Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
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Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
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"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8607",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Evaluation of Health Services",title:"Evaluation of Health Services",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"As the costs and resources of delivering health services have increased over the years, the importance of evaluating health services and interventions has become essential. An evaluation provides a systematic process of assessing the efficacy and efficiency of health services, including an assessment of their impact on beneficiaries, whether it be individuals or communities. Evaluation in the health sector includes the evaluation of burden disease where human and economic costs resulting from poor health are measured.In this book, various evaluation studies are detailed, providing an excellent resource for both evaluation practitioners and academics alike. The geographical range and variety of case studies showcase how evaluation has become integral for health service planning and assessment and to assist public health policy makers decide how to use limited resources to minimize burden and inequity. This book will act as a ready resource for both workers experienced in health service evaluation and those intending to learn about burden of disease of evaluation.",isbn:"978-1-83880-163-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-154-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-164-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79149",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"evaluation-of-health-services",numberOfPages:128,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"dbea1d7a6cd5428a713f35c234f5583b",bookSignature:"Sandeep Reddy and Aida Isabel Tavares",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8607.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6618,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:18,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:34,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 28th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 30th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 29th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 19th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 18th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"230704",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sandeep",middleName:null,surname:"Reddy",slug:"sandeep-reddy",fullName:"Sandeep Reddy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/230704/images/system/230704.jpg",biography:"Sandeep is a certified medical informatician with a background in Medicine, Public Health and Healthcare Management. He is currently engaged in research in medical informatics and program evaluation.",institutionString:"Deakin University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"196819",title:"Prof.",name:"Aida Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Tavares",slug:"aida-isabel-tavares",fullName:"Aida Isabel Tavares",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196819/images/system/196819.jfif",biography:"Aida Isabel Tavares holds a Ph.D. in Economic Analysis, awarded by the Autonomous University of Barcelona in 2008. She has been dedicated to research in Applied Health Economics and published several articles in international peer-reviewed journals. She has also published one book in public economics. Her research areas include health economics and policy, health systems, socioeconomic determinants of health, regulation in health markets, and economics evaluation. Prof. Tavares has also been teaching at different universities, specifically courses related to microeconomics, public economics, and health economics. Currently, she is collaborating with the Centre of Studies and Research in Health of the University of Coimbra in Portugal, and she is an Assistant Professor in Lisbon School of Economics and Management, University of Lisbon.",institutionString:"University of Lisbon",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Lisbon",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1132",title:"Health Care",slug:"medicine-public-health-health-care"}],chapters:[{id:"71087",title:"Introductory Chapter: Evaluation of Health Services",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91243",slug:"introductory-chapter-evaluation-of-health-services",totalDownloads:622,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sandeep Reddy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71087",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71087",authors:[{id:"230704",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sandeep",surname:"Reddy",slug:"sandeep-reddy",fullName:"Sandeep Reddy"}],corrections:null},{id:"65569",title:"Value-Based Evaluation of Chinese Provincial Health Insurance Policy Schemes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84373",slug:"value-based-evaluation-of-chinese-provincial-health-insurance-policy-schemes",totalDownloads:938,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since 2011, an international group of health policy experts has been working on a value-framework to be used for pharmaceutical policy decisions based on multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA). This tool can be easily adapted to a local decision-making context through a facilitated workshop format. Several workshops have been conducted in emerging markets to test the acceptance and feasibility of using MCDA in local decision-making. In China, national policy goals for expanding health-care coverage pressure the provincial governments to implement more comprehensive coverage schemes. This chapter demonstrates the adaptation of a global value-framework to the local policy environment. In September 2018, nine leaders from provincial health insurance bureaus responsible for the urban employee basic medical insurance (UEBMI) participated in a 1-day workshop to build a consensus on the most important objectives for the health-care reform and to translate these into measurable criteria. The participants ranked the criteria by importance and MCDA methodology was used for weighing the importance of each criterion in the final decision. The model driving this process will be presented and discussed by comparing two policy options for health-care reform.",signatures:"Shanlian Hu, Anke-Peggy Holtorf, Kalman Wijaya, Jiangjiang He and Diana Brixner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65569",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65569",authors:[{id:"280908",title:"Dr.",name:"Anke-Peggy",surname:"Holtorf",slug:"anke-peggy-holtorf",fullName:"Anke-Peggy Holtorf"},{id:"281689",title:"Prof.",name:"Shanlian",surname:"Hu",slug:"shanlian-hu",fullName:"Shanlian Hu"},{id:"281690",title:"Prof.",name:"Diana",surname:"Brixner",slug:"diana-brixner",fullName:"Diana Brixner"},{id:"281691",title:"Mr.",name:"Kalman",surname:"Wijaya",slug:"kalman-wijaya",fullName:"Kalman Wijaya"},{id:"290614",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiangjiang",surname:"He",slug:"jiangjiang-he",fullName:"Jiangjiang He"}],corrections:null},{id:"70165",title:"Age- and Sex-Specific Burden of Morbidity and Disability in India: A Current Scenario",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89709",slug:"age-and-sex-specific-burden-of-morbidity-and-disability-in-india-a-current-scenario",totalDownloads:734,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"India is the second most populous country in the world with a population of 1.3 billion; any change in its morbidity and disability pattern is bound to bring change at the Asia level, which is a matter of concern for the developing countries. Disability-free life expectancy (DFLE) and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) provide summary measures of health across characteristics. The assessments of epidemiological patterns and health system performance of any place and time period display its progress towards the goal of sustainable development goals (SDGs). The main aim of this study is to assess the age and sex pattern of the burden of diseases (mortality and morbidity) and disability in India. The information on disease and deaths was extracted from the 71st round of the National Sample Surveys (NSS) conducted in 2014 (NSS 2014) and the Causes of Deaths Study conducted in the 2010–2013 (RGI 2010–2013) and disability from Census of India 2011 (ORG 2011).",signatures:"Ajit Kumar Yadav and Akansha Singh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70165",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70165",authors:[{id:"309064",title:"Dr.",name:"Ajit",surname:"Yadav",slug:"ajit-yadav",fullName:"Ajit Yadav"},{id:"311831",title:"Dr.",name:"Akansha",surname:"Singh",slug:"akansha-singh",fullName:"Akansha Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"65446",title:"Evaluating the Efficiency of a Collaborative Learning Network in Supporting Third Sector Organisations in the UK",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84294",slug:"evaluating-the-efficiency-of-a-collaborative-learning-network-in-supporting-third-sector-organisatio",totalDownloads:814,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Third-sector organisations are a collective term for voluntary and community services, charities, and social enterprises. Within the UK and internationally, a subset provides a crucial and ever-expanding role in mental health care provision, delivering valuable client and community-led services. However, in the UK these organisations are under increased pressure to demonstrate their value, and many are constrained by scarce resources and lack of expertise. The Service Improvement Learning Collaborative was conceived as an innovative model for shared learning to enhance the value of this sector in mental health care support, generating a valuable resource of practice-based learning and promoting the implementation of effective practices. The initiative combines a collaborative learning model with mentorship support and in-depth, data analytical profiling. This collaborative involved a network of six organisations focused on exploring the maximisation of data quality, the minimisation of client attrition, and the optimisation of clinical outcomes. Evaluating the collated data helped identify the many unique challenges facing the sector and evidenced the model as a pragmatic solution for service quality improvement. This chapter provides an overview of the project’s methodology, including its underlying rationale, first year of operation, and value of experiential learning for the field.",signatures:"Scott Steen and John Mellor-Clark",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65446",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65446",authors:[{id:"282707",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Mellor-Clark",slug:"john-mellor-clark",fullName:"John Mellor-Clark"},{id:"283430",title:"Dr.",name:"Scott",surname:"Steen",slug:"scott-steen",fullName:"Scott Steen"}],corrections:null},{id:"69208",title:"Outbreak of Cholera Due to Cyclone Idai in Central Mozambique (2019)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89358",slug:"outbreak-of-cholera-due-to-cyclone-idai-in-central-mozambique-2019-",totalDownloads:728,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Idai was a strong tropical cyclone in Central Mozambique, causing over 1000 deaths, destroying schools, hospitals, roads, and more than 239,731 houses, displacing thousands of people to 136 accommodation sites, and leaving people in need for assistance. The resulting precarious hygienic conditions caused outbreaks of diseases such as malaria and cholera. This communication summarizes the onset of cholera outbreak in Sofala province and its response. It was declared on 27 March, and the number of cases raised up to 6766 and 8 confirmed deaths, with the highest incidence in the city of Beira. The government and partners made integrated efforts to control the disease, establishing treatment centers and units and improving sanitation and hygiene and surveillance. Furthermore, 800,000 people were immunized, and the results seemed satisfactory considering the response. Although cyclones are rare, Mozambique has a very limited capacity to handle their impact, and this urges the country to keep a contingency fund for future disasters.",signatures:"Edson Mongo, Edgar Cambaza, Robina Nhambire, Jacinto Singo and Edsone Machava",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69208",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69208",authors:[{id:"300135",title:"Dr.",name:"Edgar",surname:"Cambaza",slug:"edgar-cambaza",fullName:"Edgar Cambaza"},{id:"308847",title:"Dr.",name:"Edson",surname:"Mongo",slug:"edson-mongo",fullName:"Edson Mongo"},{id:"308848",title:"Ms.",name:"Robina",surname:"Nhambire",slug:"robina-nhambire",fullName:"Robina Nhambire"},{id:"308968",title:"Mr.",name:"Jacinto",surname:"Singo",slug:"jacinto-singo",fullName:"Jacinto Singo"},{id:"308969",title:"Ms.",name:"Edsone",surname:"Machava",slug:"edsone-machava",fullName:"Edsone Machava"}],corrections:null},{id:"65369",title:"Weighing Price and Performance for Decisions for Multisource Pharmaceutical Bidding in Public Hospitals in