\r\n\tWith the discovery of more unconventional heavier crude and alternative hydrocarbon sources, primary upgrading or cracking of the oil into lighter liquid fuel is critical. With increasing concern for environmental sustainability, the regulations on fuel specifications are becoming more stringent. Processing and treating crude oil into a cleaner oil with better quality is equally important. Hence, there has been a relentless and continuous effort to develop new crude upgrading and treating technologies, such as various catalytic systems for more economical and better system performance, as well as cleaner and higher-quality oil.
\r\n\r\n\tThis edited book aims to provide the reader with an overview of the state-of-the-art technologies of crude oil downstream processing which include the primary and secondary upgrading or treating processes covering desulfurization, denitrogenation, demetallation, and evidence-based developments in this area.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-681-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-680-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-682-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"808b0ddfb3b92e0636ae44a83ef7dbd9",bookSignature:"Dr. Ching Thian Tye",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11542.jpg",keywords:"Crude Oil Properties, Hydrocracking, Catalytic Cracking, Coking, Visbreaking, Thermal Cracking, Hydroprocessing, Hydrodesulfurization, Desulfurization, Denitrogenation, Demetallation, Dearomatization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Associate professor at the School of Chemical Engineering in Universiti Sains Malaysia and dedicated researcher in fuel-related catalytic process and chemical reaction engineering. 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Invasive insect species reduce crop yield, increase cost of production especially pest control costs, increase reliance on pesticides, and disrupt preexisting integrated pest management (IPM) programs. Invasive insect species cause considerable damage to agriculture, horticulture, and forest industries worldwide [2, 3] with an estimated annual economic loss of about 70 billion US$ [4]. Transportation and international trade are increasing rapidly, thus facilitating the spread and dispersal of invasive species [5]. The tomato (
Due to the significance of TLM, the Journal of Pest Science has recently published a special issue on this pest, which was edited by Biondi and Desneux [5]. The special issue gave more consolidated and updated information on the moth biology, population dynamics, chemical and trophic ecology, and novel control technologies. This chapter gives concise information on
Adult moth of tomato leafminer,
Larva (top) and pupa (bottom) of
The TLM has a complete metamorphosis type of reproduction, where it undergoes through four developmental stages, namely, egg, larva, pupa, and adult (Figure 3). Adults are nocturnal and hide between host leaves during the day. The female starts to release a sex pheromone 1–2 days after emergence to lure males for mating. The female sex pheromone is a mixture of tetradecatrienyl acetate and tetradecadienyl acetate in a ratio of 10:1, respectively [15, 16]. TLM is known to have multiple mating and the average number of mating per female is about 10.4. Both sexes are polygamous with no refractory period. The female sometimes can exhibit deuterotoky parthenogenesis, which gives both females and males from unfertilized eggs [17]. Males use female sex pheromone to locate females and mating can last from few minutes to 6 hours. Female uses plant volatiles (kairomones) and leaf contact for oviposition. A single female can lay as many as 260 eggs during its life cycle, which may extend to 3 months [18]. About 92% of the total eggs are laid in the 1–3 days following mating [8]. Eggs are laid singly on the upper part of the plant (young leaves, stems, and sepals). The eggs hatch in 5–7 days depending on temperature and relative humidity. After hatching, the larvae go through four instars, which are completed in about 20 days. The mature larva then gets rid of all gut materials, constructs a silken cocoon, and turns into pre-pupa and pupa. Pupation may last for 10–11 days before adult emergence for female and male, respectively. Mature larvae leave the mines and build silken cocoon on the leaflet or in the soil. When pupation occurs in the mines or tomato fruit, the pre-pupa does not build cocoon. Adult longevity may extend for 30–40 days [8]. The whole life cycle of the moth is completed in 29–38 days, depending on the environmental conditions (Figure 3). Moreover, about 10–12 generation may be produced annually. The thermal constant from egg to adult has been estimated to be 453.6 degree days (DD) [19]. TLM larvae do not enter diapause as long as food is available; however, it may overwinter as eggs, pupae, and adults [8, 18].
