Properties of single walled and multi walled nanotubes.
\r\n\tAn update on clinical manifestations, their assessment, monitoring, and imagiology, including peripheral arthritis, enthesopathy, and extra-articular findings, and, the differential diagnosis with other diseases which evolves with axial and peripheral calcifications will be provided.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tAn important component of this book must be dedicated to the more recent treatments namely with biologic therapies but focusing also on new small molecule inhibitors and experimental therapies.
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), an amino acid, is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS). Although it was first identified in plants in the late nineteenth century, only in 1950 was it first identified in fresh extracts of animal brain including reptiles, avian, mammals and man [1]. It is now accepted that GABA is present almost exclusively within the brain and retina of vertebrates and only in extremely limited amounts in the peripheral nervous system and other organs of the body. It has been estimated that within the CNS, GABA is the neurotransmitter for as many as one-third of the neurons with the majority of these cells as interneurons that modulate the activity of neural networks. GABA neurons are widely expressed throughout the CNS including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, striatum, substantia nigra, globus pallidus, cerebellum and olfactory bulbs. Within the structures, GABA receptors are found not only on the cell membranes of neurons but on supporting glial tissue and astrocytes [2].
As an amino acid, GABA serves other biological roles in addition to that of a neurotransmitter. It also functions as a precursor for the assembly of proteins and as metabolic intermediary. Despite these multiple functions, GABA is also responsible for regulation of neuronal excitability and is the primary inhibitory messenger in the CNS. GABA is highly concentrated in the CNS and present in millimoles per gram in the brain compared to nanomoles per gram of the more more commonly recognized neurotransmitters including dopamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) and norepinephrine [3].
GABA is known to have affinity for two distinct families of receptors similar to the excitatory amino acid Glutamate. The first and most prevalent of the two in the brain is the ionotropic GABAA receptor, a large glycoprotein of ~275 kDa and consists of a pentameric transmembrane receptor typically including two α subunits, two β subunits and one γ. Variations frequently occur and may even include δ subunit substituted for γ that encircle a central, chloride-permeable pore. The GABAA is found on both presynaptic and postsynaptic neuronal cell membranes. Upon the binding of two GABA molecules to the extracellular site, the pore opens and allows the flow of chloride ions into the cell with hyperpolarization of the cell membrane and inhibition of action potentials [4].
The GABAA receptor was cloned in 1987 and multiple subunits have subsequently been identified and grouped within seven functionally unique families. These multiple isoforms result in a highly complex system of receptors with functions dependent upon the expression of subunits.
Two binding sites for GABA sit on the GABAA receptor along with other sites that include a benzodiazepine receptor, a barbiturate receptor, and alcohol. In every instance, these binding sites function independently of each other. As a result, each receptor does not compete with activation of other receptors and the overall effect is synergestic rather than competitive [5].
The GABAB receptor is a second type of receptor and is a metabotropic site that belongs to the G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) superfamily. Pretreatment of isolated tissue from rodent atria and vas deferens with the GABAA antagonist bicucullin in 1979 first eslablished that two populations of receptors existed when the expected response to GABA was not found [6]. Twenty years passed before the GABAB receptor was finally cloned. As a GPCR, this receptor is broadly distributed throughout the CNS and mediates slow and prolonged inhibitory messaging through Gai/o-type proteins. As a GPCR, GABAB contains seven transmembrane domains with an extracellular N-terminus tail and acts through a second messenger system by inhibition of adenylate cyclase and cAMP formation inactivating voltage-gated Ca2+ channels and K+ channels [5].
Three receptor subunits are associated with GABAB site. A long, extracellular N-terminal called the Venus fly-trap (VFT) domain includes an orthosteric binding site, a seven transmembrane domain and the C-terminus tail within the cell comprise the GABAB receptor. Ligands to the GABAB receptor have been identified and include the selective GABAB agonist Baclofen, various investigational antagonists that poorly penetrate the blood- brain barrier (BB) and several allosteric modulators under study [7].