Thailand",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83823",slug:"weighing-price-and-performance-for-decisions-for-multisource-pharmaceutical-bidding-in-public-hospit",totalDownloads:1034,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Following a national law introduced in 2017 in Thailand, the selection of winning bidders for multisourced pharmaceuticals and medical supplies in public hospitals must reflect “price-performance” aligned with the principles of worthiness, transparency, efficiency, effectiveness and accountability. We describe how a practical tool using Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) for evidence-based decision making in hospital bidding (tender) was developed through a multi-stakeholder workshop format. The local leader of the initiative together with 2 international advisors guided the 37 workshop participants through five interactive steps for local adaptation of the previously developed and validated global MCDA-tool: (1) Criteria selection, (2) Scoring definition, (3) Weighting of price criterion, (4) Definition of cut-off point for price criterion, (5) Ranking and weighting of remaining criteria. All consensus judgments were imported to the decision tool which can later be used in the real-world situation in the hospitals to support the selection and document the underlying rationale. The final list of criteria differs from the previously suggested international template and now reflects the Thai decision priorities and current decision processes. In the book chapter, the resulting model will be presented and a pathway for implementation will be discussed.",signatures:"Anunchai Assawamakin, Anke-Peggy Holtorf and Nikolaos Maniadakis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65369",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65369",authors:[{id:"280908",title:"Dr.",name:"Anke-Peggy",surname:"Holtorf",slug:"anke-peggy-holtorf",fullName:"Anke-Peggy Holtorf"},{id:"281835",title:"Dr.",name:"Anunchai",surname:"Assawamakin",slug:"anunchai-assawamakin",fullName:"Anunchai Assawamakin"},{id:"281836",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolaos",surname:"Maniadakis",slug:"nikolaos-maniadakis",fullName:"Nikolaos Maniadakis"}],corrections:null},{id:"70542",title:"The Burden of Informal Caregivers of Alzheimer’s Patients: An Estimation to Portugal",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90673",slug:"the-burden-of-informal-caregivers-of-alzheimer-s-patients-an-estimation-to-portugal",totalDownloads:668,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The demographic phenomenon of ageing is speeding up in Europe. People live longer and so the prevalence of dementia increases, including Alzheimer’s disease. This is a progressive disease in which people slowly lose their cognitive and physical capacities until death takes over. Alzheimer’s disease not only imposes a very high burden in the affected person but also inflicts a high and overwhelming burden of the caregivers. The carers’ burden includes health deterioration, labour damaging and loses and financial and social costs, while the care provided is not well valued. The aim of this chapter is to review the main trends and concepts related to ageing, caregivers and Alzheimer’s disease. It also presents the economic burden associated with the disease and the monetary value of the care provided by caregivers in Portugal.",signatures:"Aida Isabel Tavares and Carolina Freitas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70542",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70542",authors:[{id:"196819",title:"Prof.",name:"Aida Isabel",surname:"Tavares",slug:"aida-isabel-tavares",fullName:"Aida Isabel Tavares"}],corrections:null},{id:"70517",title:"Methodology of Estimating Socioeconomic Burden of Disease Using National Health Insurance (NHI) Data",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89895",slug:"methodology-of-estimating-socioeconomic-burden-of-disease-using-national-health-insurance-nhi-data",totalDownloads:1085,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The cost-of-illness (COI) studies convert the burdens associated with certain illnesses into economic and monetary values so as to measure the socioeconomic costs that are inevitably incurred by a given society in association with certain illnesses. The estimated costs provided by COI studies provide an important basis for estimating the amounts of public health resources spent and productivity losses incurred and thereby make it possible to quantify the socioeconomic burdens that illnesses impose on society in general. In this chapter, we review the diverse methodologies and techniques for estimating the socioeconomic burden of disease, which is widely used in the established literature all over the world, and compare the pros and cons of each. This chapter introduces the existing COI studies in terms of their research designs, data selection and value assessment processes, applied perspectives, and chosen components of costs. Furthermore, this chapter introduces a real-world example of estimating the national economic burden of disease by using the National Health Insurance (NHI) data. We hope that this chapter will help readers better understand and use the COI study.",signatures:"Hyeon-Jin Choi and Eun-Whan Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70517",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70517",authors:[{id:"310833",title:"Dr.",name:"Eun-Whan",surname:"Lee",slug:"eun-whan-lee",fullName:"Eun-Whan Lee"},{id:"311130",title:"MSc.",name:"Hyeon-Jin",surname:"Choi",slug:"hyeon-jin-choi",fullName:"Hyeon-Jin Choi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1673",title:"Evidence Based Medicine",subtitle:"Closer to Patients or Scientists?",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d767dfe22c65317eab3fd9ff465cb877",slug:"evidence-based-medicine-closer-to-patients-or-scientists-",bookSignature:"Nikolaos M. 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\r\n\tNovel technological, molecular, and immunologic approaches are rapidly creating novel insights into the biology and therapeutic perspectives of leukemias. The continuous and rather extensive influx of new information regarding the key features and underlying mechanisms as well as treatment options of leukemias requires frequent updating of this topic. \r\n\tThe primary objective of this book is to provide the specialists involved in the clinical management and experimental research of acute and chronic leukemias updates on the theoretical aspects as well as state-of-the-art diagnostic and clinical management of acute and chronic leukemias.
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\r\n\tThe book is intended to cover a broad spectrum of leukemia-related topics such as: \r\n\t-novel and still evolving insights into the biology and diagnosis and how these result in new drug approvals and new therapeutic options with a focus on molecular and immunotherapeutic targeted therapeutics, \r\n\t- the molecular and functional features of leukemic stem cells and their interaction with the microenvironment, \r\n\t- preleukemic hematopoiesis and clonal diversity, \r\n\t- new standard treatment algorithms, \r\n\t- mechanisms of resistance and disease progression \r\n\t- diagnosis and management of rare acute leukemia subtypes, \r\n\t- Covid-19 aspects in specific leukemia categories, \r\n\t- real-world data \r\n\t- new drugs in development
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He has authored and co-authored many articles in peer-reviewed journals and book chapters. He is a member of several professional societies, such as the Bulgarian Society of Hematology, the Bulgarian Society of Genetics, and the European Hematology Association; a life member of the UICC.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"52938",title:"Prof.",name:"Margarita",middleName:null,surname:"Guenova",slug:"margarita-guenova",fullName:"Margarita Guenova",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52938/images/system/52938.jpg",biography:"Professor Dr. Margarita Guenova received her medical training at the Medical University of Sofia and her PhD degree at the National Center of Haematology in 2000. She is employed as Head of the Laboratory of Haematopathology and Immunology and Professor of Hematology and Blood Transfusion at the National Specialised Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Sofia, Bulgaria, teaching both undergraduate and graduate studies at the Sofia Medical University. She specializes in the field of leukemia and lymphoma diagnostics. In regard to her scientific interests, she worked on the elucidation of critical mechanisms of leukemia pathogenesis and progression, investigation of clinically relevant biomarkers and potential targets for therapy in leukemias and lymphomas, characterization of leukemic stem cell populations, minimal residual disease, and implementation of a multifaceted approach in oncohematology. Dr. Guenova has authored and coauthored many abstracts, articles in peer-reviewed journals, and book chapters. She serves on several editorial boards and is the Past-president of the Bulgarian Society of Hematology as well as a member of several professional societies, such as the Bulgarian Society of Pathology, the Bulgarian Association of Clinical Immunology, the European Hematology Association, the European Association of Haematopathology, and the International Society of Haematology.",institutionString:"Laboratory of Haematopathology and Immunology, National Specialized Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"56314",title:"Prof.",name:"Gueorgui",middleName:null,surname:"Balatzenko",slug:"gueorgui-balatzenko",fullName:"Gueorgui Balatzenko",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/56314/images/5371_n.jpg",biography:"Professor Dr. Gueorgui Balatzenko received his medical training at the Medical University of Sofia and his PhD degree at the National Center of Haematology in 2002. He obtained additional qualifications at the Red Cross Blood Bank, Groningen-Drenthe, the Netherlands; Institute Paoli-Calmettes, Marseille, France; and Necker-Enfants Malades, Paris, France. He is Professor of Hematology and Blood Transfusion at the Laboratory of Cytogenetics and Molecular Biology at the National Specialised Hospital for Active Treatment of Haematological Diseases, Sofia, Bulgaria, teaching both undergraduate and graduate studies at the Sofia Medical University. His major interest is in the field of molecular investigations in leukemias. In regard to his scientific achievements, he worked on the elucidation of \nthe incidence and clinical relevance of molecular biomarkers in chronic and acute leukemias as well as on the molecular monitoring of treatment response. Dr. Balatzenko has authored and coauthored many articles in peer-reviewed journals and book chapters. 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1. Introduction
The contour feathers of birds are well-known to serve a variety of functions ranging from intraspecific signaling to such physical qualities as thermal insulation [1], water repellency [2] and resistance to impact [3]. They are arranged on the bird’s body in an overlapping fashion like shingles on a roof with the dorsal aspect of their distal one-third exposed to air or water. This outer part of the contour feather has the patterned structure seen in pennaceous feathers with barbs extending from the rachis, each sprouting barbules of which the distal ones have hooks that catch upon the curled, proximal barbules of the barb next more distal [4]. These structural details confer to the plumage the properties of water repellency, resistance to water penetration and resistance to forceful impact. The overall pattern is essentially the same for all regions of the body surface, but differs by location for some species. For instance, a marked difference in barb diameter and spacing was observed for the head, breast and abdominal feathers of Blue Swallows (Hirundo atrocaerulea) affecting the water repellency and water resistance of these regions to cope with the swallow’s specific habit of foraging along misty mountain slopes [5].
Water birds that swim, dive or plunge can be expected to show adaptations in their contour feathers, compatible with their foraging niches, that are absent in land birds that have no interaction with open water as indeed they do [6]. They show a water repellency and a resistance to water penetration in their contour feathers that vary with the family’s specific behavioral patterns. Surface feeders tend to have a predominantly water repellent body plumage whereas those of divers and plungers are more resistant to water penetration and forceful impact.
Birds that swim and dive will also benefit from reduced drag for their locomotion in water, a consideration that applies less to waders and shore birds and not at all to land birds. Viscous drag in water is dependent on the surface microstructure of the distal one-third of the contour feather, but also on the shape of its surface in contact with water, an aspect of feathers that has so far received little or no attention. Drag in air, such as in flight, on the other hand, has been the topic of several studies.
That the shape of the surface area in contact with water varies among bird families has been noticed in the course of previous studies. It was seen to be nearly circular in land birds with a length-to-width ratio (L/W) of approximately 1.0, but oblong with an L/W of about 4 in penguins (Spheniscidae), the most aquatic of families. Birds less intimate with open water showed intermediate values for L/W.
