The parameters of motor and their acceptable limits of variation.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3408",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing",title:"New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This book "New Insights into Toxicity and Drug Testing" covers all emerging technologies (profiling technologies, 3D cultures, next generation sequencing etc.), available methods and models to evaluate candidate drugs and medicinal plants with reference to toxicity, drug testing and development. 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The increasing concerns on the environmental problems caused by burning fossil fuels promote the technology development of more efficient, more compact, and more cost-effective ICE, which can potentially improve the overall energy efficiency, reduce the emissions and generate more effective engine shaft power by burning fossil fuels [1]. Moreover, the increasingly strict emission legislations are focusing on the nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrocarbon (HC).
Engine manufacturers have developed and adopted the technologies such as turbocharging, variable valve timing [2], Miller timing strategies [3], advanced injection strategies, and engine friction reduction technologies in order to improve the system thermal efficiency. However, adopting the stated technologies the ICE is still difficult to convert more than 40% of the fuel energy into effective mechanical power [4, 5]. And there is around 60–70% of fuel energy is wasted from the exhaust system and cooling system of ICE [4, 5]. Other approaches such as burning alternative fuels [6] and the development of hybrid pneumatic system [7] to recover the engine kinetic energy were also considered. Recent research attentions are focusing on the development of engine bottoming technologies such as advanced after treatment systems or engine waste heat recovery (WHR) technologies [8]. The Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) is one of the most promising heat-driven technologies converting heat into mechanical power or electricity [9, 10]. ORC system can recover various heat sources such as biomass combustion heat, solar energy, geothermal heat, and industry wasted heat and heat from Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) [9]. Adopting ORC technology for engine waste heat recovery can effectively improve the overall system efficiency and reduce the emissions. A well-designed ORC system can potentially achieve around 2–5 years payback period through fuel saving [4, 5, 10]. However, Velez et al. [10] pointed out the market available ORC system with the power ranges of 0.2–2 MWe under the cost around 1and 4 × 103 € /kWe, and lower powers are in pre-commercial status because of the relatively long payback period using small-scale ORC system. The technical development, main research barriers, and potential solutions of the technology are summarized in this chapter, which aims to have an overview of the ORC technology and promote its applications.
The applications and extensively research interests of waste heat recovery technologies started in the 1970s during the oil crisis [11]. The first application of ORC for engine waste heat recovery was reported by Patel and Dovle in 1976 [12]. The research project conducted by Mack Trucks and the Thermo Electron Corporation was sponsored by US Department of Energy (DOE). The first prototype ORC machine was installed on a Mack 676 diesel engine to recover the exhaust waste heat. The system adopted Fluorinol-50 as the ORC working fluid and a three-stage axial flow turbine expander. The mechanical power of the expander was transferred to the power take-off device coupled with a speed reduction gearbox. They demonstrated the technical feasibility of the system and its economic interests. The optimal performance of the system could achieve a 13% increase in maximum power with around 15% reduction of fuel consumption. Follow on progress reported by Pate et al. [13] announced a 1 year test program of an ORC bottoming system coupled on a Mack diesel engine in 1979 and they declared a plan of expanding the ORC system on 10 trucks in 1981–1982. In 1983, the research group reported the testing results of the program [14], which demonstrated 12.5% improvement of the average fuel consumption on high-way vehicle fuel economy tests. However, no follow on progress for the expanding plan can be found from the literature. The ORC systems developed nowadays can achieve much higher efficiency because of the broad choice of advanced working fluids and the development of system components, such as expansion devices and heat exchangers. However, the commercial ORC system for vehicle application is still not available from the market. One of the possible reasons is the concern on the substantial capital cost due to the complexity of the system and complicated control strategies required for vehicle application.
The application of steam Rankine cycle for vehicle waste hear recovery has been reported by BMW in 2005 [15], who later announced the proposed system can achieve 15% improvement for engine performance [16, 17]. Figure 1 is the schematic diagram of the BMW turbosteamer concept, who converts both engine coolant and exhaust energy into engine mechanical power. The system adopts two-stage turbine machines, which is similar as large-scale stationary power generation system.
Schematic diagram of BMW-Turbosteamer concept [
In 2008, Honda has reported the project exploring the application of steam Rankine cycle for engine exhaust heat recovery as illustrated in Figure 2 [18]. The system adopts an axial piston swash plate type expander as the expansion machine under the controlled steam operational conditions ranging from 400 to 500°C at the pressure ranging from 7 to 9 MPa in order to optimize the Rankine cycle performance in engine transient driving conditions. The expander was directly connected to an electric generator producing electricity to recharge the battery pack. The maximum thermal efficiency of the system is 13% at 23 kW and the maximum power from the expander is 32 kW. Results are shown in 62 miles/h constant speed driving tests; the overall thermal efficiency can be improved by 3.8%. However, Honda announced the system will not be considered for production unless higher efficiencies can be achieved [18].