Because of the ubiquity of GABA in the CNS It is not surprising that disordered GABA signaling has been implicated in several human neurological and psychiatric diseases. Anxiety, sleep, seizure, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and substance abuse are some of several disorders suspected to be linked to the GABA system. Already several medication classes that have affinity for the GABA receptor, including benzodiazepines, muscle relaxants, sedative-hypnotics and anticonvulsants, are now routinely used in clinical medicine.
The production, release and degradation of GABA is mediated through multiple processes. The main precursor of GABA is glutamic acid, an excitatory neurotransmitter itself. GABA is synthesized by the irreversible single-step α-decarboxylation of glutamic acid by the enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), found initially in bacteria and plants and then later in the mammalian CNS and retina. There are two isoforms of the decarboxylase GAD (GAD65 and GAD67) that are involved in the synthesis of GABA with GAD65 closely associated with the presynaptic vesicles. This relationship strongly suggests that a coupled process is involved in the the conversion of cytosol glutamate to storage of intravesicular GABA. There are also vesicular transports systems termed VGAT for the sequestration of the neurotransmitter into the vesicle. VGAT is also the same vesicular transport for another inhibitory amino acid transmitter glycine in the spinal cord [8].
Similar to most decarboxylases, pyridoxine is required as a co-factor [1]. The localization of GAD in the brain generally correlates closely with the distribution of GABA. After synthesis, GABA is stored in vesicles in the presynaptic terminals in cells classified as “GABAergic” cells. When GABAergic cells receive a depolarizing stimulus, vesicular fusion and exocytosis occurs and GABA is released into the synaptic cleft. GABA signaling is primarily terminated by its reuptake into both neuronal and glial cells through membrane transporter systems. Through this uptake system the presynaptic cytosol and vesicles can reuse GABA. Astrocytes also express membrane transporters systems for GABA and play a significant role in GABA metabolism. When reuptake occurs in these non-neuronal cells or non-GABAergic cells, the availability of GABA as a neurotransmitter is reduced [8].
In addition to uptake through membrane transporters, GABA may also be broken down by the enzyme GABA Transaminase (GABA-T). GABA-T is, unlike GAD, widely expressed in both central and peripheral systems and possibly helps limit exogenous GABA from influencing CNS activities. In the CNS, this primary enzyzme is associated with GABA breakdown and is found both in GABA-ergic neurons and astrocytes. One product of GABA-T is glutamate which may be involved in the recycling of glutamate to form new GABA. GABA is also metabolized extracellularly by GABA-transaminase (GABA-T) into succinate semialdehyde, which then enters the krebs cycle for further metabolism [9].
The identification of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) as the psychoactive constituent of cannabis opened a door to unexpected discoveries in neuroscience. Cannabis is the generic name for
It was initially believed that these plant-based cannabinoids like THC, now referred to as phytocannabinoids, probably influenced animal physiology through a nonspecific mechanism to alter cellular membranes. Soon after establishing the laboratory synthesis of THC, modifications of the structure were created and tested in the laboratory. The availability of these synthetic analogs of THC led to the unexpected finding that the psychoactive effect of THC was stereospecific and occurred through binding to an unknown endogenous receptor [10, 11]. Evidence of an endogenous receptor was discovered in 1988 that revealed affinity for the THC molecule in rodent brain [12]. This previously unknown receptor was named CB1 and found to be a G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) with seven transmembrane helices. Within a few years, a second peripheral receptor was cloned and named CB2. Both receptors in humans were found to have 44% of the amino acid residues identical and in the transmembrane crossings 68% were the same. Although CB1 was the first receptor identified in the brain and was considered a central receptor, it is now known that it is widely distributed outside the CNS but at lower expression, including the respiratory, cardiovascular, skin, ophthalmic systems, and the adrenal glands. CB2, originally discovered in the spleen and thought to be a peripheral receptor, was later found to be present in limited amounts within the CNS and widely available in immune tissue and skin [13].
Although only recently discovered in the late 20th century, it is now recognized that the CB1 and CB2 receptors are the most plentiful G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) in the body. CB1 is especially abundant in the brain and is more plentiful than all other receptors including GABA.
