communities, as well as for the global market. Moreover, Pickering emulsions are emerging as advanced emulsion technologies within future trends in the food industry.
2. Principal natural-based emulsifier groups
Natural emulsifiers belong to a broad range of chemical families and some main examples are shown in Figure 2. Within each family, aspects such as the used natural source or extraction method can lead to different properties. Therefore, the next sections summarize the most relevant families in the area of natural emulsifiers and their contextualization in the field of food applications.
Figure 2.
Representative chemical structures for each emulsifier family.
2.1 Phospholipids
Phospholipids are amphiphilic molecules, and a main constituent of natural membranes. Their structure comprises a hydrophilic head holding a phosphoric acid (H3PO4), combined with a hydrophobic tail composed by one or two non-polar fatty acids. They comprise groups as glycerophospholipids or sphingolipids, with lecithins (glycerophospholipid) assuming an important role. Phospholipids can be obtained from diverse natural sources, including milk, vegetable oils (soybean, rapeseed or sunflower), egg yolk, meat and fish [36, 37]. Specifically, lecithins are known to be good stabilizers for food emulsions, for example the ones derived from soy or egg yolk are applied in mayonnaise, creams, or sauces [38]. Other phospholipid examples include phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidic acid, sphingomyelin. The amphiphilic character of these compounds supports their capacity to stabilize emulsions. Concurrently to their ability to stabilize emulsions they can act as texturizing agents, thus influencing the organoleptic attributes of the final product [39].
2.2 Saponins
Saponins are a complex family derived from plants, constituted by triterpenes or steroid aglycones linked to glycosyl derived sugar structures [40]. Usually the aglycones involve pentacyclic triterpenoids with oleanolic acid and the sugars moieties comprise rhamnose, xylose, glucose or galactose [41]. Factors conditioning the composition of saponins are their botanical origin and extraction method. Quillaja saponaria Molina is the principal source of saponins, named Quillaja saponins, characterized by high contents of quillaic acid groups (hydrophobic) and rhamnose, galactose or glucuronic acids (hydrophylic) [42]. Saponins produce highly stable emulsions, including at the nanoscale, and at relatively low surfactant contents, with promising stability in terms of pH, ionic strength or temperature conditions [40]. Their promising properties avail their use in diverse applications, with examples of food-grade saponins applied in beverages added with flavors or bioactives such as vitamins [43]. More recently, the utilization of saponins was extended to the use of saponin-rich extracts obtained from plant sources [44], by-products and food wastes [40]. Besides the increased costs of using highly pure saponins, they provide weaker functional properties comparatively with extracts, due to the lack of additional bioactive compounds, e.g. polyphenols [45].
2.3 Proteins
Proteins are molecules resulting from the combination of 21 different amino acids, having diverse properties, including water solubility, which varies depending on their composition [46]. Structurally, the presence of both hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino acids confer an amphiphilic character, allowing them to be absorbed at oil/water interfaces, leading to emulsion stabilization [47]. However, proteins have low surface activity in comparison with conventional emulsifiers. This is attributed to the random distribution of the hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups within the peptide chains, limiting their adsorption. This effect is balanced by the protein film formation around the droplets, leading to stabilization through molecular interactions [48]. Diverse proteins (e.g., whey, casein, soy or faba bean proteins) have been tested in food applications, e.g., emulsions for the controlled release of lutein [49], ѡ-3 oil [50], bioactive hydrophobic compounds [51], fish oil [52, 53] or β-carotene [54]. Their application in final products is still hindered by environmental conditions such as pH, temperature and ionic strength [48]. However, these drawbacks can be surpassed by using more complex formulations, namely by combining proteins with polysaccharides [48] or by chemically modifying the proteins trough grafting with other compounds such as polyphenols [54].
2.4 Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are biopolymers composed of monosaccharide units such as glucose, fructose, mannose or galactose, bonded by glycosidic bonds. Their structural rearrangement, i.e., type and number of monosaccharides, type of glycosidic bonds, molecular weight, electrical charge, branching degree, hydrophobicity and the presence of other groups (carboxylate, sulfate or phosphate), rule the polysaccharides functional properties such as solubility, rheology, and amphiphilic character, among others [10]. Their amphiphilicity depends on the presence of hydrophobic (glycolipids) and hydrophilic (hydroxyls) groups, being adsorbed at the interface, forming a thick stabilizing layer (e.g., pectins, gum Arabic) [55]. Moreover, non-amphiphilic polysaccharides can contribute to emulsion stabilization due to their thickener role, increasing the viscosity and decreasing oil droplets’ motion (e.g., alginates, carrageenan) [56]. Despite the high number of polysaccharides available in nature, only few are authorized as food emulsifiers in EU, namely alginic acid (E400), gum Arabic (E414), pectin (E440), cellulose and chemically modified celluloses (E460 to E469) [57]. Polysaccharides can be obtained from animal, vegetal, microbial fermentation or marine sources (algae), being their properties mostly dependent on the source and extraction process [10].