The life cycle of tomato leafminer,
TLM is an oligophagous feeding on many related species of the family Solanaceae including tomato (
TLM prefers tomato on which it is considered as a major pest while it is a minor pest on other alternative hosts. Host plant knowledge is essential for developing integrated pest management (IPM) against
TLM usually attacks the apical buds, flowers, and new fruits of tomato. Larvae make conspicuous mines and galleries on leaves and stems. Damage can occur at any stage of tomato growth from seedlings to mature plant [8]. The larvae feed on the mesophyll tissue, leaving the epidermis intact, thus creating irregular mines and galleries on the leaves (Figure 4). The mines and galleries may become necrotic with time. This mining activities lead to reduction of the photosynthetic potential of infested leaves [1]. Infested tomato with TLM show burnt up-like symptoms [9]. The galleries made by the larvae are wider than that caused by the dipteran leaf miner
Symptoms of damage appear as mines and galleries on tomato leaves caused by feeding of
After fruit setting, the larvae excavate tunnels in the fruits, which may facilitate invasion by pathogenic agents, resulting in fruit rot (Figure 5). The larvae of TLM have a cryptic behavior and endophagous habit, which makes detection of infestation at an early stage difficult [1]. Damage on stems causes necrosis that reduces tomato plant growth and development. Feeding tunnels and holes in the fruits lower their quality and reduce their market value [1]. The serious damage on tomato, due to
Production reduction due to injuries on leaves, stems, and fruits
Increase in cost of management practices (IPM) against the pest, particularly the purchase and application of insecticides
The ban or restriction of fresh tomato, from the side of non-invaded countries, which will affect the economy of countries where TLM is an endemic pest
Other costs include the disruption of preexisting integrated pest management (IPM) programs and disturbance of natural ecosystems [24].
Tunnels in ripe tomato fruits excavated by the larvae of
According to Begon et al. [25], any species distribution is limited and governed by three basic components:
The ability of the species to reach a potential site (introduction pathway)
Capacity to develop in specific environmental conditions (establishment)
The ability to compete with other species occupying the same habitat
TLM is a highly invasive insect pest of tomato crop [1, 6]. The moth was first reported in Europe (Eastern Spain) in 2006 [19]. The introduction in Spain is believed to be from a single population in Chile [26]. Three years later, it was reported in Turkey, the fourth largest producer of tomato in the world, in 2009 [27]. It spread then across Europe and North African countries [6, 28] and Asian countries [23]. According to Seebens et al. [29], most of the invasion occurred during the last 40 years due to increased globalization and trading among continents. The possible introduction pathways for
The strong intrinsic invasiveness with high reproductive potential of the moth
The dispersal capacity and ability of TLM to adapt to the newly invaded areas. The adults can fly actively for several kilometers, which allows for short distance spread [33].
The multivoltine reproductive cycle coupled with high overwintering capacity in greenhouses
The strong heat tolerance in open fields
Ability of the moth to develop on relatively large number solanaceous and non-solanaceous alternative hosts
The abovementioned reasons are pertaining to the biological traits of the pest. However, there are several reasons connecting human activities and measurements adopted by countries to curb the introduction, establishment, and spread of the pest that also contributed to the vast spread of
Weak and ineffective quarantine measures
Poor surveillance and phytosanitary measures
Bulk trade of untreated fresh tomato products
Rapid increase in the size of international trade and transportation of goods
Accidental transport of adults and other life cycle stages in consignments through containers and vehicles
Lack of joint efforts among affected countries in prevention and containment of the pest
Because of its high invasiveness and economic significance, management of
The post-invasion management of
In native and invaded areas in the world, current IPM components against TLM include the following:
Preventive measures and agronomic control
Semiochemically based control using female sex pheromone
Biological control
Biotechnological control
Chemical control by using selective insecticides
Preventive and agronomic measures against TLM [36, 37] may include the following:
Destruction of previous crop remains to prevent the carryover of the pest
Removal of alternative hosts, particularly weeds from the genera
Exclusion of greenhouses with moth-proof sealing
Use pest-free planting material (transplants)
Screening of existing resistant tomato cultivars
Breeding transgenic resistant cultivars
Manipulation of soil trait and application of biofertilizers to enhance tomato plant resistance through bottom-up effects
Soil cultivation or covering with plastic mulch
The female sex pheromone can be used in several ways for the management of TLM. These include the following:
Monitoring and surveillance. Pheromone-baited sticky traps can be used to monitor all stage of tomato production and across the production chain in nurseries, farms, greenhouses, and packaging and processing facilities [36]. Monitoring of TLM is performed by trapping males and/or by sampling eggs and larvae on infested tomato plants. The latter is however, tedious and difficult to perform over large areas. On the other hand, economic threshold based on male capture is not reliable because trapping process may be affected by many factors such as population density of the moth, trap designs, and type of pheromone used. Light traps and water traps can also be used to capture both sexes.
Male annihilation by mass trapping of adults with pheromone traps (delta traps), which are usually efficient against newly introduced pest when population density is low. For mass trapping, it is recommended to use 20–40 traps/ha. A threshold of 3–4 moths per trap per week need to be reached before the beginning of mass trapping [36].
Mating disruption by saturating the atmosphere with sex pheromone, which alters ability of males to locate and find females. This technique can be effectively applied in confined environment such as protected tomato in greenhouses. However, the performance of the technique was poor [17].