In this chapter, we consider the interface between the distal one-third and flowing water to calculate viscous drag for feather shape geometry. Assuming the flow to be parallel to the long axis of the feather, i. e. zero angle of attack, we can derive the total drag coefficient (DC), composed of viscous pressure and frictional drag, from the computational and experimental results of studies on model ship hulls of varying length-to-diameter ratios using solutions to the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes Equations [7]. For the relationship between drag coefficient and L/W, we then find
DC10−3=4.071e−0.0595L/WE1
for values of L/W less than 7 which is within the range of feather geometry. The equation predicts that oblong shapes of the tips of contour feathers reduce drag facilitating swimming and diving, whereas a more circular shape would cause an increase in frictional drag. A similar reasoning could be applied to the shape of the area that the body of a swimming bird has in contact with water. If this area is assumed to be elliptical, a drag coefficient for body surface area in contact with water could be determined using the same equation.
In order to establish if niche-specific adaptations in feather microstructure exist among bird species, various statistical approaches should be considered. Generalized least squares estimation of coefficients for linear models have been commonly used to investigate traits within phylogeny [8, 9]. However, statistical inaccuracies due to high type I errors are widespread without accounting for the evolutionary relationships. A more appropriate approach, described by Adams and Collyer (2018), incorporates phylogeny under a Brownian motion model of evolution while performing ANOVA. This phylogenetic-ANOVA approach offers additional advantages by accounting for group aggregation within phylogeny which could influence results and overall conclusions.
Our hypothesis is that water birds have contour feathers that exhibit in their shapes adaptations to reducing viscous drag according to their interaction with open water.
2. Methods
The measurements on contour feathers were performed on abdominal feathers as these are considered to be most representative of interaction with water. The primary source of feathers was the same as used for earlier studies which included water bird species from 11 orders and, for comparison, land bird species from 9 orders [10]. The species entered in this study are compiled in Table 1, using English names and taxonomic sequence suggested by Handbook of the Birds of the World [11].
ID#
Bird Name
FN Group
L/W
DC (10−3)
1
Jackass Penquin, S. demersus
Aquatic Dive
3.4
3.326
2
Magellanic Penquin, S. magellanicus
Aquatic Dive
4
3.209
3
Gentoo Penguin, P. papua
Aquatic Dive
3.33
3.339
4
Rockhopper Penguin, E. chrysocome
Aquatic Dive
3.4
3.326
5
Great Northern Diver, G. immer
Aquatic Dive
2.85
3.437
6
Little Grebe, T. ruficollis
Aquatic Dive
2
3.615
7
Black-necked Grebe, P. nigricollis
Aquatic Dive
1.73
3.673
8
Yellow-nosed Albatross, T. chlororhynchos
Aquatic Surface
1.87
3.643
9
Great-winged Petrel, P. macroptera
Aquatic Aerial
2.37
3.536
10
Blue Petrel, H. caerulea
Aquatic Surface
2.75
3.457
11
Gray Petrel, P. cinerea
Aquatic Surface
3.13
3.38
12
European Storm-Petrel, H. pelagicus
Aquatic Aerial
2
3.615
13
Common Diving-Petrel, P. urinatrix
Aquatic Dive
1.63
3.695
14
Great White Pelican, P. onocrotalus
Aquatic Surface
2.68
3.472
15
Pink-backed Pelican, P. rufescens
Aquatic Surface
2.17
3.579
17
Northern Gannet, M. bassanus
Aquatic Plunge
2.5
3.509
18
Cape Gannet, M. capensis
Aquatic Plunge
2.4
3.53
19
Cape Cormorant, P. capensis
Aquatic Dive
2.6
3.488
20
Darter, A. melanogaster
Aquatic Dive
3.14
3.377
21
Great Frigatebird, F. minor
Aquatic Aerial
2.28
3.555
22
Gray Heron, A. cinerea
Aquatic Ground
1.46
3.733
23
Black-headed Heron, A. melanocephala
Aquatic Ground
1.45
3.734
24
Little Egret, E. garzetta
Aquatic Ground
2
3.61
25
Hamerkop, S. umbretta
Aquatic Ground
2.33
3.544
26
Yellow-billed Stork, M. ibis
Aquatic Ground
2.22
3.568
27
Saddlebill, E. senegalensis
Aquatic Ground
1.82
3.654
28
Sacred Ibis, T. aethiopicus
Aquatic Ground
2.12
3.589
29
Greater Flamingo, P. ruber
Aquatic Ground
2
3.615
30
Horned Screamer, A. cornuta
H.A. Ground
1.19
3.794
31
Egyptian Goose, A. aegyptiaca
Aquatic Surface
1.55
3.713
32
Yellow-billed Duck, A. undulata
H.A. Surface
2.08
3.597
34
Coqui Francolin, F. coqui
Ground Feeding
1.57
3.708
35
Blue Crane, G. paradisea
Ground Feeding
2.69
3.469
36
Limpkin, A. guarauna
Aquatic Ground
2.58
3.491
37
Red-knobbed Coot, F. cristata
Aquatic Surface
1.5
3.724
38
African Finfoot, P. senegalensis
Aquatic Surface
2.89
3.428
39
African Jacana, A. africanus
Aquatic Ground
1.73
3.673
40
Greater Painted-snipe, R. benghalensis
Aquatic Ground
2
3.615
41
Crab Plover, D. ardeola
Aquatic Ground
2
3.615
42
African Black Oystercatcher, H. moquini
Aquatic Ground
2.23
3.566
43
Pied Avocet, R. avosetta
Aquatic Ground
2.36
3.538
44
Spotted Dikkop, B. capensis
Ground Feeding
2.43
3.523
45
White-fronted Plover, C. marginatus
Aquatic Ground
1.78
3.662
46
Eurasian Curlew, N. arquata
Aquatic Ground
1.94
3.628
47
Red Phalarope, P. fulicarius
Aquatic Ground
2
3.615
48
Pale-faced Sheathbill, C. albus
Ground Feeding
2.25
3.561
49
Pomarine Skua, S. pomarinus
Aquatic Aerial
2.57
3.494
50
Lesser Black-backed Gull, L. fuscus
Aquatic Surface
2.36
3.538
51
Sooty Tern, S. fuscata
Aquatic Plunge
2.13
3.586
52
African Skimmer, R. flavirostris
Aquatic Aerial
2.01
3.613
53
Common Murre, U. aalge
Aquatic Dive
3.33
3.339
54
Namaqua Sandgrouse, P. namaqua
Ground Feeding
1.2
3.799
55
Dusky Turtle-dove, S. lugens
Ground Feeding
1.27
3.775
56
Brown-necked Parrot, P. robustus
Ground Feeding
1
3.836
57
White-browed Coucal, C. senegalensis
Ground Feeding
1.13
3.807
58
Rufous-cheeked Nightjar, C. rufigena
Aerial/Sally
1.22
3.786
59
White-rumped Swift, A. caffer
Aerial/Sally
1.18
3.795
60
Narina Trogon, A. narina
Aerial/Sally
2.2
3.572
61
Half-collared Kingfisher, A. semitorquata
Aquatic Perch
1.87
3.643
64
European Starling, S. vulgaris
Ground Feeding
1.33
3.762
Table 1.
Bird species, foraging niches (FN) and drag coefficients (DC) of the 60 species in this study. Their full scientific names are provided in Figure 1.
The length and the width of the closed pennaceous portion of the contour feathers of the 48 water birds and twelve land birds in this study were measured to the nearest millimeter using a traveling microscope with the mid-part of the vane taken for the width. At least three feather specimens of each species were examined. The drag coefficients, listed in Table 1, were calculated from L/W values using the above equation.
Grouping the bird species according to their interaction with open water can be achieved by assigning them to foraging niches as proposed by Pigot et al. [12], using a standardized protocol for foraging niche delimitation. Following this procedure, a total of thirty niches has been identified for all of the approximately 10,000 bird species of the world. Of these six major foraging niches were categorized as Aquatic with two more chosen by us to accommodate the 48 water bird species of this study. The twelve land bird species could be grouped into two niches: Ground Feeding and Aerial/Sally.
All statistical analyses were conducted using the R statistical computer software (version 3.6.0). In addition to the foraging niches proposed [12] for aquatic birds (group 1) and land birds (group 2), four more analyses were performed using the values of L/W and DC for both land and aquatic bird species (consisting of the various foraging niches) categorized as the following independent variables: aquatic versus land birds (group 3), swimmers versus land birds (group 4), waders versus land birds (group 5) and swimmers versus waders (group 6). These groupings can be visualized in the context of a phylogeny in Figure 1 and Table 4. Phylogenetic trees comprising of 60 bird species representatives of the independent groups were obtained from www.birdtree.org [13]. A total of 1000 trees were generated and a representative tree was constructed using the maxCladeCred function from the phangorn package (version 2.5.3).
Figure 1.
Phylogenetic tree depicting the phylogenetic relationships between the 60 bird species. The various foraging niches are displayed at the tree tips. Land bird species are illustrated on the tree edges as dashed lines and aquatic birds as solid lines. Swimming characteristics are illustrated by the right-hand bar between land birds (black), waders (gray) and swimmers (dark gray).
The degree of group aggregation was determined in order to establish if the ANOVA methodology would be affected by the association between the independent variable, i. e. foraging niche and the phylogeny. Group aggregation was performed by calculating phylogenetic variance–covariance using the vcv.phylo function from the ape package (version 5.3), which was followed by performing a two-block partial least squares analysis using the two.b.pls function from the geomorph package (version 3.2.1). The degree of group aggregation was estimated by the proximity of the R-value to either 1 or 0, where values equal to or larger than 0.6 were considered strong aggregation. Significant group aggregation was considered for p-values <0.05.
In order to determine if the foraging niches for aquatic and land birds as well as the other independent variables, explain feather microstructure while accounting for phylogenetic relationships, a phylogenetic ANOVA (procD.pgls function from the geomorph package), conventional ANOVA (aov function) and non-parametric (kruskal.test function) equivalent approaches were followed. Significance among all analyses were accepted for p-values <0.05.
3. Results
The results of the various forms of analyses are collected in the Tables 2–4. In Table 2, the 60 species of our study are presented as four categories. The 48 aquatic birds are subdivided into swimmers and waders. Their values for DC show a viscous drag coefficient for swimmers significantly lower (p < 0.05) than that of waders and, predictably, land birds. In Table 3, these categories are further subdivided into eight aquatic foraging niches and two terrestrial ones according to Pigot et al. [12]. It is seen that divers have the lowest recorded drag coefficient increasing in order for plungers, surface feeders, aerials, herbivore surface feeders, ground feeders, perchers to herbivore ground feeders. Land birds experience an even higher drag with no significant difference between ground feeders and those that catch their prey by aerial or sally sorties.