2.5 Natural based emulsifiers from microbial sources
Microbial synthetic routes are emerging as valuable sustainable and green alternatives to produce emulsifiers. They generate compounds with low ecotoxicity, biodegradability, stability (pH and salinity) and low critical micellar concentration (CMC), in addition to biological activity, biocompatibility and digestibility [58]. Emulsifiers produced by microorganisms are classified according to their molecular weight. Low molecular weight family includes glycolipids (e.g., rhamnolipids, sophorolipids, trehalose lipids) and lipopeptides (e.g., surfactin, iturin, fengycin) and are referred as biosurfactants. Polysaccharides, proteins, lipoproteins, and lipopolysaccharides belong to the high molecular weight family and are referred as bioemulsifiers [59, 60]. Glycolipids like rhamnolipids and trehalose lipids are mostly produced by bacterial strains like Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Rhodococcus erythropolis, Nocardia erythropolis, Arthrobacter sp. or Mycobacterium sp. while sophorolipids are generally produced by yeasts (e.g. Candida bombicola or Candida antartica) or by filamentous fungi like Aspergillus flavus or Rhizopus oryzae [58, 61]. Lipopeptides can be produced by Bacillus sp. Serratia marcescens and P. fluorescens [58]. Bioemulsifiers such as Emulsan/Biodispersan are commercially available products, being produced by Acinetobacter spp., while mannoproteins are commonly obtained from the yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae or Kluyveromyces marxianus [61]. The excellent properties of both microbial derived biosurfactants and bioemulsifiers make them appealing as natural based emulsifiers for foods. Several studies reported the use of glycolipids for fat emulsions stabilization [62, 63], and glycolipids and lipopeptides as rheology modifiers in cookies and muffins dough [64, 65, 66]. Other works refer bioemulsifiers (e.g., exopolysaccharides, mannoproteins) as having high potential in aromas emulsification [67]. Nevertheless, the practical application in foods is still limited due to two main factors, their high production costs narrowing the commercial profit, together with the legal regulations that limit the use of compounds produced by microbial strains classified as pathogenic in food applications. Examples include the bacteria genera like Pseudomonas and Bacillus. In opposition, yeasts like S. cerevisiae and Kluyveromyces lactis, which are classified as GRAS organisms, are authorized for food applications [68].
3. Emulsion technology
Emulsions are colloidal systems constituted by two immiscible liquids (oil and water), formed in the presence of an emulsifier, and, usually, by applying an energy input. The emulsifier selection is therefore an important step to reach stability. They can be classified based on the hydrophilic region that correspond to ionic structures (anionic or cationic surfactants), change charge with pH (amphoteric surfactants) or present no charged centers (nonionic surfactants) [69]. Among them, nonionic surfactants are often used in food applications because they are less toxic and less affected by pH and ionic strength changes [70, 71]. The choice of a nonionic surfactant can be based on the hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB) index [72]. This scale (0–20), reflects the changing from hydrophobic to hydrophilic character, that is, a lower HLB value corresponds to a lipophilic surfactant being appropriate to stabilize water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions, whereas a high HLB indicates the ability to stabilize oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions, due to the strong hydrophilic balance [72].
3.1 Emulsion classification
Emulsions can be classified according to their typology and structure. The first refers to the relative distribution of the immiscible phases (oil and water), and the latter refers to the arrangement of the emulsified entities [73]. Considering the typology, they can be classified as simple (O/W and W/O) or double (oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O), and water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W)) emulsions (Figure 3). Examples of O/W emulsions in food systems include products such as milk, sauces, beverages, yogurts, ice-creams, and mayonnaise [74]. W/O emulsions are not so frequent but can be found in butter and margarine [73, 75]. For double emulsions, W/O/W are the most used systems due to their ability to generate reduced-fat products, when compared to O/W emulsions. Moreover, they can serve as base systems to encapsulate and control the release of sensitive water-soluble compounds, such as flavors or bioactive ingredients [16, 75, 76].
Figure 3.
Typology of simple and double emulsions.
Regarding structure, emulsions can be classified as macroemulsions (usually called emulsions), nanoemulsions, or microemulsions. These systems present specific physicochemical properties that influence their range of applications [71]. Emulsions and nanoemulsions are thermodynamically unstable systems because their free energy is higher than the one of the individual phases [74, 77]. Thus, considering that all systems tend to their lowest energy state, phase separation will occur. However, due to their kinetic stability, they may remain in a metastable state for a considerable period of time, delaying the phase separation phenomenon. The kinetic stability is governed by two mechanisms, namely the energy barriers between the two states (emulsified and separated phases) and mass transfer between the phases. Therefore, high energy barriers and slow mass transfer processes delay phase separation [78]. By contrast, microemulsions are thermodynamically stable systems because their free energy is lower than the one of separate phases. Thus, they can be formed spontaneously under particular compositions and temperature conditions. In practice, some energy input is needed due to the existence of kinetic energy barriers [71]. Regarding the droplet size, nanoemulsions and microemulsions present droplet sizes <200 nm, whereas emulsions hold sizes between 200 nm and 100 μm [16, 71].
Nanoemulsions and microemulsions are optically transparent or slightly turbid due to their small droplet size, being valuable for applications requiring transparency, such as soft drinks [79]. Comparatively with nanoemulsions, microemulsions require a higher emulsifier content, have a lower particle size, and droplets can assume a non-spherical shape, feature that can be used to differentiate the two systems. Emulsions are typically turbid to opaque and are used in creamy systems such as dairy products [80]. Table 2 provides some application examples for each system addressing natural emulsifiers.
Food applications of emulsions, nanoemulsions and microemulsions using natural emulsifiers.
3.2 Stabilization mechanisms
Emulsions are thermodynamically unstable mixtures, characterized by the presence of at least two immiscible phases and an emulsifier that, when provided with enough mixing energy, are able to maintain stability over time [98]. The role of the emulsifier is essential to assure stable long-term properties. In general, emulsifiers are active surface substances, enabling their positioning at the oil–water interface, reducing the interfacial tension, hindering (or delaying) aggregation phenomena [99]. Typically, the hydrophilic part of the emulsifier is located in the aqueous phase, while the hydrophobic tail remains enclosed in the oil phase [82, 100]. During emulsion formation, the surfactant molecules require time to move to the interface, forming a layer to reach the interfacial tension equilibrium, a phenomenon related with their adsorption kinetics [82]. This pattern is dependent on emulsifiers’ nature, taking from minutes (e.g., some saponins) to hours (e.g., some proteins), besides being dependent on environmental conditions (e.g., pH, temperature) [82]. To note that, even emulsions are commonly stabilized by a monolayer structure around the droplets, multilayer structures can also be formed. The multilayer pattern favors the electrostatic and steric repulsion of the droplets, improving stability while providing additional protection to the internal phase [16].