Layout of the Honda Rankine cycle prototype [
Cummins has conducted a project funded by U.S. Department of Energy to study an advanced engine waste heat recovery system using ORC technology since 2005 [19]. Cummins announced the developed ORC system can potentially improve the engine total efficiency by 5–8% [19]. The company further developed the waste heat recovery system and integrated with other advanced engine technologies aiming to boost the heavy-duty diesel engine to as high as 55% efficiency as reported in 2013 [20].
The designed temperature difference between evaporation and condensation temperature determines the overall efficiency of a typical ORC. For on-road vehicle application, the condensation temperature is controlled by the radiator and the capability of engine radiator determines the lowest condensation temperature. Therefore, the majority studies of Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) from ICE focus on the engine exhaust energy [21], because the exhaust temperature of ICE is various from 200 to 700°C, which is much higher than the coolant temperature ranging from 80 to 100°C [4, 5]. The other two heat sources are the charge air (50–70°C) and engine oil (80–120°C) [22]. The maximum ratio of utilization the fuel energy converting into engine brake power for propulsion is about 40–45%. The rest of fuel energy is dumped through engine exhaust, wasted because of friction losses and heat transfer loses. It is, therefore, necessary to study the heat sources from ICE to design and evaluate an ORC system for engine waste heat recovery.
The heat sources from the engine are usually calculated under engine steady state points from either experimental tests or simulation results. Although it is theoretically feasible and potentially worthwhile to recover the heat from charger air cooler and engine lube oil as reported in the literature [23], the practical applications of ORC system for engine waste heat recovery are mainly focusing on the exhaust energy and engine coolant energy. These two heat sources contain the majority of wasted heat energy from the engine. The maximizing utilization of these two heat sources can benefit for the overall vehicle thermal management and improve the cooling circuit impact.
Rather than the engine used in stationary power generation system, who usually operated under fixed rotational speed for an electrical generation [24], the engine used for vehicle application operates under variable speed and torque conditions. Therefore, the full engine operational map analysis method is popularly used to evaluate the heat sources from the engine for vehicle application. For example, Zhang et al. [25] used similar analysis methods and conducted the analysis of a 105 kW light-duty diesel engine. In order to conduct the parametric performance study of engine waste heat recovery system, the following four parameters are critical to being identified: the temperature and mass flow rate of exhaust and coolant energy under variable engine operational conditions. Another alternative method to evaluate the recoverable waste heat from the engine coolant and exhaust energy was introduced by Ringler et al. [17], who pointed out that the ratio of the recoverable heat from the coolant and exhaust energy of ICE ranges from 1.5 to 0.5. The results from the reported work also supported the conclusion [26, 27, 28]. Similar analysis method to evaluate the recoverable coolant and exhaust energy from a single cylinder engine was used and reported by Lu et al. as illustrated in Figure 3 [30].
Recoverable coolant and exhaust energy from a single cylinder ICE [
Steam Rankine cycle has been widely employed in large-scale power plants in the industry. This technology has been recognized as the most popular energy conversion systems, which mainly consists of four components, a pump, an evaporator, a turbine, and a condenser shown in Figure 4. The working principle of steam Rankine cycle can be described as follows. The liquid-phase water is first compressed to high-pressure state and flows into the evaporator, where the heat is provided from the heat sources to change the water from the liquid phase into the gas phase. The high-temperature and high-pressure steam then flow through an expansion machine where the power can be retrieved or converted into electricity. In the final step, the condenser rejects the heat from the expander steam and condenses the steam into the liquid phase.
Schematic diagram of steam Rankine cycle.
Rankine cycle applies water as the working fluid, which has the advantages of high specific heat capacity, broad ranges of working conditions, non-toxic, and safe to use and environmentally friendly. However, steam Rankine system requires very high driven temperature in order to keep the steam in the gas phase at the exit of the expander. Because the exiting of liquid phase of fluid requires being prevented otherwise the blades of the turbine will be gradually damaged resulting in the reduction of lifetime and decrease of the expander efficiency [31].
As mentioned before, steam Rankine cycle requires very high heat source temperature. The Organic Rankine Cycles have been widely investigated since the 1880s. Instead of using water in Rankine cycle, the Organic Rankine Cycles employ organic working fluids such as refrigerants and hydrocarbons to recover the low-grade heat from biomass power plant, geothermal power and solar ponds [32]. The selection of working fluid plays a key role in ORC performance [33, 34, 35, 36].
The working fluids used in Organic Rankine Cycle can be classified as wet, dry and isentropic types, who have different slopes of the vapor saturation curves in the
Three types of ORC working fluids: dry, isentropic, and wet.