Category
Sample Size
LW
DCf
Aquatic Birds
48
2.304 +/− 0.587
3.56 +/− 0.124
Swimmers
30
2.484 +/− 0.625
3.515 +/− 0.130
Waders
18
1.986 +/− 0.325
3.625 +/− 0.074
Land Birds
12
1.623 +/− 0.570
3.699 +/− 0.125
Table 2.
Sample size with L/W and DC values (including means (+/− standard deviation) of the various independent categories used in this study.
Sample size with L/W and DC values (including means (+/− standard deviation) of the eight aquatic and two terrestrial foraging niches according to Pigot et al. [12]. Figure 1 Lists the birds that belong to each foraging niche.
Aquatic Niches.
Terrestrial Niches.
Group
Phy-ANOVA
Parametric
Non-Parametric
1
Aquatic Birds
NS
S
NS
2*
Land Birds
NS
NS
NS
3
Aquatic vs. Land
NS
S
S
4*
Swimmers vs. Land
NS
S
S
5
Waders vs. Land
NS
S
NS
6*
Swimmers vs. Waders
NS
S
S
Table 4.
Summary of the outcome of the statistical analyses used in this study.
In Table 4, the 60 species are divided among six groups to show the outcomes of the various statistical analyses used in this study. In the phy-ANOVA analysis, the closeness of the phylogenetic relatedness of the groups is accounted for whereas in conventional ANOVA it is not. However, the value of the latter suffers of shortcomings due to lack of equal sample size and equal variance among the populations in groups one to six. The non-parametric variant does not assume the conditions of equal sample size and variance and, for this reason, is a more appropriate method of analysis for our data set.
Group aggregations were performed to determine if phylogenetic relatedness and independent groupings could influence the reliability of the phylogenetic ANOVA analysis. The results revealed the presence of a relatively strong (r > = 0.6) and significant (p < 0.05) group aggregation for groups 2, 4 and 6, thus showing its limiting effect on the reliability on the outcome of the ANOVA analysis. Groups 1, 3 and 5 reveal weaker group aggregation (r < 0.6) but significance (p < 0.05) only for group 3.
The results of statistical significance for LW and DC values are comparable for all groups and analyses and therefore significance among groups will be discussed as a single result. Results among the various independent groupings yielded inconsistent results between the three statistical approaches. Results of the phylogenetic ANOVA approach indicated that no significance was observed for all groups (p < 0.05). Parametric results were highly contrasted against this result in that all groups with the exception of land birds indicated significant differences in feather microstructures. The non-parametric equivalent results in significance for groups 3, 4 and 6 and therefore corresponds with the results of phylogenetic ANOVA for groups 1, 2 and 5. The only consistent result across all analyses was group 2, the foraging niches of land birds, which indicated non-significance (p < 0.05).
4. Discussion
The present study has shown that adaptations in feather microstructure and body surface area in contact with water that bring about a reduction in viscous and frictional drag while swimming increase according to the bird’s intimacy with open water. Swimming and diving birds, such as penguins and grebes, benefit the most from reduced viscous drag, more so than plungers such as gannets. Aerials such as terns even less so, but much more than herbivore surface feeders such as ducks. The body feathers of ducks, in turn, appear to be better adapted to their watery habitat than those of aquatic ground feeders such as herons or kingfishers. The single herbivore aquatic ground feeder in this study, the Spotted Dikkop, is a bird of open scrubby habitat with comparatively little interaction with open water. Its drag coefficient is more in line with those of land birds in which adaptations to locomotion in water are not expected to have evolved.
Land birds do not only show drag coefficients higher than those of water birds, they also show no significant difference among the two foraging niches examined in this study. This is in line with expectation as their lack of interaction with open water and their locomotion in air only suggest that forces that foster reduced drag in water have been absent in their evolutionary history.
Of the three methods of statistical analyses, the phy-ANOVA test shows us that allowing for phylogenetic relatedness negates any differences among feather microstructure that may exist. Only for land birds would non-significance be expected. There is no doubt that group aggregation among the 48 water bird species is quite strong which detracts from the reliability of our positive and negative findings. Adding more species to the study or identifying more foraging niches could, statistically speaking, affect the results either way depending on numbers of species and their phylogenetic relatedness. Alternatively, it could be argued that relatedness is not necessarily a force that would make the evolution of an isolated trait impossible. Several examples support this notion. For instance, the Flightless cormorant (Phalacrocorax harrisi) is undoubtedly closely related to all other cormorants, yet a small change in the diameter and spacing of its barbs has rendered the bird better adapted to its bottom feeding habits than other cormorants are. The contour feathers of Brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) that, unlike their congeners, dive from the air to procure their prey, are more water repellent than those of other pelicans that catch their fish while swimming. Similar considerations apply to the differences in the contour feathers of dippers (Cinclidae) [6].
As argued above, a conventional statistical test while avoiding the condition of equal sample size and variance among populations, may the more suitable. Following this line of thought, the non-parametric variety of analysis would show that among group 1 consisting of all 48 aquatic birds, no significance is apparent, but when compared to land birds, it is. Subdividing into swimmers and waders shows comparison of the first group with land birds to be significant whereas that of waders with land birds is not. However, comparison between swimmers and waders is significant again indicating that, in terms of feather microstructure, waders stand between swimmers and land birds, but closer to land birds. This interpretation is entirely plausible, particularly if we assume that water birds have evolved from land birds.
In summary, the length-to-width ratio of the dorsal aspect of the distal one-third of abdominal feathers, the part that is in contact with water in aquatic birds, varies with the extent of interaction with open water as formulated by our hypothesis. This ratio and the total drag coefficient, composed of viscous pressure and frictional drag and calculated from Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations, are lowest for swimming and diving birds and increase for birds with less intimacy with open water. The highest values were found for land birds that have no open water in their habitat.
Due to the limited number of foraging niches and close phylogenetic relatedness among water bird families, statistically significant differences among water birds was not observed if allowance for phylogeny was made. However, using conventional statistical tests, in particular the non-parametric variety that does not assume conditions of equal sample size and variance, did show significant results when comparing water birds with land birds, swimming birds with land birds and swimming birds with waders, but not waders with land birds. This finding suggests, in terms of feather microstructure, a closer evolutionary relationship between waders and land birds than between waders and swimmers. In line with expectation, land birds showed no significant differences in their contour feather geometry that could be related to interaction with open water.
\n',keywords:"viscous drag in water, contour feather geometry, water birds, evolutionary history",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75909.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75909.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75909",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75909",totalDownloads:249,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:27,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 15th 2020",dateReviewed:"March 3rd 2021",datePrePublished:"March 24th 2021",datePublished:"July 21st 2021",dateFinished:"March 23rd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Water birds have contour feathers in contact with water that show in their distal one-third adaptations to water repellency, resistance to water penetration and forceful impact with water. These qualities vary according to their intimacy with open water. In this study, the geometry of this part of the feather was examined to detect additional features that would affect viscous drag in water. The length-to-width ratio was measured and used to calculate the viscous drag coefficients for 48 water birds and, for comparison, 12 land birds. The lowest values for the drag coefficient were observed for birds with foraging niches as diving and swimming, followed by plunging, surface feeding, aerial and ground feeding. Land birds with no open water in their habitat had the highest drag coefficients. Three statistical approaches were used to validate the results. Allowing for the phylogenetic relatedness of the 60 species obscured any significant differences that may exist, but a non-parametric analysis that does not assume the conditions of equal sample size and variance turned out to be the most appropriate method for our data set.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75909",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75909",book:{id:"8950",slug:"birds-challenges-and-opportunities-for-business-conservation-and-research"},signatures:"Roelof D. Coertze and Arie M. Rijke",authors:[{id:"245166",title:"Prof.",name:"Arie M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rijke",fullName:"Arie M. Rijke",slug:"arie-m.-rijke",email:"amr@virginia.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245166/images/9708_n.png",institution:{name:"University of Virginia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"335986",title:"Dr.",name:"Roelof",middleName:null,surname:"Coertze",fullName:"Roelof Coertze",slug:"roelof-coertze",email:"roelofco@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"North-West University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Lei FM, Qu YH, Gan YL, Gebauer A, Kaiser M (2002) The feather microstructure of passerine sparrows in China. J Ornithology 143:205-213.'},{id:"B2",body:'Baxter S, Cassie ABD (1945) The water repellency of fabrics and a new water repellency test. J Text. Inst 36:T67-T90.'},{id:"B3",body:'Rijke AM, Jesser WA, Barnard GR, Coertze RD, Bouwman H (2021) The contour feathers of water birds exhibit adaptations to the impact forces of diving, plunging and alighting. Submitted for publication.'},{id:"B4",body:'Thomson AL (1964) A new dictionary of birds. Nelson, London'},{id:"B5",body:'Turner A, Rose C (1989) Swallows and martins of the world. Christopher Helm, London.'},{id:"B6",body:'Rijke AM, Jesser WA (2011) The water penetration and repellency of feathers revisited. The Condor 133:245-254.'},{id:"B7",body:'Lin CW, Percival P, Gotimer EH (1995) Viscous drag calculations for ship hull geometry. Ninth International Conference on Numerical Methods in Laminar and Turbulent Flow, Atlanta.'},{id:"B8",body:'Blomberg SP, Garland, Jr. T, Ives AR (2003) Testing for phylogenetic signal in comparative data. Behavioral traits are more labile. Evolution 57(4):717-745.'},{id:"B9",body:'Collyer ML, Adams DC (2018) RRPP: An R package for fitting linear models to high-dimensional data using residual randomization. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 9(7):1772-1779.'},{id:"B10",body:'Rijke AM (1970) Wettability and phylogenetic development of feather structure in water birds. J Exp Biol 52:469-479.'},{id:"B11",body:'Del Hoyo J, Elliot A, Sargatal J (1992-2013) Handbook of the Birds of the World. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.'},{id:"B12",body:'Pigot AL, Sheard C, Miller ET, Bregman TP, Freeman BG, Roll U, Seddon N, Trisos CH, Weeks BC, Tobias JA (2020) Macroevolutionary convergence connects morphological form to ecological function in birds. Nat Ecol Evol https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019-1070-4'},{id:"B13",body:'Jetz W, Thomas GH, Joy JB, Hartmann K, Redding D, Mooers AO (2014) Distribution and conservation of global evolutionary distinctness in birds. Current Biology 24:1-12.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Roelof D. Coertze",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Microbiology, School of Biological Sciences, North-West University, South Africa
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Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Virginia, USA
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1. Introduction
Thanks to improved storage capacities, databases in various fields such as banking have grown up to a rich level. Most of the strategic sales and marketing decisions are taken by processing these data. For example, strategies such as cross-sell, up-sell, or risk management are being created as a result of processing the customer data. Because of the increasing number of customers and the need for a higher processing capacity, it has made it more difficult to identify the customer requirements in a rapid and accurate way and to present solution recommendations. Innovative data mining applications and techniques are required to solve this issue [1].