The emulsion stabilization mechanism can differ depending on the nature of the used surfactant. In this context four principal stabilization mechanisms are known, namely electrostatic repulsion, steric repulsion, Marangoni-Gibbs effect, and thin film stabilization mechanisms [101]. The electrostatic repulsion is related to ionic emulsifiers and consists on the formation of an electrical double layer at the droplet’s interface, hindering their approximation. Steric repulsion is characteristic of nonionic and/or polymeric emulsifiers, and droplet’s distance is kept due to the adsorption of the hydrophobic segment by the oil phase [101]. The Marangoni-Gibbs effect preserve emulsions’ structure through the deformation of adjacent droplet’s surface, avoiding their outflow, whereas the thin film stabilization mechanism avail the stability of the emulsion by generating a rigid and viscoelastic film, preventing droplets from destabilization effects [101].
Other factors can condition emulsion’s stabilization mechanism, including the emulsifier content, the oil to water ratio or the preparation conditions (pH or temperature). For example, some phospholipids can have no charge at neutral pH, turning into anionic at acidic media, promoting molecule’s swelling at the interface [100]. Moreover, the surfactant concentration can have also impact, e.g., sunflower lecithin in O/W emulsions, at low contents, create a layer surrounding the oil droplets, while at higher concentrations, the stabilization mechanism changes, producing, concurrently, liposomes that might destabilize the emulsion [10]. Considering amphiphilic polymers, when they are used as emulsifiers, they become positioned at the interface, just like the small molecules, but their ability to create intermolecular interactions can provide additional stabilization effects. Their effect on viscosity can also provide a positive stabilization effect [102]. The high hydrophilicity of most polysaccharides can difficult their emulsifier role, if considering the importance of the emulsifiers’ hydrophilic/lipophilic character to interact with both phases. This constraint can be overcome by either chemical or physical strategies [103]. Namely, the suitability of anchoring hydrophobic groups into the polysaccharide structure can equilibrate the hydrophilic/lipophilic balance, that is the hydrophobisation of emulsifier’s surface. Otherwise, alternative approaches imply the mixture of the polysaccharides with other polymers (co-surfactants) to favor the hydrophilic/lipophilic equilibrium and stabilization role.
3.3 Production methods
Food emulsions can be produced using several methods, classified as low-energy and high-energy processes, as represented schematically in Figure 4. The selection of the most appropriate method and respective equipment is based on the volume to process, characteristics of the initial mixture, emulsion’s physicochemical properties, droplet size, and process costs [104]. In Table 3 a survey of recent works dealing with emulsion production trough different methods and using natural emulsifiers in their pure form or compounded with synthetic emulsifiers is presented. Moreover, their potential to encapsulate bioactives for food industry applications is also described.
Figure 4.
Schematic representation of the emulsification process through high- and low-energy methodologies.
Studies applying different productive methods using natural emulsifiers or natural/synthetic blends to form emulsions and/or to encapsulate biocompounds for food industry applications.
WPI: Whey protein isolate; WPC: Whey protein concentrate; MCT: medium-chain triglycerides; SMP: Sucrose monopalmitate.
Low-energy methods comprise, spontaneous emulsion, and emulsion phase inversion (e.g., phase inversion composition and phase inversion temperature), which occur due to environmental or composition changes namely temperature, pH, and ionic strength of the formulation [104]. Low-energy approaches are more cost effective than high-energy methods. However, they are limited to certain oils and emulsifiers, requiring also large amounts of surfactants, which is not desirable for many food applications [71]. In the work reported by Komaiko et al. [36], spontaneous emulsification lead to emulsions with large droplet size (>10 μm), comparatively with those produced by high-energy methods (<10 μm). The authors concluded that natural emulsifiers can be used in SE emulsions for applications where fine droplets are not essential (Table 3). By contrast, Mayer et al. [105] concluded that it was not possible to produce nanoemulsions using natural emulsifiers by the emulsion phase inversion method. These limitations imply that even natural-based emulsions can be prepared through low-energy methods, high-energy approaches are needed when natural emulsifiers are used.
High-energy methods generate intensive forces promoting the water and oil phases disruption and their subsequent mixture. High-shear homogenizers are the most used equipment’s for producing emulsions in the food industry. They consist on a rotor-stator or stirrer device able to mix the components at high speeds. Usually, large droplets are produced using this approach (1–10 μm) in comparison to alternative high-energy methods. High-pressure homogenization is also widely used in the food industry, being more effective to reduce the droplet size of a pre-emulsion. Generally, this coarse pre-emulsion is produced by high-shear homogenizers, then subjected to the high-pressure homogenization process. The equipment consists of a high-pressure pump (3–500 MPa) to pass the coarse emulsion through a narrow homogenizing valve, generating intensive disruptive forces (shear and cavitation), breaking down the droplets into smaller ones [80, 81].
Many studies have been conducted using two high-energy sequential methods (high-shear and -pressure homogenizers) to produce emulsions/nanoemulsions with natural emulsifiers [111, 112, 113]. Flores-Andrade and co-workers performed a study with soy lecithin, whey protein concentrate (WPC) and gum Arabic as natural emulsifiers, and paprika oleoresin as the oil phase. The coarse emulsion was produced by a high-speed homogenizer, then treated in a high-pressure homogenizer. O/W nanoemulsions were produced, being WPC more effective to form small droplets (d < 150 nm) than the other tested emulsifiers [92].
Microfluidization is the most effective method for producing emulsions with fine droplets (d < 100 nm). This approach is based on feeding the fluid into the homogenizer, which consists of a mixture chamber with two channels. Intensive disruptive forces are generated when these two fluid streams collide at high speed, breaking larger droplets and intermingling the fluids [3]. As the high-pressure homogenizers, microfluidizers were used after preparing a pre-emulsion by high-shear mixers [42, 114]. Ultrasound technique uses high-intense ultrasonic waves, generating intense shear and pressure gradients. The droplets are disrupted mainly by cavitation and turbulent effects [99, 115].