A wrong choice of working fluid could lead to a low-efficient and expensive plant of ORC system. Tchanche et al. [37] assessed the thermodynamic and environmental properties of 20 different fluids for solar Organic Rankine Cycle by comparing the system efficiency, irreversibility, flow rate, pressure ratio, toxicity, flammability, ozone depletion potential (ODP), and global warming potential (GWP). The influence of fluid properties on an ORC and a supercritical Rankine cycle with 35 different working fluids was assessed by Chen et al. [36] considering the latent heat, density, specific heat, and the effectiveness of superheating. An exergy-based study of fluid selection for geothermal generated ORC system was conducted by Heberle et al. [38]. The exergy analysis indicated in a series circuit, working fluids with high critical temperatures such as isopentane are more favorable to be used. The working fluids with low critical temperatures, such as R227ea, are favored in parallel circuits and power generation under the heat source temperature below 450 K. The author investigated a small-scale solar-powered regenerative ORC system using six different refrigerants. The first and second law analysis suggested that R600 and R600a have the best performance under the temperature ranges from 70to 120°C [31]. Wang et al. [33] report a study to compare the performance of 10 kW net power output ORC system using different working fluids for engine exhaust heat recovery. Results indicate R11, R141b, R113, and R123 manifest slightly higher thermodynamic performances than other working fluids [33]. The system performance study of a geothermal ORC system using 31 pure working fluids has been conducted by Saleh et al. [34]. The maximum thermal efficiency is 0.13 with n-butane as working fluid under 120°C heat source temperature [34]. There is no working fluid can be recognized as the best to be used in any ORC systems. The section of optimal working fluid needs to consider the system thermodynamic performance, the economics of the system, designed system parameters such as maximum and minimum temperature and pressure conditions, environmental, and safety aspects.
The expansion machines can be divided into two types: turbine machine using the kinetic energy of the working fluid to drive the expander and positive displace expander producing power by changing the volume of working chamber.
Turbines have been widely applied as the expansion machine to replace the piston type of expander in steam Rankine cycle since the nineteenth century and have been acknowledged as the optimal expander for large-scale power plants. It consumes the internal energy of vapor into kinetic energy, which results the velocity of the flow are relatively high but the pressure and forces between the supply and exhaust point are rather small [39]. The mechanical power is then been obtained from the shaft of the turbine by turning the rotor blades when the high-velocity fluid passes through the turbine. There are mainly two types of turbines: axial flow turbines and radial flow turbines [40]. The axial flow turbines are driven by the flow in the parallel direction to the shaft, while the radial flow turbines are rotated by the flow traveling through the hub to the tipoff the turbine as indicated in Figure 6. However, the application of turbines for small-scale power generation system has not been widely accepted as the best expansion machine, especially in the power plants lower than 100 kW. Radial flow turbines are one of the exceptions, which have been recently used for small-scale application in Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) [42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47]. Kang reports the design and experimental investigation of an ORC using R245fa as the working fluid and radial flow turbine as the expansion machine [42]. The radial turbine was directly connected to a high-speed generator to produce electricity and results indicated the maximum cycle efficiency, the isentropic turbine efficiency, and electricity power obtained from the testing rig is 5.22%, 78.7%, and 32.7 kW, respectively [42]. Pei et al. [47, 48] carried out an experimental investigation on a 1–2 kW ORC system using a special designed and constructed radial flow turbine. The reported study achieves the isentropic efficiency of the radial flow turbine at 65–68% with the rotational speed around 20,000–40,000 using R123 as the organic working fluid in the ORC system [46, 47]. Compared with positive displacement expander, turbines are easier to be designed with relatively less required parts. A single stage turbine only requires two bearings to be mounted to the generator on the shaft. Furthermore, there is no contact seal existing in the turbines, which means no lubrication oil is necessary to be adapted to the system. The application of turbine for small-scale application is still not successful because the turbine is designed under rather low-expansion ratios and high-volume flows. The rotational speed of conventional turbines ranges from 10,000 to 100, 000 rpm because of the physical design of this type of expansion machine, which results to a limited or hard sourcing of proper generator for electricity production. One of the solutions to adapt the turbine machine directly with the generator is to use a high-speed generator, which will lead to high initial cost and increase the overall cost of electricity generation system. The other method to obtain the mechanical work from the turbine and convert it into electricity is by using gear. This method can effectively solve the high initial cost of the system but will require larger space for the turbine unit and reduce the efficiency of the turbine machine due to mechanical losses in the gear. Furthermore, the availability of small-scale turbine machine is still limited. The currently used radial flow turbines in small-scale power generation system are either from specially designed by the researcher or modified from a conventional turbine from an automotive turbocharger.
Working principle of turbine machines. (a) Axial flow turbine and (b) radial flow turbine [
Different from the working principle turbine machines, positive displacement expanders use the expansion power by changing the volume inside the expansion chambers, which can also be named volumetric expanders. The most commonly used positive displacement expanders include piston type expander, screw expander, and scroll expander and vane expander. The positive displacement expanders can be classified into two types reciprocating piston expanders and rotary expanders. Screw expander, scroll expander, and vane expander are three main types of rotary expanders.