The market basket analysis is one of the data mining methods applied to identify the pattern which is found in product ownership data of customers. Thanks to this analysis, a pattern among the products frequently bought together by the customers can be established. The obtained pattern plays an active role in developing cross-sell and up-sell strategies.
Market basket analysis consists of two main processes. These are clustering and association processes, respectively. The clustering process involves grouping of similar customers in terms of clusters. Thus, those customers which should be examined in the same category will be identified. During the association process, commonness in buying behavior of customers through a selected cluster is being identified, assuming that clustered customers having similar characteristics would demonstrate similar buying behaviors.
As the banking databases have grown up to a very high volume, the association process has become a very costly process in terms of time and memory consumption. In order to improve the time and memory performance, sampling process should be included in the previous phase of association.
In this regard, a sample which involves less observations in comparison to the whole data is used. We use the term “space” to refer the whole data set. In case the representation capability of the obtained sampling is high, loss of data is minimized, and the association process is realized through the sample instead of the space itself. Thus, less data shall be processed, and association rules (ARs) shall be obtained faster by consuming less memory.
As the subject of this book chapter was focused onto the banking data, customer segmentation conducted by the bank data was accepted as the clustering. As a result of the segmentation, clusters created by similar customers were used as input of sampling.
In this chapter, sample creation methods, techniques to find ideal sampling size, the space representing capability of these samples generated by these techniques, and association rules discovered through these samples were examined, respectively. Association rules obtained from both the space and sample were used to verify the sampling process. Besides, the spared amount in terms of time consumption was calculated.
This book chapter was organized as follows: Section 2 explains the studies toward deriving association rules through the space and sampling. Section 3 explains the parameters required to obtain association rules and the Apriori algorithm. Section 4 contains parameters to create the sample, sample creation methods, and the techniques used to calculate the sample size. Section 5 examines association rules obtained from the space and the sample and the results showing the representation capability of the sample for the respective space and the results showing rewards in terms of time consumption. Section 6 gives an overview and concludes the chapter.
2. Related work
In association rule mining, first the item sets, which are found together frequently, are found, and then the rules are obtained from these item sets.
Association algorithms are classified according to characteristics of the obtained item sets. In early studies Agrawal-Imielinski-Swami (AIS) algorithm which was allowed to find wide item sets was used, and then algorithms were found such as Apriori, which were used frequently now and which were able to process the bigger data sets faster [2].
The mutual usage of association discovery and sample creation methods is not a new approach. Sample creation studies toward association detection have begun with papers demonstrating mathematically that it was possible to create a sample which maintained the characteristics of the space. The following studies involved several techniques calculating the optimal number of observations [3, 4, 5, 6, 7].
At the beginning of the sample size detection studies, the data to be sampled were not considered; they have tried to determine the sample size using parameters not depending on the data such as margin of error, minimum support, and minimum confidence [3]. In current studies, formulas (using variables such as maximal process length or Vapnik-Chervonenkis (VC) size of the data cluster) considering the data characteristics have appeared [4, 5, 6, 7]. There exists a number of studies focusing on how the management of metadata of big data sets are provided in a distributed computing setting [8, 9, 10, 11]. Moreover, there exists a number of studies that are conducted in the field of information systems for managing distributed data storage platforms [12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. Unlike these studies, this chapter focuses on extracting meaningful information, i.e. association rules, from the big data sets. Initial results of the experimental studies, covered in this chapter, were reported in a previous study [17]. Sections 3 and 4 give detailed information on association detection and sample creation methods, respectively, and explain the techniques used in this study.
3. Association detection methods
In data mining, it is used to determine the pattern found among the association algorithms and observations [2, 18, 19]. In case any organization’s transaction database is discussed, an analogy can be established between the observations and customers and between areas where a pattern is tried to be found and the bought products. Patterns obtained by association algorithms are processed to obtain association rules.
Association rules may be defined as follows: let us call each subset of products within the database an “itemset,” and let us call each set of products purchased together by the customer a “transaction.” The support count of any itemset is defined as the number of transactions associated with the items in the set within the database. The support indicates the ratio of support count to the number of transactions within the database. The itemset which meets the minimum support requirement is called the frequent itemset (FI).
For example, if a database with 10 transactions contains product A in 3 different transactions, then the product A’s support count is 3, and its support is 0.3. In case the minimum support is defined by a value lower than 0.3, then the product A will be classified as FI.
There are several algorithms deriving FI using the transactions within the database [2, 18]. In this chapter, Apriori algorithm was preferred due its ability of deriving all itemsets within the space. This algorithm derives primarily candidate itemsets starting with one-element itemset from the database. Those providing minimum support from candidate itemsets are filtered and recorded as FI. New candidate itemsets are created from the FI obtained in the previous step by increasing the number of elements. In each step, the candidate itemsets are passed through a minimum support test, and the algorithm continues until no FI with k-elements can be generated.
Among the elements of the FI obtained from the database, it is possible to derive association rules in A- > B format. Then, AR’s support gets equal to AUB itemset support. The confidence is defined as the ratio of AUB itemset support to the A itemset support. AR should meet the minimum confidence requirement specified by the customer [2].
Assuming that A - > B rule has a support of s and the confidence of c, we can derive that the itemsets A and B in the whole database are associated with a probability of s and a customer owning the itemset A might be an owner of the itemset B with a probability of c.
To find out all ARs within the database, a rule mining algorithm is applied to each FI obtained. Candidate rule combinations are created for rule mining among all subsets of a selected FI in A - > B format. Those providing minimal confidence from candidate rules are filtered and recorded as association rule.
4. Sample creation methodology
Sample creation is the process of creating a subset containing the characteristics of a data set. The subset created through sampling is expected to represent the data set (space). In traditional statistical methods, the similarity of two data sets is measured by either χ2 test or Kolmogorov–Smirnov (K-S) test.
In this study, these tests were utilized, in order to measure the similarity of the created sample in comparison with its space. A comparison was conducted through p values (the probability p of finding the space characteristics) of the statistics resulting from both tests. In case the obtained p value exceeds 0.05, it can be deducted that “the sample is similar to the space with a probability of at least 95%.”
Sample creation is discussed under two topics, i.e., sample creation methods and sample size determination techniques. Sample creation methods are explained in Chapter 4.1 and sample size determination techniques explained in Chapter 4.2.
4.1 Sample creation methods
When creating samples from the space, it is possible to use several sample creation methods. These methods are classified according to the selection of observations from the space. The main sample creation methods are as follows:
4.1.1 Simple random sampling
The observations within the space are selected without following a specific routine. The selection probability of each observation is equal.
Systematic sampling: The observations within the space are numbered. Sampling interval is created by dividing the space size to the observation size. A random number is selected. The observation sample at this number from each interval is included.
4.1.2 Stratified sampling
This is used where the observations within the space can be divided into groups. The samples are created maintaining the ratio between the number of observations of groups within the space and the total number of observations. The selection probability of each observation in the same stratus is equal.
4.1.3 Cluster sampling
This is used where the observations within the space can be divided into groups. After the groups are determined, they are selected using the simple random sampling method. All observations within selected groups are included into the sample.
4.1.4 Multistage sampling
This is used where the observations within the space can be divided into groups. After the groups are determined, groups are selected by the simple random sampling method. Unlike cluster sampling, observations to be selected from groups are determined by the simple random sampling method.
Among the mentioned methods, the simple random sampling method stands up by its high speed. As the methods, which require creation of groups within the space and sorting of observations, need a pre-analysis, their time consumption is more than the simple random sampling method.
4.2 Sample size determination methods
The expected parameter in sample creation methods is the size of the sample to be created. When the optimal sample size is calculated, a number which will not decrease its space representing capability should be found. Under association detection algorithms, it is important to derive all FIs and ARs within the space from the sample. In this study, techniques specialized on association detection algorithms have been examined from those developed for sample size determination [3, 4, 5, 7]. Sample size determination techniques are divided into two groups to minimize the FI and AR loss.
When the association algorithms will be run using the same parameters, support and confidence values calculated from the sample appear to be different than their counterparts calculated from the space. This margin of error is measured using two different methods. When calculating absolute margin of error, the absolute value of the difference between values from the space and the sample is considered. The relative margin of error is calculated by dividing absolute margin of error into the value within the space. In Table 1, the lines containing “absolute” at the “type of technique” column aim at reducing absolute margin of error, while those containing “relative” aim to minimize relative margin of error.
Table 1.
Sample size calculation techniques are provided.
Minimal sample size can be determined in terms of accuracy ε, probability of error δ, minimum support Θ, minimum confidence γ, d-index value of the space v, maximal process length of the space ∆, and the constant c. In formulas, the value η is calculated depending on variables Θ, γ, and ε; and the value p is calculated depending on values η and Θ.
All examined techniques are shown in Table 1 with suggested formulas and type of formula. The values found through the techniques determine the minimum number of transactions required for sample creation. The number of transactions which are equal to the values found is selected from the space by the preferred sample creation method.
Sample size determination techniques determine the minimum number of transactions required for sample creation. The number of transactions which are equal to the values found is selected from the space by the preferred sample creation method.
The complexity of the space is calculated theoretically using the Vapnik-Chervonenkis size [20]. Assuming that the transactions within the database are sorted according to their number of elements and that the “number of transactions” and “number of elements” are plotted on the coordinate system, the d-index value would correspond to the edge length of the largest square.
In this study, we use a d-index algorithm, which does not seek a sorting requirement among the transactions, and it calculates v (d-index value), by initializing with 1 and by increasing it. All transactions within the database should be scanned to find the value. Where a number of transactions are large and the item number within each transaction is less, such as banking data, the length of transactions becomes decisive in determining the d-index value. In d-index algorithm, the transactions within the database were sorted in descending order of item numbers, and the value v was calculated decreasingly beginning from the maximal transaction length. Here, it is not necessary to scan all transactions.
5. Experimental evaluation and results
The tests were performed on product ownership data of banking customers. Statistical studies’ code development was performed on the widely used R programming language.