Salas Gervassio et al. [38] critically reviewed the natural enemies’ complex in tomato agroecosystem. They determined the natural enemies that are suitable for augmentative and conservative strategies in South America and for classical biocontrol agents elsewhere in the world where
The parasitoids
The predator
Omnivorous mirids had been used against TLM after its arrival in Europe through augmentative and inoculative release in the field and plant nurseries. They are sometimes supplied by conservation strategies using banker plants [1]. The mirid predators
The generalist egg parasitoid,
Recently, the transcriptome data showed that most of the core genes of RNAi pathway such as Dicer-like and Argonaute and putative orthologous Sid-1 genes are present in
Chemical control of the invasive TLM is difficult; however, its arrival to new invaded areas has been linked to an excessive application of broad-spectrum insecticides [1, 6, 55], in attempts to curb the outbreaks of the pest and to reduce yield losses in tomato crop. Currently, insecticides application seems to be the most commonly used strategy against
Infestation of tomato by the moth occurs at an early stage of plant growth
The multiple attacks by the pest on different plant parts (stems, leaves, buds, young fruit, and ripe fruit)
The morphology and architecture of tomato plant that provide protection for feeding larvae against insecticides
Insecticides from different chemical classes were used against TLM in South America, Europe, and other parts of the world. These chemical classes include, but not limited to, organophosphate, pyrethroids, pyrrole, spinosyns, diamides, benzoylureas, and avermactins [54, 56, 59]. Spinosad, azadirachtin, and
The excessive application of insecticides to prevent and control the outbreaks of
Guedes et al. [58] reported that enhanced levels of detoxification enzymes and altered target sites are the main resistance mechanisms commonly found in
To overcome the problems of insecticide resistance and other harmful effects on tomato ecosystem, due to the excessive use of insecticides, insecticide resistance management (IRM) strategies are needed to sustain production of tomato crop [1, 58]. Such strategies include adoption of alternative control options such as cultural control, semiochemically based control, biological control, and host plant resistance. All these alternative strategies and tactics would reduce the reliance on insecticides and accordingly the selection pressure on TLM populations [1, 58].
Recently, tomato leaf miner has emerged as a highly invasive key pest threatening the global production of tomato. The global commercialization and trade of fresh tomato fruit and transplanting material have accelerated the spread of the pest. The impact of
Water is the most precious resource on earth and is also the most abundant constituent of most organisms. This implies that most organisms including plants depend on water for their survival. Plants absorb a large quantity of water from the soil for physiological and biochemical processes that transform into growth and development of the plant. The importance of water to crop production made it an essential factor in ensuring food security. The trending issues of climate change resulting in erratic precipitation patterns, and increasing desert encroachment pose a threat to farmers in producing food that will meet the demand of the global population. To ensure food security in a changing world, additional water supply in the form of irrigation is necessary.
The artificial application of water to soil to meet the water need of crops and to maximize production is termed Irrigation. Irrigation systems are of two types based on their driven force (gravity-driven and pressure-driven). Whatever irrigation method is adopted, its purpose is to attain better water management and a higher yield.
Gravity-driven irrigation is conventional and has been in use since time immemorial. This approach does not use pumps and relies on the ability of water to move through resistance. The irrigation system is efficient on plain topography for even distribution of water. It has three phases which are the advance, storage, and recession.
The advanced stage is the period of water introduction to the field. Water flows over the field to the end of the field with the help of gravity until the field becomes flooded. However, the storage period is the time frame for water to infiltrate the soil; whereas, the recession period begins after the source of the water is cut off. The water infiltrates the soil more and dries up as a result of evaporation and the closing of the water source. The success of surface irrigation depends on the water holding capacity of the soil, field slope, soil surface roughness, and the shape of the flow cross-section. Examples of surface irrigation include continuous flooding and furrow irrigation (Figure 1).
Gravity-driven irrigation system: continuous flooding system (A), furrow irrigation system (B).
Continuous flooding is the process of artificially submerging a leveled land under water. It is a system predominantly used for rice cultivation in many regions of the world. Among continents, Asia is ranked the largest producer of rice, and it is responsible for 75% of the total global production. Rice is an aquatic plant but can survive under different soil conditions. However, the introduction of water-saving techniques and the release of drought-resistant varieties continuously prove that flooding is dispensable for rice production. In paddy, the field is irrigated until the water level reaches 5–6 cm above the ground level and is continuously maintained throughout the cropping season or drained two weeks before harvest when the rice plant is at physiological maturity. The soil condition under a continuous flooding system is anaerobic and the degree of anaerobicity depends on the level of water and oxygen availability [1]. Paddy fields account for about 40% of global irrigation [2] and it uses 2 to 3 times the volume of water required by other cereals such as wheat and maize to produce 1 kg of rice grains [3]. More than half of the water needed for irrigation in Asia is utilized in rice fields; however, most of this water is lost through unproductive water outflows such as evaporation, lateral seepage, deep percolation, and runoff. Apart from its excessive loss of irrigation water, the continuous flooding system is a major source of greenhouse gases such as methane and carbon dioxide thereby contributing negatively to the environment.