The piston type of machines attracts extensive intentions since it was invented and has been widely applied in different areas to meet various requirements such as the most commonly used as an Internal Combustion Engine. In the past 30 years, piston expander has been adopted and developed as the expander into steam Rankine system integrating with the internal combustion engine to recover the exhaust energy [4]. The piston type of expander can be designed and constructed with one valve version and two valve version in order to allow the expansion process starting and ending inside the piston volume chamber. The working principle of these two types of reciprocating piston expanders is illustrated in Figure 7. Piston type of expansion machine requires precisely controlled methods for the intake and exhaust valves, which will result to the requirement of a complex control system although this type of expander can potentially reach very high-expansion efficiency [50]. Moreover, piston expander requires a lot of bearings, a great number of moving parts, and balancing setting up, which results in a relatively complex and costly system.
Working principle of reciprocating piston expander. (a) Single valve piston expander and (b) two valve piston expander [
Screw expander is composed of two meshing helical rotors a male and a female rotor, which requires at least four bearings for the two rotors as shown in Figure 8. This type of expansion machine has been widely applied in steam Rankine cycle plants for geothermal waste heat recovery system [52]. Lubrication oil is commonly used in the screw machine to seal the expanded working fluid inside the expansion chamber, which can effectively reduce the internal leakage losses during the expansion process. Screw expander has a relatively high rotational speed in positive displacement expanders and the rotation speed of this machine can reach as high as 6000 rpm [52]. The electricity production from screw expander, therefore, requires a specially designed high-speed generator or adding a gearbox to convert the mechanical power from the screw machine into electricity. This type of expansion devices has the advantages such as medium internal frictions, medium leakage losses, low vibration noise, wide ranges of power output, and long lifetime. The power produced from this expansion machine as reported by previous researchers ranging from 1.5 kW to 1 MW with the expansion ratio of 2–8 [53]. Leibowitz et al. developed an ORC power generation system using screw expander in a demonstration unit to cost-effectively recover the waste heat into power. Results indicated that screw expander is a good candidate expansion machine for the ORC system with the power output at 20 kW with installation cost in the range of $1500 –$2000/kWe [54]. However, there is no commercially available product under the power output lower than 10 kW from the market as reported by Ian et al. [55]. Because small size of screw expander needs extremely precise machining requirements to make the rotors and internal leakages of small size screw expander are relatively higher than that of the large-scale device [51, 56].
Working principle of screw expander [
Scroll type of machine was first developed by a French inventor in 1905 and then the scroll machine starts to attract attention to be applied in Air condition system as a compressor to produce refrigeration since the mid of 1980s [57]. The most of the available scroll expanders from the market are modified from scroll compressor by swapping the inlet and outlet ports to change the device working mode from compressor to the expander. Scroll device is relatively simple equipment, which mainly includes two scrolls. The scroll expander has the advantages of little vibration, low-noise, a limited number of moving parts, broad availability, high-reliability and low initial cost [58, 59]. Scroll device has two scrolls and one of the scrolls is fixed on the shell, which is called situational scroll, while the other scroll orbiting eccentrically without rotating is named orbiting scroll. During the expansion process, high-pressure vapor enters and expands centrally of two scrolls pushing the orbiting scroll to start orbit as illustrated in Figure 9. The mechanical work can be continually obtained from the orbiting scroll through the shaft. Likewise the other positive displacement expanders, scroll expander has a fixed built-in expansion ratio. The optimal performance of scroll expander can be obtained when the specific volume ratio of the designed system equal to the built-in expansion ratio. Quoilin et al. pointed out the losses appearing when scroll type of expansion machine is working under and over expansion processes [9]. For example, 1 kW oil-free scroll expander was used in an ORC system to recover the exhaust gas heat from a 30 kW gas turbine as reported by June et al. [61]. The ORC system used a zeotropic mixture with 48.5% R245fa and 51.5% R365mfc as the working fluid and the experimental results indicated the overall efficiency of the ORC system was about 3.9% [61]. The scroll expander was operated in the over-expansion region, which can therefore only achieve the efficiency of 28.4% under the tested condition. The overall ORC efficiency can be much higher than 3.9% if the expansion machine has been operated within the optimal conditions [61]. A prototype of ORC system using an open-drive oil-free scroll expander with R123 as the working fluid was experimentally investigated by Lemort et al. [62]. Results indicated the maximum isentropic efficiency of the scroll expander could be as high as 68% [62]. Muhammad et al. [63] reported the experimental study of a small-scale ORC system recovering the heat from hot steam. An oil-free scroll expander was used in the system to produce electrical power. Results show the maximum electrical power from the system was 1.016 kW when the system thermal efficiency was 5.64% and the isentropic efficiency of the expander was 58.3% [63]. During the experiment, the maximum ORC thermal efficiency was achieved at 5.75% and the scroll expander achieved the maximum isentropic efficiency as high as 77.74% [63]. A hermetic type refrigerant scroll compressor with built-in volume ratio at 3.24 was modified as an expander and used in an ORC system as reported by Yang et al. [64]. The experimental results indicated the maximum shaft power was 2.64 kW when the ORC thermal efficiency was 5.92% [64]. The majority of scroll expanders available from the market are modified from scroll compressors, which are not designed to be used for expansion applications. A separate lubrication system is normally required to lubricate the contact seals of two scrolls and reduce the radial leakage. The other function of the oil is to seal the working fluid inside the expansion chambers during the expansion process to prevent and reduce the flank leakage of the scroll type machine.