When tests were performed, the steps below were followed:
Determine the sample size utilizing various techniques
Create three different samples for each technique using the simple random sampling method
Compare the representability of the space for the obtained sample examination with χ2 and K-S tests
Use the Apriori algorithm included in the arules package of R language, and determine the FI and AR through the space and sample
Calculate the absolute error in support and trust values, and compare the results with those obtained from the space
Compare the duration of obtaining AR and the duration of sample creation. Generate AR from the sample
Theoretically, it is expected that the samples in various sizes obtained from FI and AR results are tuned with the results from the space, that there is a correspondence between representability and absolute error, and that the duration of transactions made on the sample and the memory consumption reduce.
To accelerate the test processes, instead of 143 products of the bank, 10 different product groups were determined, and the association between those groups was examined. The utilized banking data is a matrix including 1,048,575 customers and an ownership status of customers about 10 different product groups. The lines represent customers and the columns represent product groups. In case the customer owns a product, the intersection of that line-column indicates 1, otherwise 0. In these tests the following parameters were used: accuracy ε = 0.04, probability of error δ = 0.07, minimal support value Θ = 0.02, and minimum confidence γ = 0.06, 0.1, and 0.14.
Table 2 shows varying sample sizes corresponding to varying minimum confidence values. Because γ was not used as a parameter in formulas Toivonen, Chakaravarthy FI-absolute, Chakaravarthy AR-absolute, Riondato FI-absolute, and Riondato FI-relative, there are no variations in calculated sizes.
Table 2.
Calculated sample sizes based on varying minimum trust values are provided.
Techniques where the calculated size is larger than the space were not used at the sample creation step.
When Table 2 was examined in detail, it is obvious that the sizes obtained from the techniques Chakaravarthy FI-absolute, Chakaravarthy AR-absolute, Riondato FI-relative, and Riondato AR-relative are larger than the space (1,048,575). As the aim was to reduce the data set, these techniques were not examined in the following tests. In order to minimize the error due to simple random sampling method, three samples were created for each of the Zaki, Toivonen, Riondato FI-absolute, and Riondato AR-absolute techniques.
Table 3 shows average p values calculated from χ2 and K-S tests. As the similarity significance between the space and sample was accepted as 95%, it is expected that p values are higher than 0.05. The results indicate that values were obtained to prove an adequate statistical similarity between the space and all obtained samples. An instability is obvious regarding p values of Toivonen where the sample size does not vary. We consider this instability results from the small sample size provided by this technique.
Table 3.
p values calculated from χ2 and K-S tests were provided based on minimum trust values.
All the techniques were found to be similar to the space.
FIs and their corresponding ARs were determined from the samples created using Apriori algorithm. To measure the similarities of FIs and ARs, absolute error was calculated through support and trust values. Zaki and Toivonen techniques were inadequate to determine all FIs and ARs existing in the space for the value γ = 0.1. Because a loss of rule was undesirable, we have observed that these two techniques were not suitable to sample creation and time consumption tests were not examined. By calculating the error by substituting incomplete values with 0, the results on Table 4 were obtained. As expected, where absolute support error was high, an also high-confidence error was found.
Table 4.
Average support and trust absolute error generated based on varying minimum trust values are provided.
Techniques where AR loss was experienced were not tested in terms of running time.
In a comparative review of Tables 3 and 4, no relation was detected between support and confidence errors by the results obtained from χ2 and K-S tests. We have noticed that traditional statistical measurements were inadequate in measuring the representability of the sample which was created for association mining.
In Table 5, durations until creation of AR are provided for the space and created samples. While the duration from sample creation until obtaining the AR was provided for the space, the time required for sample size determination, total average time required for sample creation, and obtaining the AR by simple random sampling method were provided for the samples. As expected, the time performance of all techniques for each value γ was found better than the space. Even more benefits are expected by using actually 143 different products instead of 10 product groups in these tests.
Table 5.
The time until rule mining based on varying minimum trust values γ was given in seconds.
Techniques where AR loss was experienced were not tested in terms of running time.
FI and AR results of the samples were compared to those generated from the space. Within the space, the mostly encountered depository (D) product has a ratio of 94%, credit card (CC) product has 11%, and installment loan (IL) product has 8%. These products are found together within the space by a ratio of 2.3%. In spite of this low support value, three different rules with high confidence were derived. “CC, IL → D” rule was derived, and eventually, it was observed that 92% of people who have bought CC and IL also have bought D. According to another derived rule “IL, D -> CC,” it was discovered that 31% of people who bought CC and D also bought IL. It was also found through another rule CC, D - > IL that 28% of people who bought IL and D also bought CC. These rules could not be derived from the techniques Zaki and Toivonen, and information loss was experienced. Therefore, these techniques are not suitable on sample creation for association mining. As expected, when sample size increased, the obtained absolute error in results decreased.
The utilized banking data contains information about customers and the product groups of their owned products. In other words, instead of products owned by customers, banking product groups were used. This was preferred to reduce the data set sparsity and to accelerate the test speeds. So, it was observed that even tests on the space did not take longer than 2 seconds. Whenever the advantages in terms of duration seem to be in the order of seconds, tests to be conducted with a data set containing more products (or product groups) will show decisive advantages.
6. Conclusion and future work
Because AR mining process through the space takes a long time, we have aimed at determining a smaller sized sample representing the space and AR mining through that sample. For this purpose, in this book chapter, we have investigated for techniques which provide an ideal sample size specialized on association mining.
The samples were created using the simple random sampling method, and three different samples were obtained per technique. We have tried to prevent a potential noise in our results by creating multiple samples.
The similarity of samples to the space was measured by the χ2 test and K-S test. It was obvious that after both tests the obtained values for association mining were inadequate in measuring the representability of samples. In those tests, no relationship was found among support and confidence error values. We consider that the probability of tests giving biased outputs and the inadequacy of suggested sample sizes in measuring were the reasons for having these results.
The results indicate that the duration of AR generation within the space was compared to the total time of sample size determination, sample creation, and AR generation through the sample. It was observed that each technique was better performing in terms of space results. Riondato FI-absolute and Riondato AR-absolute techniques have given good results based on calculated absolute error values. When smaller sample size and less time consumption criteria were considered, Riondato FI-absolute technique becomes favorable.
In future studies, the data set shall be renewed in this regard, and other sample methods will also be applied. Besides, results which might be related to a single data set shall be extended with tests to be performed on another data set, and the results shall be cross-checked.
\n',keywords:"big data, sampling, association rule mining, data mining, data preprocessing techniques",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72325.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72325.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72325",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72325",totalDownloads:691,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"November 26th 2019",dateReviewed:"February 3rd 2020",datePrePublished:"May 28th 2020",datePublished:"January 20th 2021",dateFinished:"May 28th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"An accurate, complete, and rapid establishment of customer needs and existence of product recommendations are crucial points in terms of increasing customer satisfaction level in various different sectors such as the banking sector. Due to the significant increase in the number of transactions and customers, analyzing costs regarding time and consumption of memory becomes higher. In order to increase the performance of the product recommendation, we discuss an approach, a sample data creation process, to association rule mining. Thus instead of processing whole population, processing on a sample that represents the population is used to decrease time of analysis and consumption of memory. In this regard, sample composing methods, sample size determination techniques, the tests which measure the similarity between sample and population, and association rules (ARs) derived from the sample were examined. The mutual buying behavior of the customers was found using a well-known association rule mining algorithm. Techniques were compared according to the criteria of complete rule derivation and time consumption.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72325",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72325",signatures:"Oguz Celik, Muruvvet Hasanbasoglu, Mehmet S. Aktas and Oya Kalipsiz",book:{id:"9961",type:"book",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",fullTitle:"Data Mining - Methods, Applications and Systems",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-319-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-318-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-320-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316046",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Aktas",fullName:"Mehmet Aktas",slug:"mehmet-aktas",email:"msaktas@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"317396",title:"Mr.",name:"Oguz",middleName:null,surname:"Celik",fullName:"Oguz Celik",slug:"oguz-celik",email:"maktas@indiana.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Yıldız Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"317398",title:"Prof.",name:"Oya",middleName:null,surname:"Kalipsiz",fullName:"Oya Kalipsiz",slug:"oya-kalipsiz",email:"kalipsiz@yildiz.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Yıldız Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"317401",title:"Ms.",name:"Muruvvet",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanbasoglu",fullName:"Muruvvet Hasanbasoglu",slug:"muruvvet-hasanbasoglu",email:"msaktas74@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Yıldız Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Related work",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Association detection methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Sample creation methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Sample creation methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"4.1.1 Simple random sampling",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"4.1.2 Stratified sampling",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"4.1.3 Cluster sampling",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.1.4 Multistage sampling",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2 Sample size determination methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Experimental evaluation and results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Conclusion and future work",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Jayasree V, Balan RVS. A review on data mining in banking sector. American Journal of Applied Sciences. 2013;10(10):1160-1165'},{id:"B2",body:'Agrawal R, Imieliński T, Swami A. Mining association rules between sets of items in large databases. In: SIGMOD ‘93, Proceedings of the 1993 ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data; 1993'},{id:"B3",body:'Zaki MJ, Parthasarathy S, Li W, Ogihara M. Evaluation of sampling for data mining of association rules. In: Proceedings 7th International Workshop on Research Issues in Data Engineering; 1997'},{id:"B4",body:'Chakaravarthy TV et al. Analysis of sampling techniques for association rule mining. In: 12th International Conference on Database Theory; 2009'},{id:"B5",body:'Klemettinen M et al. Finding interesting rules from large sets of discovered association rules. In: CIKM ‘94: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management; 1994'},{id:"B6",body:'Toivonen H. Sampling large databases for association rules. In: Proceedings of the 22nd VLDB Conference, Mumbai (Bombay), India. 1996. pp. 134-145'},{id:"B7",body:'Riondato M et al. Efficient discovery of association rules and frequent item sets through sampling with tight performance guarantees. ECML PKDD. 2012:25-41'},{id:"B8",body:'Baeth MJ et al. An approach to custom privacy violation detection problems using big social provenance data. Concurrency and Computation-Practice & Experience. 2018;30(21):1-9'},{id:"B9",body:'Baeth MJ et al. Detecting misinformation in social networks using provenance data. Concurrency and Computation-Practice & Experience. 2019;31(3):1-13'},{id:"B10",body:'Riveni M et al. Application of provenance in social computing: A case study. Concurrency and Computation-Practice & Experience. 2019;31(3):1-13'},{id:"B11",body:'Tas Y et al. An approach to standalone provenance systems for big provenance data. In: The International Conference on Semantics, Knowledge and Grids on Big Data (SKG-16); 2016. pp. 9-16'},{id:"B12",body:'Aktas MS. Hybrid cloud computing monitoring software architecture. Concurrency and Computation: Practice and Experience. 2018;30(21):1-9'},{id:"B13",body:'Aktas MS et al. A web based conversational case-based recommender system for ontology aided metadata discovery. In: The 5th IEEE/ACM International Workshop on Grid Computing. 2004. pp. 69-75'},{id:"B14",body:'Aktas MS et al. Fault tolerant high-performance information services for dynamic collections of Grid and Web services. Future Generation Computer Systems. 2007;23(3):317-337'},{id:"B15",body:'Pierce ME et al. The QuakeSim project: Web services for managing geophysical data and applications. Pure and Applied Geophysics. 2008;165(3-4):635-651'},{id:"B16",body:'Aydin G et al. SERVOGrid complexity computational environments (CCE) integrated performance analysis. In: The 6th IEEE/ACM International Workshop on Grid Computing; 2005. pp. 256-261'},{id:"B17",body:'Celik O et al. Implementation of data preprocessing techniques on distributed big data platforms. In: 4th International Conference on Computer Science and Engineering (UBMK); 2019.pp. 73-78'},{id:"B18",body:'Eltabakh MY et al. Incremental mining for frequent patterns in evolving time series databases. Technical report. Department of Computer Science, Purdue University; 2008'},{id:"B19",body:'Pei J, Han J, Lu H, Nishio S, Tang S, Yang D. H-Mine: Fast and space-preserving frequent pattern mining in large databases. IIE Transactions. 2007;39(6):593-605. DOI: 10.1080/07408170600897460'},{id:"B20",body:'Vapnik V et al. Measuring the VC-dimension of a learning machine. Neural Computation. 1994;6(5):851-876'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Oguz Celik",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Computer Engineering, Yildiz Technical University Istanbul, Turkey