As a result of the decline in freshwater, more water-saving irrigation practices such as alternative wetting and drying (AWD), System of rice intensification (SRI), Ground cover production system (GCRPS), Drip irrigation with film mulch (DIP) had been introduced.
This involves supplying water to the field along the furrow. The furrows are usually small parallel channels that serve as reservoirs of water on the field. The water gets to the plant root through lateral seepage.
The gravity-driven irrigation method requires minimal capital to construct and the energy required for it to work is obtained from free-flowing gravity. The system is easily controlled and does not require high technical know-how. Surface irrigation can be used on sloppy land. However, the irrigation method can affect plant growth and development due to the reduction in plant respiration caused by flooding. It could also increase the loss of water through deep percolation, runoff, infiltration, and evaporation.
The increase in global population resulting in rapid urbanization and industrialization have intensified competition for available water resources resulting in the decrease of fresh water available for crop production. Freshwater resources are becoming increasingly scarce and droughts are becoming more common as a result of climate change. Despite moderate rainfall in some regions of the world, over 50% of irrigation demands for crop production are met by pumping from underground aquifers, thereby depleting aquifers at an alarming rate. Therefore achieving food security requires high yields with efficient use of water resources [4]. Water-saving irrigation techniques that involve the use of pressure rather than gravity have been developed to help cope with water deficits and ensure maximum food production per unit drop of water.
A pressurized irrigation system involves the supply of water with the effort of pressure. This system is designed to achieve higher efficiency than the conventional method. The techniques help in quantifying the exact amount of water or nutrient to be supplied at a particular point in time. The choice of a pressurized irrigation system depends on the knowledge of the plant type, soil type, landscape characteristics, required flow rate, operating pressure, and cost. Examples of pressure-driven irrigation system are drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation.
A drip irrigation is an efficient irrigation system used for row cropping. In this system, water is directly supplied to the soil surrounding the root region with the of the drip tubes laid on the soil surface (surface drip) or that are buried few centimeters below the ground level (subsurface) (Figure 2). The advantages and efficiency of drip irrigation has increase it acceptance and use by agriculturists around the globe, most especially in the arid and semi-arid regions where there is limited freshwater availability. The precise application of water to the root region of crop without wetting the entire farm plots makes drip irrigation an efficient water-saving technique compared with others. In a drip irrigation system, only a fraction (between 15% and 60%) of the soil surface is wet [5]. The drop by drop sequence of watering reduces surface runoff and percolation; hence, providing better disease management and salinity control [6]. Other benefits of drip irrigation include improved crop quality, efficient fertilizer and other chemical usages, limited weed growth, and improved agronomic practices [7].
Drip irrigation set up: surface drip irrigation (A) and subsurface drip irrigation system (B).
In a drip irrigation system, emitter spacing is necessary to ensure precise delivery of irrigation water. This largely depends on the planting distance or vice versa. The effectiveness and efficiency of a drip emitter is an important factor that affects water distribution and the performance of a drip irrigation system. The rate of water delivery by emitters varies and their use is based on the soil types and the water-use efficiency of the crop. Emitter clogging is mostly related to the quality of irrigation water. The turbidity of water as a result of physical (sand particles), biological (bacteria), and chemical (inorganic fertilizer, salts) composition results in emitter clogging. The compounds gradually settle around the water passage until the clusters could not allow further passage of water. Clogging affects the productivity of the crops around the affected emitters and in turn reduces yield outcome. However, to prevent emitter clogging, water could be treated and made less turbid before application. The combination of strategies, such as installation of a filtration system, the use of sedimentation tank and tube settlers, frequent flushing of the irrigation system, and chlorination of the irrigation system, could mitigate emitter clogging.
Fertigation is the synchronous supply of nutrients or soluble fertilizer and water to the soil through drip irrigation system (Figure 3). The introduction of fertigation to crop production proffers a solution to the problem of flooding and overfertilization. Water and liquid fertilizer are harmoniously applied to the rhizosphere which makes nutrients to be readily available for plant uptake. Fertigation results in increased crop yield and more efficient fertilizer usage [8]. Apart from increasing crop yield, fertigation reduces nutrient losses to the environment. Plants easily absorb soluble fertilizer thereby reducing nitrogen losses as nitrous oxide to the atmosphere. A well-designed fertigation system takes into consideration the appropriate rate of fertilizer and water, duration and frequency of supply to improve water, and nutrient uptake of the crop while at the same time reducing nutrient loss via leaching [9]. An appropriate liquid fertilizer applied through fertigation reduces leaf burn, stem scorching, and root death as mostly observed in the direct application of solid inorganic fertilizer close to the root zone of crops. Furthermore, fertigation reduces disease and pest infestation on crops, attributable to dryness of the plant shoot thereby creating a non-conducive environment for pathogens. The system was created to maximize the use of available water and mineral resources; thus, preventing runoff as it is not affected by wind.