Expansion process of the scroll device under different crank angles [
Vane expanders have the advantages of simple construction, easy manufacture, low-cost, self-start under load and smooth torque production [35, 65]. The expansion process happens between the cylinder wall and the sliding vanes. When the high-pressure working fluid flows into the inlet port and fills chamber A, the spinning power from the rotor can be gathered as illustrated in Figure 10. The pressure differences among the chambers resulted by expansion process driver the rotor. Qiu et al. [56, 66] investigated a vane expander in a biomass fire CHP system with ORC and achieved the isentropic efficiency of 54.5% at the speed of 824 RPM (mechanical work of 1.552 kW). The electricity generated by the vane expander was 792 W, which lighted seventeen 50 W bulbs. The efficiencies of several vane expanders using different working fluids at different working temperatures and pressures were summarized by Aoun [67]. Results showed that the maximum efficiency of 80% was achieved by a vane expander using R-11 at 800 RPM. The rotational speed of vane type of expanders is relatively lower than other expansion machines with commonly from 1500 to 3000 rpm, which can be directly installed to the generator without requiring of gear box [35]. However, the average isentropic efficiency of vane expanders is with the range of 15–55%, which is not that competitive compared with other volumetric expansion machines, as reported by Muhammad et al. [53]. Moreover, this type of expander requires a lubrication system to lubricate the contact surface of the rotor and vane. The existing of lubricate oil will contaminate the working fluid and flow back to the system.
Working principle of vane-type expander [
Due to the limited space, the demand of high-power to weight ratio for ORC system and complicated control strategies for vehicle application, the ORC systems are still under technical development and testing stages. The current commercialization status of ORC technology for engine waste heat recovery is mainly for stationary power generation applications because of their desirable stable operating profiles [11]. A representative study on ORC system recovering exhaust energy from a stationary compressed natural gas (CNG) engine was reported by Song et al. [24]. The results showed the electric efficiency of the CNG engine could be potentially improved by a maximum 6.0% and the overall engine brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) can be reduced by a maximum of 5.0% [24].
The two primary heat sources from ICE systems are engine cooling system and exhaust gases, which almost contain 60–70% of the fuel energy. Engine coolant energy is normally recognized as a heat source that is not worth to recover because the coolant temperature is about 80–100°C. However, the coolant energy contains about 30% of the fuel energy. The effective utilization of engine coolant energy for ORC waste heat recovery of the ICE could potentially improve the overall system efficiency and reduce the pay-back period of the overall cost with a properly designed system [9, 10]. A typical single-loop ORC system recovering both engine coolant and exhaust energy can be shown in Figure 11. A recuperator can be used to recover unused heat at the exit of expansion machine to preheat the working. The coolant energy can either be used as preheating source or main heat source for ORC systems. Only part of the coolant energy can be recovered if it was used as preheating source. For example, a study conducted by Yu et al. [69] investigated the potential of using engine coolant energy as ORC preheating source. The simulation results indicated there is around 75% exhaust heat and 9.5% coolant energy can be recovered from a diesel engine [69]. Tian et al. [70] deeply investigated the effects of fluids and parameters of the ORC system for engine exhaust heat recovery. The performance ORC system using 20 working fluids (boiling point range from −51.6 to 32.05°C) was studied to evaluate the cycle parameters such as the overall thermal efficiency, expansion ratio, effective power output and electricity production cost [70]. R141b, R123, and R245fa were identified as the optimal working fluids. The highest thermal efficiency of these three working fluids ranges from 16.6% to 13.3% with the electricity production cost various from 0.30 to 0.35 €/kWh [70]. A simulation study of an ORC system for diesel engine exhaust heat recovery was reported by Zhao et al. [71]. Results indicated the BSFC reduction and the overall thermal efficiency of the engine integrated with ORC unit is 3.61 g/(kWh)–0.66% [71]. Shu et al. [72] recommended to use alkane-based working fluids for diesel engine exhaust heat recovery from the technical and economic point of view [72].
Single-loop ORC for engine coolant and exhaust recovery [
Another potential approach for engine coolant and exhaust recovery is using dual-loop ORC, which adopts two separately ORC systems to regenerate multi-heat sources from ICE [28, 73, 74]. The schematic system diagram and
Dual-loop ORC system (a) schematic diagram and (b)
The power output from the ORC system can be either mechanical or electrical. As introduced in the previous section, the expansion machines can be divided into two types turbine machine using the kinetic energy of the working fluid to drive the expander and positively displace expander producing power by changing the volume of working chamber. When the mechanical configuration is used, the expander shaft is connected to the engine drive belt or a gear. Alternatively, an alternator is used to convert the mechanical work from the ORC expander to electricity. The generated electricity can be used to power the vehicle battery or supply auxiliary utilities. One of the main drawbacks of the solution is the efficiency of available vehicle alternators, which is around 50–60% [5, 9].