The presence of these two endogenous cannabinoid receptors led to the expectation that endogenous ligands must lay ahead. Several years earlier the opiate receptors had been discovered in the brain that had affinity for compounds obtained from the opium plant. This led to the isolation of a class of endogenous ligands termed the enkephalins that were bioactive neuropeptides.
Soon after the identification of the cannabinoid receptors, the endogenous ligand arachidonylethanolamine was isolated in 1993 and found to have agonist properties for CB1. This ligand was found in rodent brain and was composed of elements from arachidonic acid and ethanolamine. This unexpected ligand was soon christened Anandamide (AEA), a Sanskrit word for ‘bliss’ [14].
Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated fatty acid found in membrane phospholipids in several body organs including the brain [15, 16, 17]. In addition to being a precursor for AEA, arachidonic acid is also an important precursor for eicosanoids including prostaglandins. Shortly after the discovery of AEA, a second bioactive lipid that also included arachidonic acid, 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG), was found with binding affinity for both cannabinoid receptors. Unlike AEA, 2-AG had been known for over fifty years as an intermediary in metabolic pathways of triglycerides and other glyceride molecules and is far more available than AEA. 2-AG was found to be a full agonist of CB1 and CB2 and abundantly available throughout the body [18, 19]. In contrast, anandamide is a partial agonist of CB1 and CB2 and belongs to the family of N-acylethanolamines (NAE). NAEs consist of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids that include palmitic and oleic acids and these other NAEs are more abundant than AEA but do not bind to cannabinoid receptors [20]. Although only recently discovered in the late 20th century, it is now established that the CB1 and CB2 receptors are the most plentiful G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) in the body. CB1 is especially abundant in the brain and is more plentiful than all other receptors including GABA. The observation that the ECS is so highly expressed within the brain and the finding that the system is highly conserved in the evolution of animals illustrate the importance of the system in the healthy function of man.
Together AEA and 2-AG are referred to as endocannabinoids. These two endogenous ligands are produced in multiple body systems and activate cannabinoid receptors. These endocannabinoid chemical structures are long-chain, polyunsaturated fatty acid chains and differ significantly from the ring structured phytocannabinoids present in cannabis, with different binding affinities to the cannabinoid receptors. The endogenous 2-AG, for example, is a full agonist to the CB1 and CB2 receptors while the plant-derived THC is only a partial agonist. In addition, another important phytocannabinoid, CBD, has even less affinity with only very limited binding to cannabinoid receptors. As endogenous lipids, although both bind to the cannabinoid receptors, the NAE molecule AEA and the monoacylglycerol (MAG 2-AG as) belong to two distinct families with different synthetic and degradative pathways. Both AEA and 2-AG appear unique among their separate families as they are the only molecules that bind to the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2.although they share affinities with the several similar lipids for non-cannabinoid receptors. In addition, both endocannabinoids and other bioactive lipids have redundant pathways in the synthesis and breakdown of the lipid molecules. This diversity in metabolism and binding to multiple receptor families by the NAEs and MAG lead to a highly complex system that regulates many important functions [21].
Collectively, the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, the two endocannabinoid messengers AEA and 2-AG, and the associated and separate enzymatic systems are called the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The ECS is a major system in human and the CB1 and CB2 receptors are expressed within the CNS and several peripheral organs including heart, liver, fat, skin, eye and the intestines [22].
As details about the ECS emerged during the 1990s and into this century, it has become apparent that endocannabinoids interact with several neurotransmitter systems and play an important role in regulating physiological functions. Autoradiographic localization of cannabinoid receptors in the rat established the rich co-localization of cannabinoid receptors with GABA-containing neurons [23, 24]. It has been reported that GABA is produced and released by inhibitory interneurons comprising between 20–60% of neurons in some areas of the brain [25]. The CB1 and CB2 receptors have been found to be highly expressed in areas rich with GABA neurons including the cortex, basal ganglia, substantia nigra and cerebellum. Compared to classic neurotransmitters including GABA and Glutamate [24, 26], the ECS is far more abundant and widely distributed compared to these systems. Thus, activation of the CB1 receptor (the most abundant GPCR in the CNS) interacts with adjacent neurons including GABA and regulates neurotransmitter function to express their central effects.