Schematic illustration of fertigation system.
To improve crop production through fertigation, the application of fertilizer should be done optimally to reduce acidification of the soil, and environmental degradation [10]. However, in case of overfertilization with the use of fertigation, continuous and frequent application of water regime should follow to reduce fertilizer concentration at the root region. Previous reports have documented that the use of fertigation increased both nutrient-use efficiency and water-use efficiency of crop. Nutrient use efficiency increased by 25%, and nitrogen and potassium application reduced by 20% as compared to the use of solid inorganic fertilizer [11]. Also, Ashrafi et al. [12] reported that the absorption rate of solid inorganic fertilizer was estimated to be 10–40%; whereas, the absorption rate of similar concentration on fertigated field was estimated to be 90%. Cotton yield increased by 50% on fertigated plots when compared to cotton supplied with surface irrigation with direct fertilizer application [13]. According to Hebbar et al. [14], drip fertigation enhanced tomato yield by 20–30% as compared to furrow irrigated tomatoes. The yield of Chili was also reported to increase by 52% and saved 40% and 50% of water and nitrogen, respectively through fertigation compared with a check-basin irrigation treatment [15]. Irrigation and nutrient management are the most effective methods for increasing agricultural output [16], and both management can be accomplished by fertigation. However, for successful use of fertigation, knowledge of soil fertility and crop nutrient uptake requirement is necessary.
Despite its low operating cost as compared with the sprinkler, it is less affected by the speed of the wind.
It increases the yield due to the efficient use of water and nutrients.
It helps reduce the cost of weeding and herbicide use, especially when combined with film mulch.
It is suitable to use in difficult topography.
It helps to reduce environmental contamination and soil compaction when mineral nutrients are supplied through fertigation.
In this system, there is little water contact with leaves thereby reducing the risk of plant diseases.
The major disadvantage of a drip irrigation system is the initial installation cost.
The cost of maintaining drip irrigation pipes might be a challenge to low-income farmers.
It could be easily damaged by farm equipment, sunlight, rodents, wildlife, etc.
Fertigation i.e. using the drip irrigation system for nutrient and fertilizer application may bring about the corrosiveness of the system and clogging of emitters.
Drip irrigation needs to be replaced more frequently than other systems.
Sprinkler irrigation involves watering plants through a process that imitates natural rainfall. Water is sprinkled into the air through a series of pipes to form droplets before landing over leaves and areas within reach. The water is sprayed through a high-pressure sprinkler or guns. Though, sprinkler irrigation can be used on different land slopes; it is mostly used on flat ground such as lawns, golf courses, crops, landscapes, and flat terrains. There are different types of sprinkler irrigation systems, these include centre pivot system, rain gun system, side roll system, perforated pipe system and rotating head system (Figure 4). Each system is made up of the following components: pump unit, mainline, laterals, and sprinklers. The pump unit takes water from the source while the laterals distribute water from the pump unit to the sprinklers. To ensure efficient delivery of water, several sprinklers must be operated close together, ensuring an overlap of distribution patterns, since the heaviest water application is close to the sprinkler.
Types of sprinkler irrigation system: Centre pivot system (A), rain gun system (B), side roll system (C), perforated pipe system (D) rotating head system (E).
In a central pivot system, the machine moves in the shape of a circle, and water is sprayed on the crops beneath the circle. A rain gun system necessitates the use of a high-pressure machine that shoots water into the sky and dropped it on the farm in the form of rain. Side roll systems are made up of pipes attached to the middle of a wheel, which is perforated to drop water on the crops below as the wheel rolls across the field. In a perforated drain pipe system, a pipe is perforated to allow water to drain out of it; whereas, a rotating head system makes use of a pipe with spraying head nozzles to water the field. The application rates of sprinklers differ depending on their nozzle size, spray radii, and operating pressure.
Sprinkler irrigation is adaptable to most soil types but it is preferable for sandy soil with low water holding capacity. The water droplets wet both the soil and the crops and are accessible through uptake by the root and foliar penetration. However, sediment-free water is required to avoid blockage of the nozzle.
This system allows efficient use of water and reduces extra labour required for fertilizer, pesticide, and herbicides application.
It is more efficient in irrigating plants with higher concentration per unit area of land such as cereals and vegetables.
It is more effective and efficient for shallow-rooted plants, it is the only form of irrigation that could supply water to less than 1inch depth [17].
It can last longer than drip irrigation.
Applicable for agricultural, landscape, and nursery irrigation.
Initial cost of setting it up is high.
It requires more pressure than drip irrigation, which increases the cost of energy to be used.
Due to its complex structure, it requires high operating costs.
Uneven distribution of water is possible due to the ability of wind to control the movement of water.
Foliar application of water and nutrient could have a detrimental effect on leaves (leaf rot, senescence, and leaf burn) and fruit (fruit rot)
It could bring about the inefficient delivery of water to understorey crops
Rate of water evaporation is high in a sprinkler irrigation system.