Currently, high-energy approaches are commonly used in the food industry due to their large-scale production capacity and the possibility to process a wide range of raw ingredients [71]. Although several high-energy emulsification devices are available, high-shear and pressure homogenizers, microfluidizers and ultrasound equipment’s are the most used in the production of natural emulsifiers-based emulsions.
3.4 Emulsion stability
Emulsion stability is an important parameter indicating its ability to resist physicochemical changes over time [116]. For food emulsions, the required stability varies according to the intended final application. For example, short-term stability of minutes to hours, is enough for intermediate food emulsions such as cake batter and ice cream mixtures, while long-term stability is required for long shelf-life products, including mayonnaise and salad dressings [117]. For the latter ones, the development of effective strategies to retard emulsion destabilization implies the identification of the main mechanisms leading to this effect [73].
Emulsion instability can occur due to physical and/or chemical processes. The physical instability is responsible for modifying the emulsion droplets spatial distribution and structure, including gravitational separation (creaming/sedimentation), flocculation, coalescence, and Ostwald ripening phenomena (Figure 5). These effects depend on the emulsion composition and structure, besides the storage conditions, namely temperature variation and mechanical stirring [74, 116]. Moreover, the physical phenomena are interrelated and can influence each other during emulsion storage [77].
Figure 5.
Common types of instability phenomena in emulsions.
Gravitational separation is driven by density differences between the droplets and the continuous phase. The droplets are subjected to gravitational forces tending to accumulate in the top (creaming) or in the bottom (sedimentation) of the system. Most edible oils present densities lower than water, favoring creaming in O/W emulsions, whereas sedimentation is usually observed in W/O emulsions [116]. Considering the impact of gravitational forces in the large droplets, the separation usually occurs for emulsions with droplet sizes higher than 100 nm or in a final stage of a sequence of instability phenomena [116]. By contrast, for lower droplet sizes, e.g., nanoemulsions, Brownian motion dominates over gravitational forces. Thus, reducing the droplet size is a suitable strategy to retard gravitational separation, with the emulsifier playing an important role to effectively reduce droplets’ size [2, 74]. Furthermore, the emulsifier’ layers tend to minimize the density difference between the emulsion phases, thus reducing the velocity of gravitational separation. Other strategies include modifying the rheology of the continuous phase or increasing the concentration of the droplets [74, 116].
Ostwald Ripening consists of the increase of the droplets size due to the diffusion of small droplets into larger ones, effect driven by their solubility in the continuous phase. This effect is promoted when the droplet’s size decreases [73], being also influenced by the emulsifiers’ properties. Namely, Ostwald Ripening can be retarded by decreasing the interfacial tension of the phases, favored when small-molecule surfactants are used or when using emulsifiers able to form rigid shell around the droplets. By contrast, emulsifiers prone to solubilize the oil and water phases through the formation of colloidal structures (e.g., micelles) accelerate the Ostwald Ripening [2].
Flocculation and coalescence mechanisms are related to droplets aggregation, effect leading to droplet size increase [74]. In flocculation the association of at least two droplets in an aggregate occurs, whereas in the coalescence, the droplets merge into a larger one [77]. Both phenomena are highly dependent on the selected emulsifier [77, 116], namely their nature and colloidal interactions’ capacity [2].
4. Pickering emulsions
Pickering emulsions are defined as systems stabilized by solid colloidal particles adsorbed at the oil–water interface in a practically irreversible process, creating a coating around the droplets, either in the form of a single or multiple layer, generating a strong steric barrier providing high stability [118]. In the context of Pickering emulsions, the search for natural-based particles is currently a hot topic to face market demands for novel clean label products (absent of emulsifiers) [119]. Pickering emulsions (Figure 6) are raising high interest in the recent years. They are characterized by a long-term stability and have green connotations due to the absence of conventional emulsifiers. These attributes comply with the recent trends of food industry towards the use of sustainable and healthy technologies [16]. The stability of Pickering emulsions is related with the intrinsic properties of the oil and water phases (e.g., type, oil/water ratio, pH, ionic strength) and of the particle stabilizers (e.g., wettability, particle morphology, size and concentration). Particles presenting a contact angle (θ) below 90° are generally suitable for preparing O/W emulsions, whereas θ values greater than 90° indicate good stabilizers for W/O emulsions. At 90°, the particle is immersed equally in both phases [120].
Figure 6.
Schematic representation of a Pickering emulsion putting in evidence the particle stabilizers where θ represent the contact angle.
Regarding natural-based particles, three main typologies of stabilizers can be used, namely nanoparticles, microgels and fibrils. Examples include protein derived stabilizers, namely nanoparticles based on corn zein, and colloidal particles of kafirin and gliadin [118, 121, 122, 123]. Although many polysaccharides have high hydrophilic character, some can include hydrophobic side groups (e.g., beet pectin and modified starch) or even active proteins attached to the surface (e.g., gum Arabic) [120], offering potential to act as Pickering stabilizers. Other polysaccharides widely used to produce Pickering bionanoparticles include chitin, chitosan and cellulose. To overcome particle’s limitations as Pickering stabilizers, the formation of complexes has been also proposed, namely complexes such as polysaccharide-polysaccharide, protein–protein, and polysaccharide-protein [124]. Examples include zein-xanthan [125], and tea water insoluble proteins/κ-carrageenan complexes [126].
In the context of the recent trends in Pickering emulsions, research aiming at finding new biological particles, the use of high internal phase emulsions (HIPPE), and the development of bio-based films from Pickering emulsions are becoming topics of high interest for the development of novel food applications. Table 4 presents an overview of recent works dealing with the preparation of Pickering emulsions based on novel biological particles together with the description of the main results envisaging potential food applications.