The designed evaporation and condensation temperature determines the overall efficiency of ORC system. A higher temperature difference between evaporation and condensation can result in a higher overall ORC efficiency. The engine front radiator is therefore required to reject high-load of heat in order to maintain the low condensation temperature. The limited space for vehicle application restricts the size of engine cooling system. An electrically driven cooling fan is generally not recommended to achieve low condensation temperature because it would sharply reduce the overall system performance.
Another main technical constraint is the dynamic/transient heat sources. In order to maintain the ORC system within the optimal operating region, the control of pump speed, and expander speed are required. Therefore, the complex control strategies are critical to being developed or advanced ORC systems should be investigated. Using variable speed pump, adding control valves and integrating thermal energy storage system to manage fluctuation waste heat are some common strategies as reported by Manuel et al. [76].
Vehicle waste heat recovery technologies are currently under enormous interests for the purpose of reducing emissions and improving overall efficiency. Organic Rankine Cycle is one of the best solutions to recover engine waste heat into mechanical or electrical power. Key conclusions of this chapter can be summarized as follows.
It is critical to characterize the recoverable heat from the engine before designing the ORC system. A broad range of working fluids are available to be selected but there is no working fluid can be recognized as the best to be used in any ORC systems. A high-efficiency alternator to be coupled with ORC expander is in high-demand in order to promote the application of electrical version engine waste heat recovery system. For vehicle application, a compact system is desirable because of the limitation of space. A well-designed engine thermal management system should be considered. The transient heat source performance is the major technical obstacle to use ORC system for engine waste heat recovery and it can be expected either advanced control strategies or thermal energy storage technology should be used to solve the problem and promote the practical application of the ORC system for the vehicle.
The authors would like to thank the supports from EPSRC through (EP/P001173/1)-Centre for Energy Systems Integration, (EP/K503885/1) toward the project- Study of engine waste heat technologies, from NSFC-RS Joint Project under the grant number No. 5151101443 and IE/151256. The support from Cao Guang Biao High Tech Talent Fund, Zhejiang University is also highly acknowledged.
This necessity of controller design modeling for proportional integral and derivative (PID) gain tuning against the external disturbances with constrained internal parameter variation of the permanent magnet direct current (PMDC) motor based on an optimization technique of H-infinity is highly recommended. Here, PID controller with auto tuning of gains are used to match the goals in H infinity framework. Different performance goals for tracking are preset as design objectives. The speed control of PMDC-motor has so far attracted the attention of the researchers in recent times and many approaches and improvements have been proposed for PMDC motor drives. PMDC motors are used in electrical equipment, computer peripherals, and manipulators because of their precise speed control capabilities. C-PID controllers have been in use since several years for different applications such as motor-control. The classical tuning methods of PID controller, as well as response method of Zeigler-Nichols frequency considers the system in the mode of oscillation to analyze the tuning procedure [1]. Since the manual tuning of PID controller is not user friendly, as it tends to be a tedious process though being simple in structure.
We know that PID controller fails to address instant tracking / regulation to get robustness against disturbance rejection. The majority of the time, industrial controllers are not properly tuned. Traditionally, motor control applications have better performed in control execution for specific working conditions. Controller parameters can be tuned for exact working conditions with an underlying assumption that the conditions are ordered and defined. Basically, working conditions according to the framework that are prone to variations leads to undesirable results if the variations are not accurately introduced. As these controllers do not guarantees the robustness to inner and outer disturbances, the outer disturbances and the system parameter variations have huge impact on performance and degradation in the applications of motor control.
Researchers in literature have presented many Robust Control techniques for motor control applications. Methods like back-stepping algorithms, fuzzy and neural based control systems, model predictive control and sliding mode control (SMC) are available in literature. The SMC based methodology stimulates the chattering phenomenon due to switching function of the inherent discontinuity. In Eker [2], the authors have demonstrated SMC for various applications of PMDC motor control. In Mamani et al. [3] and Corradini et al. [4], semi-SMC, adaptive SMC and boundary layer control (BLC) have been introduced as the development to classical style of Controlling the SMC and reducing chattering impact. Until now, most of the heuristic engineering methods have been developed to achieve optimal tuning of PID.
PID control with GA optimization based for the DC motor is implemented in Pal et al. [5] and can be stimulated by the aid of normal development methods. These methods have proven that the goal functions have degraded [6].
The PSO (Parasitic Swarm Optimization) is considered as the method of ideal structure to control of BLDC motor by PID control in Nasri et al. [7]. The major advantages being ease of implementation and computational complexity, which facilitates meeting constraints for some of the parameters apart from exhibiting fast convergence.