It has potential for runoff and erosion compared to drip irrigation.
An irrigation design system is a way of determining the efficiency and effectiveness of water use, which involves management that affects the performance, yield, and quality of crops. One of the reasons for an irrigation system is the common phenomena of extreme weather events (e.g., floods and droughts). Recently, advancements in irrigation technologies are increasing. The use of robotics, smart controllers and remote sensing, and soil moisture sensors are gradually integrated into irrigation management [18]. However, the effectiveness of these technologies depends on the design of the irrigation system.
The quality of agricultural products could be improved by adopting this high-pressurized irrigation system, as the supply of water to crops is through piping. Designing effective irrigation systems and equipment will not only save money but will also conserve water, and results in improved agricultural production. The factors to be considered when designing irrigation systems and scheduling irrigation include:
The source of water is a determining factor in designing an efficient irrigation system. There are three main sources of water which include, groundwater, surface water and rainwater. Ground water is found under rocks, for example, spring water. Surface water includes water found on the surface of the earth examples are ocean, river, streams and lakes. Furthermore, rainwater from the atmosphere could be collected and used for irrigation. Depending on geographical location, the source and quantity of water for irrigation could differ which in turn could determine the type of irrigation system to be adopted. Also, the quality of available water needs to be considered.
Field characteristics such as field size, topography, and soil types are determining factors in the choice of irrigation system, its design, crop type, and planting pattern.
Irrigation system improvement must take into account agricultural output as well as saving water. The introduction of new crops to an irrigated farm requires technicalities and acquaintance with the crop to the farming system. In the present day, artificial intelligence is an example of cutting-edge technological innovations in irrigation systems. A Photovoltaic (PV) irrigation system is an example of renewable energy resources for improving irrigation systems. The effective management of water for various irrigation uses on a farm depends on the architectural structure of the farm and the mode of operation of the farm operators. Therefore, the system of agriculture may vary from one country to the other. Hence, the need for government to coordinate a sustainable irrigation system in agriculture that suits their Nation [20]. The characterization of the improvement of irrigation systems is a deliberate issue and needs a wealth of knowledge from the technical programming aspect. The deprivation of farmers’ provisional assets may lead to the failure of policy made by government parastatals. This may also result in low farmer turnout in a country or state.
There are factors toward implementing a particular irrigation system and crop cultivation in particular [21]. The integrating components include the irrigation pipe, water pump/tank, valve, emitters, and pressure gauge regulator for a typical drip irrigation system [21]. The capital for implementing the newly adopted irrigation system, the human resources in the coordination, the management of infrastructure and water supply, and the strategy in operating the resources for good crop production are all important to be considered. In summary, the improvement of the agricultural system including the irrigation system needs deliberate policy by government and immense contributions from the scientific community [22].
There are variations in water requirements by plants at different growth stages; hence a need for irrigation scheduling that could supply optimum water required by plants at the appropriate time. Irrigation scheduling considers when and how much water should be applied to plants [23, 24]. These could be predetermined by monitoring the soil water status and the crop water requirements. Soil moisture-based, evaporation-based, and plant-based measurements are the most common methods for scheduling irrigation to aid effective use of water and promote crop productivity.
Soil moisture content can be used to determine an irrigation schedule. The moisture content of the soil is measured with the aid of instruments, these include FDR soil moisture meter (DIK-321A, Daiki Rika Kogyo Co. Ltd., Kounosu, Japan) [25, 26] and when soil moisture goes below a critical level, irrigation commences. The soil moisture-based irrigation schedule takes into consideration the type of soil and its composition to determine the availability of water in the soil. Sandy, loam, and clay have a low, medium, and high availability of water, respectively.
The evapotranspiration schedule takes into consideration soil evaporation and plants transpiration rates. The amount of water required by a plant is determined by balancing the amount of water input into the soil and the amount of water loss. Evapotranspiration data allow us to better understand when to irrigate an actively growing plant.
Also, the plant observation method could be used to determine the irrigation schedule. This method takes into consideration the changes in plant characteristics to determine when to irrigate the plant. There are common morphological symptoms of plants under stress or low water deficit. These visible changes including chlorosis, dried leaves, curling of leaves, and stunted growth were used to assess the timing of irrigation. To determine chlorosis and water stress for irrigation scheduling, a chlorophyll meter (SPAD 502 PLUS, Minolta corporation, Ltd., Japan) and a chlorophyll fluorometer (PAM-2000, Walz Co., Ltd., Effeltrich, Germany) [25] are used.