The ECS is also one of the most pleiotropic systems in mammals and differs from other neurotransmitter systems in several ways. Importantly, most intercellular transmission proceeds anterograde with the release of neurotransmitters from presynaptic neurons that bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membranes. Neurotransmitters, stored in vesicles within the presynaptic cytosol, are released as chemical messengers upon activation of the presynaptic neuron. After release into the synapse, the chemical messengers are subsequently broken down in the synaptic cleft or taken up by transport systems into the neuron or adjacent supporting cells [27].
Endocannabinoids act in the opposite direction from a postsynaptic neuron to presynaptic neuron. This retrograde direction allows the ECS to neuromodulate the forward direction of chemical communication. Because of their highly lipophilic properties, endocannabinoids are not stored in vesicles but are synthesized from membrane lipids only when required. Once released, the endocannabinoid diffuses to its’ receptor target on the presynaptic neuron and helps regulate overall neurotransmission. In the brain, the presynaptic receptor is predominantly CB1 with limited CB2 found in microglia and other tissue. Eventually the endocannabinoid is released by the receptor and taken up by either the pre- or postsynaptic neuron for final degradation [17].
The endocannabinoids are synthesized in the post-synaptic membrane only after the cell is activated and then rapidly degraded after binding to the presynaptic cannabinoid receptor, the effect of stimulation is localized and limited in duration similar to GABA and other neurotransmitters. In addition, although these actions occur binding of AEA and 2-AG primarily to the CB1 receptor in the brain, other non-cannabinoid receptors have also been identified that directly bind and are activated by endocannabinoids [28].
Anandamide (AEA) was isolated from pig brain in 1992 and found to be a derivative of the fatty acid arachidonic acid. As the first endocannabinoid to be discovered, the molecule was named anandamide after the Sanskrit word Ananda that means bliss [29]. As a member of the N-acylethanolamines, it was established that AEA shared multiple synthetic pathways with other glycophospholipids [17].
Typical of other neurotransmitters, AEA functions as a chemical messenger between neurons. However, there are significant differences between endocannabinoids and neurotransmitters including GABA. Soon after its discovery, the uniqueness of AEA was established with the observation that the messenger was synthesized only on demand and diffuse across the synaptic cleft in a retrograde direction to the presynaptic neuron [17].
Following the inflow of calcium2+ into the postsynaptic cell, AEA is synthesized from the precursor membrane lipid N-arachidonyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (NAPE). NAPE is present in brain only in small amounts and cannot sustain prolonged synthesis of AEA. As with 2-AG, AEA contains arachidonic acid and combines this membrane constituent with phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), utilizing a calcium2+ dependent enzyme N-acyltransferase (NAT). The primary pathway for synthesis of anandamide is conversion of NAPE to anandamide through the action of a NAPE-specific phospholipase D (PLD), although several other pathways are known to exist. Similar to other synthesis in the NAE family, the NAPE pathway is not exclusive for AEA. Although the importance of other pathways have yet to be established, it is known that in genetically modified mice without NAPE-PLD, no reduction of the production of AEA is found [30].
Since multiple pathways may be associated with the synthesis of AEA, the abundance of choices has been suggested to enhance the number of stimuli that may initiate the production of AEA. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), for example, is an endotoxin in the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria that plays a critical role in the protection of the microbe. Exposure to macrophages activates LPS to defend the bacteria and numerous lipid mediators including AEA are released. The synthesis and release of AEA and the other bioactive lipids is not believed to occur through the intermediate NAPE but rather through the secondary pathways that lead to AEA [20].