Particle materials
Main results
Reference
Apple pomace
Smaller particles led to emulsions with smaller droplet size, showing higher stability over time (30 days), in addition to improved physical properties (gel-like samples) and antioxidant activity.
The emulsion with higher particles content (2%) showed suitable physical stability for 30 days, elastic-solid characteristics and good thermal stability (20–80°C).
The emulsions were reached a cream index of 17%, presenting stability for 7 weeks. They presented improved oxidative stability and resistance to in vitro digestion conditions.
Cream index values were very low, and the emulsion presented good stability to a broad range of ionic strength and mild temperature conditions (4–60°C).
The emulsions maintained excellent physical stability for 1 month. In addition, they demonstrated good performance as delivery systems of essential oils.
Examples of bionanoparticles as Pickering stabilizers. All the systems are of O/W type.
HIPPEs are characterized by having a high volume fraction of internal phase (generally higher than 74%), together with relatively low particles concentration resulting in an extremely compacted droplet’s structure [140]. HIPPEs are becoming a novel approach of increasing interest in the food industry, since it combines diverse advantages, namely a semi-solid texture with the ability to encapsulate high amounts of bioactive compounds [141]. HIPPEs allow to control the droplet size distribution, manipulate the morphology and rheological properties, generally presenting enhanced stability against physical, chemical and microbiological stresses [142]. They are positioned as extremely promising substitutes for foods such as margarine, mayonnaise or ice creams [143, 144]. For example, Liu et al. studied wheat gluten as stabilizer in a HIPPE to develop a novel mayonnaise substitute [145]. They obtained excellent results concerning texture and sensory attributes when compared with commercial products.
Bio-based films made from hydrophilic particles added with hydrophobic compounds is another emerging approach in the scope of new applications developed from Pickering emulsions [146]. These strategies provide the ability to improve the stability of the base materials (hydrophilic), in addition to facilitate the combination with hydrophobic materials (e.g., waxes, fatty oils and oils) leading to systems with enhanced moisture barrier properties [147].
5. New trends in food emulsion systems
The wide variety of emulsion-based systems using natural emulsifiers makes their applicability attractive for various products, particularly in the food industry. The nature and function of emulsifiers, and the formed emulsion type (e.g., nano/micro-scale, simple or double character) can tailor appearance, sensorial characteristics, and attractiveness of foods. Among their diverse functions, the increasing use of emulsions as functionality carriers should be highlighted. In fact, recent works have demonstrated their potential and versatility for the encapsulation of flavors, and to protect and deliver specific bioactives in foods or beverages, helping to strengthen nutritional balances, and enabling the production of reduced-fat products. A summary of examples addressing new trends of emulsion-based products with potential in the food industry are included in Table 5, with some highlighs provided next.
Applications of natural-based emulsifiers in food industry.
Lopes Francisco et al. [149] reported an emulsifying system with encapsulation potential based on commercial pea and soy proteins. The work involved the encapsulation of an orange essential oil rich in d-limonene using a O/W emulsion followed by spray drying to obtain powder microparticles. It was demonstrated the ability of pea and soy proteins to act as emulsifiers in the encapsulation of orange essential oil, getting a slightly higher efficiency if using soy protein as the natural emulsifier. These promising results can help consolidate a platform aiming at developing new protective systems to encapsulate flavors for foods, complying with the increasing demand from this industrial sector for natural-based systems.
At the nanoscale, Flores-Andrade et al. [92] reported the preparation of O/W nanoemulsions by high-pressure homogenization, using amphiphilic biopolymers to stabilize paprika oleoresin, namely whey protein, gum Arabic, phospholipids, and soy lecithin. The results demonstrated the effective oil encapsulation, preserving carotenoids (e.g., lipophilic colorants) from chemical degradation, besides positioning this strategy as an attractive route to design new protective and delivery carriers for bioactive compounds aimed at food and/or beverage products.
The potential of double emulsions was also demonstrated by Cetinkaya et al. [152] that evidenced the reduction of the saturated fat content in O1/W/O2 emulsions prepared by fat crystallization according to a two-stage process. Firstly, the primary O1/W emulsion was prepared using sunflower oil and xanthan gum and gelatin as emulsifiers, which was then stabilized in a second oil phase (palm oil), resulting in a structured O1/W/O2 system. Microstructure examination revealed that the accumulation of fat crystals at the interface contributed to stabilize the internal water phase containing the encapsulated sunflower phase. These complex structures showed potential to directly encapsulate hydrophobic oils and act as texturizing reduced-fat agents, which might be of particular interest for the edible oils industry.
6. Conclusions
This chapter presents an up-to-date overview of current trends in natural emulsifiers and their application in emulsion technology directed to food applications. For this purpose, first, the evolution of food emulsifiers’ scenario over the last 10 years was analyzed through the Bibliometrix-R package (RStudio) and VosViewer software. This analysis indicated a clear driving force towards using natural emulsifiers and the re-emerging importance of the Pickering emulsions. These facts are expected to impact the market growth following the prospectus of available market analysis. The six main identified families of natural emulsifiers were phospholipids, saponins, proteins, polysaccharides, emulsifiers from microbial sources and Pickering stabilizers. Some of them already find extensive use in practical food applications. However, others, mainly natural-based emulsifiers from microbial sources and Pickering stabilizers, despite their high potential, are still needing research investment and regulation clarification (e.g., related to the use of nanoparticles and the use of microbial strains classified as pathogenic in foods). From a technological perspective, the main concepts related to the typology, production methods, stabilization mechanisms, and instability phenomena were presented. Highlighting the increasing interest in Pickering emulsions, a summary of the most recent applications of these systems, including the so-called HIPPEs and their advantages in reduced-fat products development, was provided. To conclude, an analysis of current trends in food emulsion-based products was discussed, putting in evidence the emulsions increasing role as delivery systems of bioactives to support innovative fortified foods advances and the increasing interest in systems based on double emulsions, which provide the opportunity to combine bioactives of different nature. Overall, the field of natural-based emulsifiers combined with the new trends in emulsion technology can, hopefully, be the basis of a new generation of healthy and nutritious food products.