Mulching is a strategy for enhancing soil conditions that involve covering the soil surface with various materials. It involves covering the soil around the plants’ root zone to protect the roots from an adverse effect of the micro-climate. Mulching has become a popular agricultural practice not just for its immediate economic benefits, such as improved yields, earlier harvests, better fruit quality, and less water usage, but also for its increased soil microbial performance. Mulching creates an environment for the plant to perform at its best as it improves soil temperature, conserves soil moisture, reduces weed pressure and certain insect pests, and makes more efficient use of soil nutrients, among other benefits [27]. The use of mulch reduces the impact of raindrops on the soil surface [28, 29]; thereby, improving the hydrothermal regime of the soil and soil physical properties such as texture, porosity, and infiltration rate.
The mulching materials can either be organic or synthetic (Figure 5).
Types of mulch: Organic mulch, for example, rice straw (A) and plastic-film mulch (B).
Several abiotic variables could be responsible for the loss of moisture from the soil. These variables include high winds, elevated temperatures, harsh climatic conditions, etc. Mulching helps to reduce weed infestation and water loss through evaporation. Straw mulch has been shown to minimize evaporation by up to 35%. However, mulching reduces direct soil water evaporation, making more water available for transpiration. This way of water conservation helps the plants to maintain water balance, especially in regions with little precipitation per annum. Also, mulching reduces erosion and nutrient loss by protecting the soil surface.
Compaction caused by heavy equipment or machinery is becoming a serious problem on many agricultural lands [30]. The addition of organic mulch materials can help to ease the problem of compaction. These materials prevent compaction due to heavy implements or machinery and from wind and water erosion. It can also reduce the compaction of soil, which can negatively affect the roots of crops, thereby reducing their growth and development. Some grasses and legumes have been used as organic mulch, which serves as the best example of living mulch on the slopes and reduces soil erosion by aggregating the soil particles by binding them into a complex unit.
Mulching helps to maintain soil temperature stability, which is beneficial to crop growth and development. Studies have shown that mulch can keep the soil cool during extremely hot weather as well as during normal or warm temperatures. Extreme temperatures have a negative impact on newly emerging plant roots, limiting nutrition and water intake. Plants may be stressed as a result of the extreme temperature conditions under which they grow, and newly established roots may be unable to absorb the proper amount of water and essential plant nutrients [30]. Various types of mulch have different effects on soil temperature. Some mulches increase the soil temperature as compared to bare soil due to the absorption of solar radiation. Moreover, it has been observed that plastic-film mulch and organic mulch materials are better at maintaining a favorable soil temperature compared to other mulch materials.
Organic mulch helps to retain water at the soil surface allowing water to slowly penetrates thereby minimizes surface runoff [31]. As reported by Abu-Awwad [32], covering the soil surface reduced the amount of irrigation water required by pepper and onion crops by 14–29% and 70%, respectively.
Fertilizer loss due to leaching is reduced as excessive rainfall is drained around the root zone, especially in sandy soil. Also, the use of organic mulch increases soil organic carbon which improves the water and nutrient holding capacity of the soil. Mulching with coconut fronds increased leaf N, P, and K content in chili [33]. Findings have shown faster plant growth, early fruiting, reduced P, and increased N concentration in leaves and fruits of crops when mulch is used.
Mulching reduces the germination and nourishment of many weeds by providing a physical barrier between the soil and the atmosphere. The mulching operation promotes the reduction of weed seed germination and weed growth and keeps weeds under control. Weed seed germination can be prevented or physically suppressed by covering or mulching the soil surface. Weed control can be achieved with materials like rice and wheat straws. Covering the soil surface can prevent weed seed germination or physically suppress seedling emergence. Organic mulch such as rice straw and sugarcane bark can provide effective weed control.
Mulches decompose and restore organic matter and plant nutrients to the soil. Improving the physicochemical and biological properties of the soil which in turn increases crop productivity. Organic mulches do not only help to maintain soil moisture, but they also greatly enhance soil nutrients by adding organic matter. Lal et al. [34] reported a decrease in bulk density under straw mulch (1.42 g cm-3) compared to bare soil (1.50 g cm-3). Khurshid et al. [31] concluded that organic matter was significantly higher when more mulch was applied.
Vegetables such as cucumbers, muskmelons, watermelons, eggplants, and peppers usually respond well to mulching in terms of early maturity and higher yields. In comparison to control, organic mulches cause earlier blooming, resulting in fewer days between fruit set and harvest in tomato crops [35]. Polyethylene used as mulch reduced the growth season and increased the earliness and productivity of various vegetable crops [36, 37].
Mulch keeps fruits clean from touching the ground and reduces soil rot, fruit cracking, and blossom end rot in many circumstances. Fruits are smoother and have fewer scars. Plastic mulch when properly laid prevents dirt from splashing onto the plants during rainfall, reducing grading time. Moreover, straw mulch can also improve the yield and quality of early potatoes, cabbage, and other vegetables.