Position and speed control applications have been implemented using H-infinity-based control [8] providing better robustness in performance against disturbances, making this as an attractive alternative. To develop the Robust Controller, the NN based H-infinity controller was presented in Premkumar et al. [9] that introduces the DC motor H-infinity controller and has addressed parameter uncertainties.
In this chapter, SC application of PMDC-motor is addressed with variations in outer load disturbances and internal variations of the system parameters. Controller is also opted as C-PID and equivalent robustness characteristics are established using the H-infinity development procedures. The optimization effort is to get simultaneous fast-tracking response with better disturbance rejection.
Using supply current, motor speed and supply voltage relationship, we have the PMDC motor mathematical model as:
Here,
The representation of SS (state space) matrix of similar set of the equations is given by:
The overall transfer function for the speed and input voltage, is expressed as:
The transfer function of PMDC motor model is considered for a specified output speed and input voltage provided. The unknown motor parameters are prone to the variations due to aging of motor and its wear and tear. The controller must be built to offer resilience for each motor parameter within acceptable variation limits. The parameters of nominal motor are chosen from the standard motor of Maxon-RE35. The variation limits and motors parameters are given in Table 1. The proposed controller design for disturbance rejection in this work is based on the presumption that the PMDC motor internal parameter variations are within tolerable limits as specified for Maxon-RE35. The proposed Robust Controller design is discussed in subsequent section.
Parameter | Nominal value | Variation (tolerable limit) |
---|---|---|
0.00063 H | 41% | |
2.07 Ohm | 40% | |
Viscous-friction ( | 0.000049 Nms rad−1 | 51% |
EMF constant ( | 0.053 Vs rad−1 | [0.013 to 0.1] |
Armature-constant ( | 0.053 NmA−1 | [0.012 to 0.1] |
The parameters of motor and their acceptable limits of variation.
The proposed controller design model should meet the desired specifications within bounds of internal parameter variations. Figure below shows the variation in the gain of PMDC plant against variations of internal parameters. Similar variations are represented in the domain of frequency via bode plot, that are shown in Figures 1 and 2. Henceforth, PID controller is designed to address variation in the model and provide desired specifications for closed loop performance.
The variations in PMDC gain of motor plant for uncertain and nominal internal parameter variations.
Bode plot of plant model subjected to the internal parameter variations.
This chapter discusses the target specifications for better disturbance rejection and simultaneously set the point tracking. Here, we assume that the control bandwidth, exhibits increasing slope at the crossover frequency compared to disturbance rejection, allowing better gain within the bandwidth. The higher slope is described as lesser phase margin resulting in acceptable overshoot in response to set point. In order to match competing requirements of the tracking rejection and disturbance, the PID controller with 2-DOF (Degree of Freedom) is used as transfer function.
2-DOF (Degree of Freedom) PID controllers contain weighing coefficients associated with derivative and proportional terms. These weighing coefficients facilitate effective disturbance rejection restraining maximization of the over-shoot under optimal conditions. The PID controller of 2-DOF works better in moderating the changes arising in the reference signal or control-signal.
The close loop control system is considered as shown in Figure 3. Here, the external disturbances such as load variations on motor shafts and its torque variations are added that influences on the motor parametric variations.
Block diagram with external disturbances (load variations).
The 2-DOF for controller can be tuned by utilizing the approach of H infinity optimization. The open loop gain being a critical indicator of feedback loop behavior, gain of open loop should be more than one in control bandwidth to confirm better DR (Disturbance Rejection) and it must be lower than one outer of control bandwidth to confirm insensitivity to measurement noise of unmodelled dynamics. The ideal performance terms can be displayed regarding execution objectives. To accomplish a decent disturbance rejection and tracking, three execution objectives/limitations are forced on the tuning of controller gain (see discussion in previous section), which is as follows:
“Tracking” – used to identify the RT (response time) to step input
“ML (Minimum loop) gain” – used to recognize loop gain before the frequency of crossover.
“ML (Maximum loop) gain” – used to to identify the control bandwidth at higher frequencies.
The CGs (Controller-gains) must be tuned with constraint i.e., function cost, connected with every specification subjected to minimization in H-infinity framework.
The frequency domain specification for monitoring between output and input is described in this performance target. This frequency domain constraint indicates the most extreme relative error as a FF (frequency function). The ME (maximum error) is given by:
where,
The scalar function
where,
The minimal gain on the open loop frequency response at specified frequencies is limited by this performance goal. The frequency dependent minimum gain constraint in turn gives the inverse sensitivity function of minimum gain limit. The min constraint gain characterizes the capacity of scalar function
where,
This execution goal aims at highest gain of open loop at the determined frequencies in the given framework. The Max-LG can be characterized as the frequency domain element. This type of constraint restrains upper limit on the corresponding sensitivity. The maximum loop gain determines the scalar function
where,
The three performance goals for the H-infinity minimization such as tracking, maximum LG and minimum LG. The limits/range for these goals is expected as represented in Figures 4–6 as:
Tracking better than 2 sec
Min-LG: to be higher below 0.5 rad/s.