Acknowledgments
CIMO (UIDB/00690/2020) and AL LSRE-LCM (UIDB/50020/2020) funded by FCT/MCTES (PIDDAC). National funding by FCT, P.I., through the institutional scientific employment program-contract for Arantzazu Santamaria-Echart and Isabel P. Fernandes. FCT for the Research grants (SFRH/BD/148281/2019 of Samara C. da Silva, and SFRH/BD/147326/2019 of Stephany C. de Rezende). GreenHealth project (Norte-01-0145-FEDER-000042).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"natural emulsifiers, biosurfactants, emulsion technology, Pickering emulsions, food applications, market and product trends",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78387.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78387.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78387",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78387",totalDownloads:355,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 12th 2021",dateReviewed:"August 11th 2021",datePrePublished:"September 1st 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"September 1st 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The food industry depends on using different additives, which increases the search for effective natural or natural-derived solutions, to the detriment of the synthetic counterparts, a priority in a biobased and circular economy scenario. In this context, different natural emulsifiers are being studied to create a new generation of emulsion-based products. Among them, phospholipids, saponins, proteins, polysaccharides, biosurfactants (e.g., compounds derived from microbial fermentation), and organic-based solid particles (Pickering stabilizers) are being used or start to gather interest from the food industry. This chapter includes the basic theoretical fundamentals of emulsions technology, stabilization mechanisms, and stability. The preparation of oil-in-water (O/W) and water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions, the potential of double emulsions, and the re-emerging Pickering emulsions are discussed. Moreover, the most relevant natural-derived emulsifier families (e.g., origin, stabilization mechanism, and applications) focusing food applications are presented. The document is grounded in a bibliographic review mainly centered on the last 10-years, and bibliometric data was rationalized and used to better establish the hot topics in the proposed thematic.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78387",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78387",signatures:"Arantzazu Santamaria-Echart, Isabel P. Fernandes, Samara C. Silva, Stephany C. Rezende, Giovana Colucci, Madalena M. Dias and Maria Filomena Barreiro",book:{id:"10362",type:"book",title:"Food Additives",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Food Additives",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Miguel Ángel Ángel Prieto Lage and Dr. Paz Otero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10362.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83968-960-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-959-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-961-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"317263",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Ángel",middleName:"Ángel",surname:"Prieto Lage",slug:"miguel-angel-prieto-lage",fullName:"Miguel Ángel Prieto Lage"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Bibliometric and market trend analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Principal natural-based emulsifier groups",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1 Phospholipids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2 Saponins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3 Proteins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.4 Polysaccharides",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.5 Natural based emulsifiers from microbial sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Emulsion technology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.1 Emulsion classification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2 Stabilization mechanisms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.3 Production methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.4 Emulsion stability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Pickering emulsions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. New trends in food emulsion systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'McClements DJ, Bai L, Chung C. 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Food Hydrocoll. 2018;74:239-248. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2017.07.040'},{id:"B138",body:'Jiang Y, Wang D, Li F, Li D, Huang Q. Cinnamon essential oil Pickering emulsion stabilized by zein-pectin composite nanoparticles: Characterization, antimicrobial effect and advantages in storage application. Int J Biol Macromol. 2020;148:1280-1289. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.10.103'},{id:"B139",body:'Su J, Guo Q, Chen Y, Dong W, Mao L, Gao Y, et al. Characterization and formation mechanism of lutein pickering emulsion gels stabilized by β-lactoglobulin-gum arabic composite colloidal nanoparticles. Food Hydrocoll. 2020;98:105276. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105276'},{id:"B140",body:'Bizmark N, Du X, Ioannidis MA. High Internal Phase Pickering Emulsions as Templates for a Cellulosic Functional Porous Material. ACS Sustain Chem Eng. 2020;8:3664-3672. DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b06577'},{id:"B141",body:'Gao H, Ma L, Cheng C, Liu J, Liang R, Zou L, et al. Review of recent advances in the preparation, properties, and applications of high internal phase emulsions. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2021;112:36-49. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.03.041'},{id:"B142",body:'Abdullah, Weiss J, Ahmad T, Zhang C, Zhang H. A review of recent progress on high internal-phase Pickering emulsions in food science. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2020;106:91-103. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.10.016'},{id:"B143",body:'Zhao Q, Zaaboul F, Liu Y, Li J. Recent advances on protein-based Pickering high internal phase emulsions (Pickering HIPEs): Fabrication, characterization, and applications. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2020;19:1934-1968. DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12570'},{id:"B144",body:'Shi A, Feng X, Wang Q, Adhikari B. Pickering and high internal phase Pickering emulsions stabilized by protein-based particles: A review of synthesis, application and prospective. Food Hydrocoll. 2020;109:106117. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.106117'},{id:"B145",body:'Liu X, Guo J, Wan ZL, Liu YY, Ruan QJ, Yang XQ. Wheat gluten-stabilized high internal phase emulsions as mayonnaise replacers. Food Hydrocoll. 2018;77:168-175. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2017.09.032'},{id:"B146",body:'Niro CM, Medeiros JA, Freitas JAM, Azeredo HMC. Advantages and challenges of Pickering emulsions applied to bio-based films: a mini-review. J Sci Food Agric. 2021;101:3535-3540. DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.11029'},{id:"B147",body:'Li Q, Ma Q, Wu Y, Li Y, Li B, Luo X, et al. Oleogel Films through the Pickering Effect of Bacterial Cellulose Nanofibrils Featuring Interfacial Network Stabilization. J Agric Food Chem. 2020;68:9150-9157. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c03214'},{id:"B148",body:'Huang L, Liu J, Addy M, Ding B, Cheng Y, Peng P, et al. Physicochemical and emulsifying properties of orange fibers stabilized oil-in-water emulsions. LWT - Food Sci Technol. 2020;133:110054. DOI:10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110054'},{id:"B149",body:'Francisco CRL, de Oliveira Júnior FD, Marin G, Alvim ID, Hubinger MD. Plant proteins at low concentrations as natural emulsifiers for an effective orange essential oil microencapsulation by spray drying. Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem Eng Asp. 2020;607:125470. DOI:10.1016/j.colsurfa.2020.125470'},{id:"B150",body:'Jarzębski M, Smułek W, Siejak P, Rezler R, Pawlicz J, Trzeciak T, et al. Aesculus hippocastanum L. as a stabilizer in hemp seed oil nanoemulsions for potential biomedical and food applications. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22:1-18. DOI: 10.3390/ijms22020887'},{id:"B151",body:'Gaur VK, Regar RK, Dhiman N, Gautam K, Srivastava JK, Patnaik S, et al. Biosynthesis and characterization of sophorolipid biosurfactant by Candida spp.: Application as food emulsifier and antibacterial agent. Bioresour TechnoL. 2019;285:121314. DOI:10.1016/j.biortech.2019.121314'},{id:"B152",body:'Cetinkaya T, Altay F, Ceylan Z. A new application with characterized oil-in-water-in-oil double emulsions: Gelatin-xanthan gum complexes for the edible oil industry. Lwt. 2021;138:110773. DOI:10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110773'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Arantzazu Santamaria-Echart",address:null,affiliation:'
Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, Portugal
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Isabel P. Fernandes",address:null,affiliation:'
Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, Portugal
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Samara C. Silva",address:null,affiliation:'
Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, Portugal
Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering – Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials (LSRE-LCM), Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Portugal
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Stephany C. Rezende",address:null,affiliation:'
Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, Portugal
Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering – Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials (LSRE-LCM), Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Portugal
Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, Portugal
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Madalena M. Dias",address:null,affiliation:'
Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering – Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials (LSRE-LCM), Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Portugal
Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, Portugal
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All publications on this website are published under the Open Access model, without any subscription, registration, or access fees required from the user or his/her institution. In accordance with the Budapest Open Access Initiative's (BOAI) definition of Open Access, users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, and link to the full text versions of all Chapters. To read more about our Open Access Statement click here.
\n\n
For Editorial Policies for journals please consult individual journal pages.
All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
With the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
IntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\\n\\n
Conflicts of Interest Policy
\\n\\n
In line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
IntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
A substantial contribution to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work
\\n\\t
Participation in drafting or revising the work
\\n\\t
Approval of the manuscript version to be published
All scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
The Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
To identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
When faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\\n\\n
In order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\\n\\n
Translation Policy
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IntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
In line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
At IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
All chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\\n\\n
Online First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\\n\\n
Chapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\\n\\n
You are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\\n\\n
If there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\\n\\n
Readers and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\\n\\n
Access policy
\\n\\n
IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
With the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
IntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\n
Conflicts of Interest Policy
\n\n
In line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
IntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\n
\n\t
A substantial contribution to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work
\n\t
Participation in drafting or revising the work
\n\t
Approval of the manuscript version to be published
All scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
The Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
To identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
When faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\n
IntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\n
In order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\n
Translation Policy
\n\n
IntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
In line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
At IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
All chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\n
Online First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\n
Chapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\n
You are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\n
If there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\n
Readers and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\n
Access policy
\n\n
IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
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Some experimental setups, with microphone and piezoelectric transducers, are described for recording PA spectra of gaseous, solid, and liquid samples. Applications of PA spectroscopy in the investigation of harmful chemicals are presented with illustrative examples. 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Recent advances in gastroenterological photoacoustics represent combination of multispectral and multiscale photoacoustic (PA), ultrasound (US), and near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent imaging. The novel PA endoscopic methods have been evaluated in preclinical models using catheter-based miniature probes either noncontact, all-optical, forward-viewing probe or contact, side-viewing probe combined with ultrasound (esophagus and colon). The deep-tissue PA tomography has been applied to preclinical research on targeted contrast agents (pancreatic cancer) using benchtop experimental setups. The clinical studies engaging human tissue ex vivo have been performed on endoscopic mucosal resection tissue with PA-US tomography system and intraoperative imaging of pancreatic tissue with PA and NIR fluorescence multimodality. These emerging PA methods are very promising for early cancer detection and prospective theranostics. The noninvasive transabdominal examination with PA-US handheld probe has been implemented into clinical trials for the assessment of inflammatory bowel disease. To facilitate translational and clinical research in PA imaging in gastroenterology, we discuss potential clinical impact and limitations of the proposed solutions and future needs.",book:{id:"7439",slug:"photoacoustic-imaging-principles-advances-and-applications",title:"Photoacoustic Imaging",fullTitle:"Photoacoustic Imaging - Principles, Advances and Applications"},signatures:"Sheena Bhushan, Sharmila Anandasabapathy and Elena Petrova",authors:[{id:"286396",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Petrova",slug:"elena-petrova",fullName:"Elena Petrova"},{id:"290951",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharmila",middleName:null,surname:"Anandasabapathy",slug:"sharmila-anandasabapathy",fullName:"Sharmila