Department of Computer Engineering, Yildiz Technical University Istanbul, Turkey
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
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In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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The IntechOpen timeline
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2004
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Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
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Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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2005
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IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
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2006
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IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
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2008
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Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
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2009
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Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
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2010
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Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
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IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
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2011
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Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
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IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
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IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
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IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
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2012
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Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
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IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
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2013
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IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
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2014
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IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
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IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
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2015
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Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
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40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
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Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
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2016
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IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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2017
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Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
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Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
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Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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2005
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IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
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2006
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IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
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2008
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Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
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2009
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Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
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2010
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Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
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IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
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2011
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Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
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IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
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2012
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Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
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IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
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2013
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IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
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2014
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IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
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IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
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2015
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Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
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40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
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Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
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2016
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IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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2017
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Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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education articles published in between 2016 and 2017 years. The literature source was Web of Science and SSCI, SCI-EXPANDED, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, and ESCI indexes. Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. The major advantages indicated in the articles are “Learning/Academic Achievement,” “Motivation,” and “Attitude”.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Rabia M. Yilmaz",authors:[{id:"225838",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabia",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"rabia-yilmaz",fullName:"Rabia Yilmaz"}]},{id:"63639",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81086",title:"Cooperative Learning: The Foundation for Active Learning",slug:"cooperative-learning-the-foundation-for-active-learning",totalDownloads:3427,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"The role of instructors is evolving from the presenter of information to the designer of active learning processes, environments, and experiences that maximize student engagement. The more active a lesson, the more students tend to engage intellectually and emotionally in the learning activities. Cooperative learning is the foundation on which many of the active learning procedures are based. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. Most of the active learning procedures, such as problem-based learning, team-learning, collaborative learning, and PALS, require that students work cooperatively in small groups to achieve joint learning goals. Cooperative learning is based on two theories: Structure-Process-Outcome theory and Social Interdependence theory. Four types of cooperative learning have been derived: formal cooperative learning, informal cooperative learning, cooperative base groups, and constructive controversy. There is considerable research confirming the effectiveness of cooperative learning. To be cooperative, however, five basic elements must be structured into the situation: positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing.",book:{id:"6929",slug:"active-learning-beyond-the-future",title:"Active Learning",fullTitle:"Active Learning - Beyond the Future"},signatures:"David W. Johnson and Roger T. 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The importance of VR/AR for the mental health field comes from three main concepts: (1) VR/AR as an imaginal technology, people can feel “as if they are” in a reality that does not exist in external world; (2) VR/AR as an embodied technology, the experience to feel user’s body inside the virtual environment; and (3) VR/AR as connectivity technology, the “end of geography’. In this chapter, we explore the opportunities provided by VR/AR as technologies to improve people’s quality of life and to discuss new frontiers for their application in mental health and psychological well-being promotion.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Sara Ventura, Rosa M. Baños and Cristina Botella",authors:[{id:"106036",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Baños",slug:"rosa-maria-banos",fullName:"Rosa Maria Baños"},{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura"},{id:"229056",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Botella",slug:"cristina-botella",fullName:"Cristina Botella"}]},{id:"58060",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72341",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8762,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"64583",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81714",title:"Evaluating a Course for Teaching Advanced Programming Concepts with Scratch to Preservice Kindergarten Teachers: A Case Study in Greece",slug:"evaluating-a-course-for-teaching-advanced-programming-concepts-with-scratch-to-preservice-kindergart",totalDownloads:1409,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Coding is a new literacy for the twenty-first century, and as a literacy, coding enables new ways of thinking and new ways of communicating and expressing ideas, as well as new ways of civic participation. A growing number of countries, in Europe and beyond, have established clear policies and frameworks for introducing computational thinking (CT) and computer programming to young children. In this chapter, we discuss a game-based approach to coding education for preservice kindergarten teachers using Scratch. The aim of using Scratch was to excite students’ interest and familiarize them with the basics of programming in an open-ended, project-based, and personally meaningful environment for a semester course in the Department of Preschool Education in the University of Crete. For 13 weeks, students were introduced to the main Scratch concepts and, afterward, were asked to prepare their projects. For the projects, they were required to design their own interactive stories to teach certain concepts about mathematics or physical science to preschool-age students. The results we obtained were more satisfactory than expected and, in some regards, encouraging if one considers the fact that the research participants had no prior experiences with computational thinking.",book:{id:"6936",slug:"early-childhood-education",title:"Early Childhood Education",fullTitle:"Early Childhood Education"},signatures:"Stamatios Papadakis and Michail Kalogiannakis",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8743,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"61746",title:"Facilitation of Teachers’ Professional Development through Principals’ Instructional Supervision and Teachers’ Knowledge- Management Behaviors",slug:"facilitation-of-teachers-professional-development-through-principals-instructional-supervision-and-t",totalDownloads:3349,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"With the rise of global competition and the focus on teacher quality, teacher professional development is becoming increasingly crucial, and the stress and challenges for principals are more severe than ever. Teachers can improve their professional abilities through principals’ instructional supervision and their own knowledge-management (KM) behaviors to benefit students. Thus, this chapter analyzes the relationship among principals’ instructional supervision, teachers’ KM, and teachers’ professional development. The author believes that principals’ instructional supervision and effective KM can facilitate the professional development of teachers. The author also believes the readers can know the relationships among them, and teachers’ professional development can be improved through principal’s instructional supervision and teachers’ KM behaviors.",book:{id:"6674",slug:"contemporary-pedagogies-in-teacher-education-and-development",title:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development",fullTitle:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development"},signatures:"Chien-Chin Chen",authors:[{id:"232569",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Chien Chih",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chien-chih-chen",fullName:"Chien Chih Chen"}]},{id:"75908",title:"From the Classroom into Virtual Learning Environments: Essential Knowledge, Competences, Skills and Pedagogical Strategies for the 21st Century Teacher Education in Kenya",slug:"from-the-classroom-into-virtual-learning-environments-essential-knowledge-competences-skills-and-ped",totalDownloads:501,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"As teachers in Kenya begin to migrate from the classroom to virtual learning spaces following COVID 19 pandemic, there is pressing need to realign Teacher Education to requisite Knowledge, competences, skills, and attitudes that will support online teaching. This chapter explores these needs using a combination of lived experiences and literature review that captured a meta-analysis of research trends on e-learning. While trends in Teacher Education indicate progression towards adoption of technology, there are disparities between the theory and practice. Evidence from recent research and reports; and the recollected experiences confirmed knowledge, competence, skills and pedagogical gaps in the implementation of online learning, that have been exacerbated by COVID-19. The researcher recommends that teacher education should sensitize and train teacher trainees on how to access, analyze and use new knowledge emerging with technology; they also should be coached on how learners learn with technology and on fundamentals of the communication process. Particularly the course on educational technology, should focus on how to create and manage online courses. The 5-stage E-Moderator Model and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) are recommended as effective pedagogical scaffold for online teaching.