Max-LG: to be less beyond 4 rad/s and the roll off with at least 20db/decade.
Performance goal 1: The response for desired tracking.
Performance goal 2: The desired min-LG.
Performance goal 3: The desired max-LG.
The motor model transfer function as described in Eq. (5) along with the constraints from Eqs. (6)–(10) is simulated using MATLAB Simulink.
To model the uncertainty of plant parameters, the specified motor parameters can be used as variables. The PID controller of 2-DOF is characterized to have tunable gains. The analysis point is where disturbance torques are calculated and disturbance sensitiveness is determined. The performance goals as examined in Section 5 are selected and H∞ minimization of the scalar function relating to the described performance goals is evolved in this work. This results in optimal tuning of controller gains and is tabulated as shown in Table 2.
Parameter | Value |
---|---|
0.034 | |
28.447 | |
−0.942 | |
0.341 |
The resulting tuned parameters of 2-DOF PID from simulation for optimization.
The outcomes are presented in the following figures.
The Figure 7 represents response of TE (tracking error) of the tuned function of closed loop transfer function. This plot represents the tracking error that is accomplished over all ranges of frequencies below the specified margin. Correspondingly, the max-LG and achieved min-loop v/s ideal values are plotted in Figures 8 and 9.
The performance goal 1: Desired v/s achieved.
The performance goal 2: Desired v/s achieved.
The performance goal 3: Desired v/s achieved.
Figure 8 shows the achieved transient duration of proposed model is much less that desired transient duration. Figures 10 and 11 demonstrates tracking performance of the proposed model for any arbitrary input. In all cases, the set point of tracking can be accomplished well within the prescribed 2 seconds limitations in system response. From these plots, we infer that simulation of the proposed model guarantees motor internal parameters to remain within tolerable limits of variations for any applied arbitrary external disturbances. Further, the proposed model is tested for simulation with 30 different randomly chosen external disturbances.
The performance of tracking with 2-DOF PID controller.
The performance of speed control to the pulse command (tracking better than the 2 sec).
It is significant to note that achieved performances are far superior to the focused objectives. Additionally, H∞ advancement of targeted goals outperforms over expected performance. Out of several performance goals specified for PMDC motors, our work presents simulation results for only three objectives. However, other goals remain to be explored.
Figure 12 represents the disturbance rejection achieved for two different values of proportional and derivative coefficients. The response for randomly chosen load disturbances (30 arbitrary signals) with implicit effect on internal parameters is presented in Figure 13. It can be observed that the response for the proposed robust model for controller is well within the accepted bounds. It is worth to observe that the disturbances attenuate well below the prescribed limit of 2 sec.
Disturbance rejection with the controller of 2-DOF PID.
The response to 30 random disturbances with implicit parameter variations.
This work introduces the MO-optimization (Multi Objective) with three performance goals in the structure of H∞ for tuning parameters of PID controller for PMDC motor. The two simultaneous competing needs of disturbance rejection along with input tracking are achieved with Robust Controller design with 2-DOF over disturbance rejection using H∞ framework. Hence, it is established that the PID controller can be tuned, and corresponding gains can be achieved for a specified constraints/performance capability. Further, H∞ provides a better and acceptable framework for optimization.
As this section deals with legal issues pertaining to the rights of individual Authors and IntechOpen, for the avoidance of doubt, each category of publication is dealt with separately. Consequently, much of the information, for example definition of terms used, is repeated to ensure that there can be no misunderstanding of the policies that apply to each category.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\\n\\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\\n\\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\\n\\nDEFINITIONS
\\n\\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\\n\\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
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\\n\\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\\n\\nScientific Journal – Periodical publication intended to further the progress of science.
\\n\\nJournal Article/Scientific Article – Publication based on empirical evidence. It can support a hypothesis with original research, describe existing research or comment on current trends in a specific field.
\\n\\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\\n\\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\\n\\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\\n\\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\\n\\n\\n\\n
LICENSE | \\n\\t\\t\\tUSED FROM - | \\n\\t\\t\\tUP TO - | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \\n\\t\\t\\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t15 March 2022 | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, a Scientific Article and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\n\nScientific Journal – Periodical publication intended to further the progress of science.
\n\nJournal Article/Scientific Article – Publication based on empirical evidence. It can support a hypothesis with original research, describe existing research or comment on current trends in a specific field.
\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \n\t\t\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t15 March 2022 | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. 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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. 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(2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"28",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",keywords:"Animal Reproduction, Artificial Insemination, Embryos, Cryopreservation, Conservation, Breeding, Epigenetics",scope:"The advances of knowledge on animal reproductive biology and technologies revolutionized livestock production. Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. Gene editing is also emerging as an innovative tool. This topic will discuss the potential use of these techniques, novel strategies, and lines of research in progress in the fields mentioned above.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. 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