Anandasabapathy"},{id:"295676",title:"M.D.",name:"Sheena",middleName:"R.",surname:"Bhushan",slug:"sheena-bhushan",fullName:"Sheena Bhushan"}]},{id:"41783",title:"Fractal Physiology, Breath-to-Breath Variability and Respiratory Diseases: An Introduction to Complex Systems Theory Application in Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine",slug:"fractal-physiology-breath-to-breath-variability-and-respiratory-diseases-an-introduction-to-complex-",totalDownloads:2808,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"3008",slug:"practical-applications-in-biomedical-engineering",title:"Practical Applications in Biomedical Engineering",fullTitle:"Practical Applications in Biomedical Engineering"},signatures:"Vasilios Papaioannou and Ioannis Pneumatikos",authors:[{id:"56193",title:"Prof.",name:"Ioannis",middleName:null,surname:"Pneumatikos",slug:"ioannis-pneumatikos",fullName:"Ioannis Pneumatikos"},{id:"147093",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:null,surname:"Papaioannou",slug:"vasilios-papaioannou",fullName:"Vasilios Papaioannou"}]},{id:"41800",title:"Impulse Oscillometric Features and Respiratory System Models Track Small Airway Function in Children",slug:"impulse-oscillometric-features-and-respiratory-system-models-track-small-airway-function-in-children",totalDownloads:3194,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3008",slug:"practical-applications-in-biomedical-engineering",title:"Practical Applications in Biomedical Engineering",fullTitle:"Practical Applications in Biomedical Engineering"},signatures:"Erika G. Meraz, Homer Nazeran, Carlos Ramos, Liza Rodriguez, Lidia Rascón Madrigal and Nelly Gordillo Castillo",authors:[{id:"148141",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika",middleName:"G.",surname:"Meraz",slug:"erika-meraz",fullName:"Erika Meraz"},{id:"149251",title:"Dr.",name:"Homer",middleName:null,surname:"Nazeran",slug:"homer-nazeran",fullName:"Homer Nazeran"},{id:"164353",title:"MSc.",name:"Lidia",middleName:null,surname:"Rascon Madrigal",slug:"lidia-rascon-madrigal",fullName:"Lidia Rascon Madrigal"},{id:"164354",title:"Dr.",name:"Nelly",middleName:null,surname:"Gordillo Castillo",slug:"nelly-gordillo-castillo",fullName:"Nelly Gordillo Castillo"},{id:"166206",title:"MSc.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos",slug:"carlos-ramos",fullName:"Carlos Ramos"},{id:"166207",title:"BSc.",name:"Liza",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"liza-rodriguez",fullName:"Liza Rodriguez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"688",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. 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Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. 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\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 27th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},subseries:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",keywords:"Demographic shifts, Innovation, Technology, Next-gen leaders, Worldwide environmental issues and clean technology, Uncertainty and political risks, Radical adjacency, Emergence of new business ecosystem type, Emergence of different leader and leader values types, Universal connector, Elastic enterprise, Business platform, Supply chain complexity",scope:"
\r\n\tThe Business and Management series topic focuses on the most pressing issues confronting organizations today and in the future. Businesses are trying to figure out how to lead in a time of global uncertainty. In emerging markets, issues such as ill-defined or unstable policies, as well as corrupt practices, can be hugely problematic. Changes in governments can result in new policy, regulations, and interest rates, all of which can be detrimental to foreign businesses and investments. A growing trend towards economic nationalism also makes the current global political landscape potentially hostile towards international businesses.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe demographic shifts are creating interesting challenges. People are living longer, resulting to an aging demographic. We have a large population of older workers and retirees who are living longer lives, combined with a declining birthrate in most parts of the world. Businesses of all types are looking at how technology is affecting their operations. Several questions arise, such as: How is technology changing what we do? How is it transforming us internally, how is it influencing our clients and our business strategy? It is about leveraging technology to improve efficiency, connect with customers more effectively, and drive innovation. The majority of innovative companies are technology-driven businesses. Realizing digital transformation is today’s top issue and will remain so for the next five years. Improving organizational agility, expanding portfolios of products and services, creating, and maintaining a culture of innovation, and developing next -generation leaders were also identified as top challenges in terms of both current and future issues.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe most sustained profitable growth occurs when a company expands its core business into an adjacent space. This has significant implications for management because innovation in business ecosystems differs from traditional, vertically integrated firms. Every organization in the ecosystem must be aware of the bigger picture. Innovation in ecosystems necessitates collaborative action to invent and appraise, efficient, cross-organizational knowledge flows, modular architectures, and good stewardship of legacy systems. It is built on multiple, interconnected platforms. Environmental factors have already had a significant impact in the West and will continue to have an impact globally. Businesses must take into account the environmental impact of their daily operations. The advantage of this market is that it is expected to grow more rapidly than the overall economy. Another significant challenge is preparing the next generation of leaders to elevate this to the number one priority within the next five years. There can be no culture of innovation unless there is diverse leadership or development of the next generation of leaders; and these diverse, next-generation leaders are the ones who will truly understand the digital strategies that will drive digital transformation.
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\r\n\tThe topic on Economics is designed to disseminate knowledge around broad global economic issues. Original submissions will be accepted in English for applied and theoretical articles, case studies and reviews about the specific challenges and opportunities faced by the economies and markets around the world. The authors are encouraged to apply rigorous economic analysis with significant policy implications for developed and developing countries. Examples of subjects of interest will include, but are not limited to globalization, economic integration, growth and development, international trade, environmental development, country specific comparative analysis, technical innovation and knowledge management, political economy analysis, and banking and financial markets.
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\r\n\tMarketing is an important aspect in the functioning of all types of organizations. The external environment is characterized by constant and dynamic changes, that pose risks to the company. It is associated with changes in macroeconomic, political, legal, and demographic, as well as new consumer trends. It is necessary to carefully plan marketing activities in order to provide the market with products that satisfy consumers' needs and desires, provide them with value, and bring satisfaction and contentment. Therefore, in this topic, we focus on overall marketing efforts, including marketing communications through traditional and social media, pricing strategies, distribution strategies, branding, innovation, and new product launches, as well as researching the current market and consumer trends. We also analyze the latest trends and tendencies in marketing, such as product placement and neuromarketing.
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