Mulch can reduce the force of irrigation water or the beating motion of raindrops, which can convey disease spores. These spores attach themselves to vulnerable plants’ leaves and branches. Mulches provide food for a variety of beneficial soil organisms that compete with entering harmful spores or emit compounds that suppress diseases. They minimize the possibilities of illness occurring in plants. Many soil bacteria are inhibited by organic mulches, which compete with or digest pathogenic organisms through a variety of enzymatic processes. Mulches play a crucial role in integrated pest management (IPM).
Heavy metals are harmful to the health of both animals and humans. Mulches are an excellent source for removing heavy metals from soils.
Mulches most especially organic compete with the main crop for resources such as water, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and space. The inter and intra-specific rivalry for the resources could be fierce. Both types of competition are harmful to the growth and development of the main crop.
Allelopathy is the term used to describe the limitation of seed germination and plant growth caused by the release of allelochemicals by some plants or organic mulches. Allelochemicals inhibit weeds in crop plants; however, previous studies have shown that when plants like eucalyptus, acacia, and pine were mulched, they lowered or completely suppressed the growth of numerous weed species, demonstrating their allelopathic actions. Narrow-leaved plants, such as grasses, are not as badly damaged as broad-leaved plants or dicot species [40].
The partially decomposed organic mulch materials could act as carriers of various weed seeds. Incorporation of mulch to a deeper depth could help to mitigate the problem of weed seed because at a deep depth the growth of weeds is suppressed before getting to the surface. Organic mulch can inhibit the growth of weeds by depleting air and resources necessary for their growth, thereby promoting healthy plants and soil. Previous study has shown that weed suppression is directly related to the depth of mulch [30]. Organic mulches that are applied at a higher depth can reduce weed species as compared to those applied at shallow depths.
Organic mulching results in nitrogen deficit in the soil. They require nitrogen to decompose since they contain high structural carbohydrates such as lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose and reduced non-structural carbohydrates. As a result, they compete with the crop for nitrogen, lowering their C/N ratio. Though the accumulated nitrogen will be released to the soil after decomposition, the crop may suffered nitrogen deficiency at critical stages of plant growth, resulting in chlorosis.
Integrated pest management is the method of controlling pests, especially insect pests that invade farmland [41]. Crop production on farmland becomes more vulnerable to pest invasion if it is not closely monitored, which can result in crop damage and significant financial loss for farmers. The objectives of integrated pest management can be classified into three categories.
Sustainable ecosystem maintenance and the reduction of pesticide negative impacts.
Cost-effective farm production.
Maintaining and putting human and animal health in check.
However, the role of farmers and stakeholders in the management of crop production and agricultural farmland is imperative. The success of the control tactics must be measured using indicators based on monitoring of harmful and beneficial organisms, pesticide use, and their impact on the environment [41]. Greenhouse gas emissions as a result of pesticides and fertilizer application on agricultural land contribute largely to global warming potential [1]. The connection between measuring CO2 gas fluxes emission and pesticides applied through irrigation is critical in examining the impact of the chemical–water ratio applied to the soil rhizosphere and mineral nutrients available to the crop [42, 43].
Irrigation is an essential agricultural practice for food, pasture, and fiber production in semiarid and arid areas [42]. Fertigation allows flexibility in the application timing when injections can be made virtually any time during the season from the point of the seedling establishment until harvest. The intensive use of water in the irrigation system is inherent in the cumulative effect of the modeling concept of the irrigation system. The inclusive role of the model and pesticide application is important in an integrated pest management system. However, the use of water in a non-essential way may lead to a high pest in-breeding rate. Hence, there is a need to plan the amount of water pumped into the irrigation system and also calculate the relative drip chemigation used [42].
To ensure a sustainable integrated pest control system, the connecting pipes and the osmothermal capacity of the pipe used for surface irrigation must be regularly examined for an effective irrigation system. The internet of things (IoT) and big data collection are new advancements in the application of addressing irrigation system defects while also monitoring integrated pest management activities [42, 44]. Relative data used in IoT is the collection of previous crop performance and farm production activities. This will enable the farmer to predict the future production of the crop. A large amount of data must be collected to amuse the net profit on crop production.
The cost of controlling pests on farmland must be reduced and be effective to make it a success. Combining the relative evaluation of the integrated pest management innovation system and the new event on irrigation system on crop output is not excessively expensive as compared to the success it will bring to farmland. Pesticide application through fertigation is a common example of combining insect pest management with a drip irrigation system. As a result, there exist methods for managing crop water availability as well as applying chemical pesticides and liquid fertilizer efficiently for agricultural production management. Furthermore, the building of irrigation system components that suit the topography of the soil and planting pattern is critical for successful crop production.
Though there is no specific way of designing an irrigation system for sustainable integrated pest management, what matters is making sure it is designed in a way that will reduce water usage without hampering the efficacy of the pesticide and also protecting the environment. The use of chemigation systems is an advancement that could help in achieving the goals for integrated pest management.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. 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Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression"},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors"},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation"},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/205450",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"205450"},fullPath:"/profiles/205450",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()