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo",authors:[{id:"333482",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine Adhiambo",middleName:null,surname:"Amimo",slug:"catherine-adhiambo-amimo",fullName:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo"}]},{id:"75224",title:"Decoding the Digital Gap in Teacher Education: Three Perspectives across the Globe",slug:"decoding-the-digital-gap-in-teacher-education-three-perspectives-across-the-globe",totalDownloads:552,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Educational use of technology is regularly assessed, and results often show a gap between educational policies and what is actually practiced. This chapter will help clarify how teacher educators experience the changing educational contexts due to the digital revolution, how their meaning-making shifts, and how outside forces influence those processes. The results are based on comparative international studies. Central for this study is practitioners’ professional digital competence, their attitudes towards digital technology and the use of digital technology in education. We found that the influence and contribution of digital practice is carried out quite differently across the globe. Our research questions were: How do practitioners experience teaching in a rapidly changing context? How do attitudes change due to top-down governing of education? and What motivates teacher educators to implement digital technology?",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Steinar Thorvaldsen and Siri Sollied Madsen",authors:[{id:"332624",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Siri Sollied",middleName:null,surname:"Madsen",slug:"siri-sollied-madsen",fullName:"Siri Sollied Madsen"},{id:"332626",title:"Prof.",name:"Steinar",middleName:null,surname:"Thorvaldsen",slug:"steinar-thorvaldsen",fullName:"Steinar Thorvaldsen"}]},{id:"75416",title:"Self-Study Research: Challenges and Opportunities in Teacher Education",slug:"self-study-research-challenges-and-opportunities-in-teacher-education",totalDownloads:724,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This article aims to describe what self-study research is, why self-study can be a good approach to teacher educators’ professional development and improvements in practice and highlight some challenges and opportunities in this research approach. In addition, the article will shed light on some methodological aspects related to self-study. Self-study refers to teacher educators who in an intentionally and systematically way examine their practice to improve it, based on a deeper understanding of practice, as well as the context practice takes place. In the article, I argue that engaging in self-study is a learning and development process and an approach to developing personal professionalism, collective professionalism and improvements in practice.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Kåre Hauge",authors:[{id:"332053",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kåre",middleName:null,surname:"Hauge",slug:"kare-hauge",fullName:"Kåre Hauge"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"265",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81937",title:"Socialization Experiences among Undergraduate Students in Higher Learning Institutions (HLI)",slug:"socialization-experiences-among-undergraduate-students-in-higher-learning-institutions-hli-",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99007",abstract:"This work portrays the problems of socialization among undergraduate students in higher learning institutions. The socialization processes in higher learning institution are significant for the successful navigation of students in the academic programs and university environment in preparing the next generation of professional practitioners and scholars. But the undergraduate student socialization experiences of students at university environment are overlooked. To navigate in the higher learning institutions, students should be socialized effectively to the normative contexts of the higher learning institutions. The normative contexts of the higher learning institutions are generally categorized into social and academic contexts, because these context academic and social context integration have been linked to student retention and success. Social integration involves interpersonal relationships, support, interactions with others, and a sense of belonging at a university, which stems from extracurricular activities, informal dealings with peer groups, and interactions with faculty and staff, whereas academic integration is described through grade performance and intellectual development that reflects an ability to meet the standards of the academic system; intellectual development involves a student valuing their education as a process of development in which they gain knowledge and ideas. Students’ background is also the contributing factor for students’ socialization in the University.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Mulusew Birhanu Ayalew"},{id:"80280",title:"Adoption of Online Learning during the Covid19 Pandemic Lockdown by Universities in Garowe",slug:"adoption-of-online-learning-during-the-covid19-pandemic-lockdown-by-universities-in-garowe",totalDownloads:88,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99941",abstract:"In response to the Covid-19 outbreak the world closed and therefore countries like Somalia have not been exceptional. The government of Somalia and all higher education institutions adopted crisis intervention measures on implementation of blended learning approaches like online teaching and learning. In this chapter we explore the process and challenges of adopting online learning in response to the world wide lockdown due to the pandemic. Given that this was an abrupt requirement, the survey was interested in finding out whether universities adopted and adapted easily. Researchers compared findings from previous studies and theoretical inclinations on online learning. Results indicate that the adoption of online learning among universities in Garowe was as a matter of crisis management whereby administration, lecturers and students were all not ready and had no prior grounding in this pedagogical learning platform. Just like previous studies online learning implementers have continued to encounter several challenges like intermittent internet network, cost of gadgets and facilities, inadequate skills of both the instructors and students, aspects of communication and satisfaction from stakeholders. With the research survey in Garowe, results show that this is still pervading and therefore need for more rigorous contextualised research on this subject.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Tumwebaze Alicon Auf and Omer Abdi Hamdi"},{id:"78597",title:"Public-Private Participation in Funding University Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Nigerian Case-Study for Sustainable Development",slug:"public-private-participation-in-funding-university-education-in-sub-saharan-africa-a-nigerian-case-s",totalDownloads:134,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99940",abstract:"The developing countries in Africa still cannot withstand the pressure of the highly competitive global education market. Together with the large numbers of people who make a living in various innovative companies, these countries have solved key contemporary issues affecting global education. For this reason, it is necessary to actively respond to current technological innovation and educational challenges and to eliminate new technology graduates who can effectively interact with students through the responsive expansion of education and training. Expansion of education can produce effective expansion that promotes educational development, but due to budget constraints, most African governments cannot successfully and sustainably implement such educational programs. This is difficult. However, public-private partnership efforts provide a way out of this financial dilemma. The Sub-Saharan Africa initiative has achieved important educational objectives, such as: ensuring relevance for quality; secure funding for sustainability and establish resource mobilization partnerships and connections; and promote international cooperation. This discussion is relevant to the basic conditions for a successful public-private partnership with educational institutions and extended education and sheds light on the impact, lessons, and challenges. The public is increasingly concerned about the importance of higher education in the 21st century. This chapter explores some of the key functions of an innovative education system that supports the development of education in Nigeria and enhances people’s ability to use information. Nigeria’s education system re-emphasizes the importance of public and private universities, but the country does not have a sustainable education system and well-equipped educational institutions to support people’s ability to use information, learning, education, and research activities.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Lawrence Jones-Esan"},{id:"79197",title:"University Teachers’ Conceptions of What University Is: Implications for the Future of Higher Education",slug:"university-teachers-conceptions-of-what-university-is-implications-for-the-future-of-higher-educatio",totalDownloads:107,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100813",abstract:"This chapter presents the perception of university teachers about the university, the most recent changes and how they have influenced their activity. The phenomenographic study was conducted with 10 university teachers, nine females and one male with more than 15 years of professional activity. The perception of the university emerges, in the teachers’ voice, focused on the description of its mission, namely as a context for the production and diffusion of knowledge to society, as a space for creative and critical thinking about the world, as an interdisciplinary space and as a system focused on teaching and research. It also includes characteristics related to its structure and functioning, such as the level of hierarchization, bureaucratization, competitiveness, dehumanization and bibliometrics overvaluation. Regarding the perceived changes, they are related to the structural reforms resulting from the Bologna Process, diverse student populations, research and internationalization, new technologies, institutional cooperation, bureaucratization and relationship with the community. Teachers also revealed some dissatisfaction in the way they are experiencing university life due to the overwork resulting from the multiple tasks required in the four activity strands (teaching, research, management and extension) with an impact on quality and innovation, but in line with what the institution demands.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Elisa Chaleta"},{id:"78595",title:"Globalization and Education: Trends towards Sustainability",slug:"globalization-and-education-trends-towards-sustainability",totalDownloads:58,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99974",abstract:"Higher Education Institutions (IES) have a very relevant role in the path towards sustainability. The problem of the implementation of curricular sustainability is the disparity of solutions that can be adopted depending on the political and economic situation of each country. The study of a practical case in the south of Honduras allows the student to approach key decisions in a real scenario to bring improvements to a very disadvantaged population, lacking basic services, such as water and electricity, under the premise of sustainability, facing aspects as relevant such as sustainable mobility, water resources management, energy and construction models, in a context where globalization and technological innovation play a very important role. It is essential to know in depth the real context where structural changes will be applied to understand that there is no single reality, that actions are built adapting to specific situations and that the effectiveness of the measures that can be adopted to establish models that prioritize that part of sustainability that best weighs the balance between the environment, society and the economy for each case.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Olga Bernaldo and Gonzalo Fernandez-Sanchez"},{id:"79255",title:"Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Africa Embracing the “New Normal” for Knowledge Production and Innovation: Barriers, Realities, and Possibilities",slug:"higher-education-institutions-heis-in-africa-embracing-the-new-normal-for-knowledge-production-and-i",totalDownloads:128,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101063",abstract:"If Africa is to remain relevant and competitive in today’s knowledge-based economy, it has to rely on higher education institutions (HEIs) as centers of excellence for knowledge production. HEIs nurture and sustain the production of highly-skilled individuals to support Africa’s growing economies. Among all possible ways, this could be achievable through strategic curricula innovation driven by emerging mobile technologies. Consequently, Africa’s HEIs need to embrace the ‘New Normal’ by optimizing online teaching and learning in their pursuit to expand information and communications technology (ICT) literacy as a means to increase students’ opportunities in higher education (HE). However, Africa’s ability to embrace the ‘New Normal’ has been marred by inadequate ICT infrastructures, low connectivity, unreliable power supply, and national budget constraints that may undermine Africa’s HEIs’ potential to augment knowledge production and innovation.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Christopher B. Mugimu"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. 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He has taught at Thompson Rivers University, Canada; University of Paris-Est, France; Osnabruck University of Applied Science, Germany; and Shanghai Institute of Technology and Tianjin University of Technology, China. He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. 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Abbad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"437613",title:"MSc.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Legentil",slug:"juliana-legentil",fullName:"Juliana Legentil",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"93",type:"subseries",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",keywords:"Social contract, SDG, Human rights, Inclusiveness, Equity, Democracy, Personal learning, Collaboration, Glocalization",scope:"
\r\n\tThis topic is dedicated to the efforts and promotion of UNESCO SDG4, the UNESCO initiative on the future of education, and the need for a new social contract for education. It aims to disseminate knowledge on policies, strategies, methods, and technologies that increase the resilience and sustainability of the development of the future of education and the new social contract for education. It will also consider the global challenges such as globalization, demographic change, digital transformation, climate change, environment and the social pillars of sustainable development.
\r\n
\r\n\tResponses to the pandemic and the widespread discontent that preceded it must be based on a new social contract and a New Global Deal for education that ensures equal opportunities for all and respects all people’s rights and freedoms (UNESCO; 2021). Such a new social contract, as proposed by UNESCO, must be based on the general principles underlying human rights - inclusion and equality, cooperation and solidarity, and collective responsibility and interconnectedness - and be guided by the following fundamental principle: Ensure that everyone has access to quality education throughout their lives.
\r\n
\r\n\tWe face the dual challenge of delivering on the unfulfilled promise of ensuring the right to quality education for every child, youth, and adult, as well as fully realizing the transformative potential of education as a pathway to a more sustainable collective future. To achieve this, we need a new social contract for education that eliminates inequities while transforming the future. This new social contract must be based on human rights and the principles of non-discrimination, social justice, respect for life, human dignity, and cultural diversity. It must include an ethic of care, reciprocity and solidarity. The new social contract builds on inclusiveness, equity, lifelong learning, SDG, collaboration and personal learning in a global context for democracy.
\r\n
\r\n\tAt an international level, the adoption of the Open Educational Resources recommendation and the Open Science recommendation represents an important step towards building more open and inclusive knowledge societies as well as the achievement of the UN 2030 Agenda. Indeed, implementing the recommendations will help to achieve at least five more Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that are intertwined with the topic of this book series, namely SDG 5 (Gender equality), SDG 9 (Industry, innovation and infrastructure), SDG 10 (Reduced inequalities within and across countries), SDG 16 (Peace, justice and strong institutions) and SDG 17 (Partnerships for the goals).
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Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. 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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/20567",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"20567"},fullPath:"/profiles/20567",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()