The breakdown of AEA results in the release of arachidonic acid and ethanolamine. Within the post-synaptic cell, an intracellular serine amidase named fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) cleaves the long-chain fatty acid of AEA although other available hydrolytic enzyme systems in the cytosol appear to have little effect on AEA. Numerous studies have used disruption of this serine hydrolase through genetic or pharmacological manipulation to increase AEA activity. Manipulation of the FAAH system has already become the target of new drug development in an attempt to increase AEA in the treatment of human pathology [31, 32].
Other non-hydrolytic enzymes also break down AEA including lipoxygenases and cyclooxygenases. These non-FAAH systems are very active at non-cannabinoid receptors although their importance in deactivation of AEA at cannabinoid receptors has yet to be determined [20].
AEA is not the only ethanolamide that can bind to cannabinoid receptors. Other bioactive lipids in this class include numerous compounds including palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) and oleoylethanolamide (OEA) bind to the CB1 receptor. Each of these ligands has distinctive physiological effects associated with them. PEA is associated with several indications including use as an anti-inflammatory or analgesic, while OEA appears useful as an appetite suppressant to reduce body weight [33, 34].
Both PEA and OEA are polyunsaturated fatty acids with multiple double bonds within the long chain. Other polyunsaturated fatty acids have also been reported to have agonist activity for the cannabinoid receptors. Only AEA, among the saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, has been found to have affinity for the cannabinoid receptors.
2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG) is a monoacylglycerol that incorporates arachidonic acid at the 2 position of the glycerol backbone. This molecule serves the dual function of a lipid intermediary while also functioning as a chemical messenger within the ECS. Although this endocannabinoid was discovered later than AEA, 2-AG is several hundred fold more common in the CNS compared to AEA and is a full agonist to both the CB1 and CB2 receptors.
There are two major pathways for the synthesis of 2-AG. Similar to AEA, initiation of the process to manufacture 2-AG requires an inflow of calcium2+ into the neuron. The primary pathway for synthesis involves a precursor, phosphatidylinositol, converted by phospholipaseβ or phospholipaseγ, to the intermediary lipid 1,2-diacylglycerol (1,2-DAG). The 1,2-DAG is then hydrolyzed by a DAG lipase to form the endocannabinoid 2-AG.
There is a secondary pathway also available that involves the production of the intermediary 2-arachidonyl lysophospholipid. Once 2-arachidonyl lysophospholipid is available, this lysophospholipid in the presence of the enzyme lysophosphotase-C (LYSOPLC) is rapidly converted to 2-AG.
The breakdown of 2-AG also occurs through a primary pathway but several minor alternatives are also present. Hydrolysis of 2-AG by monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) is the most common pathway and involves the cleavage of the ester bond within the 2-AG structure to form arachidonic acid and glycerol. There are at least two forms of MAGL that have been found in rodent and rabbit models. In comparison to the small amounts of AEA and its associated degradative enzymes, 2-AG is widely distributed throughout the CNS along with its synthetic and degradative enzymes. Perhaps because of the breadth of distribution of 2-AG in the CNS, some overlap with AEA occurs. However, a more important distinction is that MAGL is found only in the presynaptic neuron and degradation of 2-AG occurs after release from the presynaptic cannabinoid receptor. AEA, in comparison, after its release from the presynaptic cannabinoid receptor must traverse the synaptic cleft and enter the postsynaptic neuron where it is broken down by the NAE degrading enzyme FAAH [17, 35, 36].
The development of genetically modified mice deficient in MAGL along with the synthesis of MAGL inhibitors have provided useful tools to study the properties of 2-AG. Use of these ligands that block the synthesis of MAGL have revealed elevations of this endocannabinoid, especially in the brain and to a lesser extent multiple organs in the body including the heart, liver, kidney, and brown adipose tissue. Although 2-AG is the major endocannabinoid that binds to the cannabinoid receptors in brain, it clearly also serves an important role in the the regulation of chemical signaling in other organ systems. When the breakdown of 2-AG appears is impaired due to these receptor anatagonists or genetic manipulations, arachidonic acid is significantly reduced in the brain. This suggests that the production of 2-AG serves an important role not just in the formation of an endocannabinoid but also in the in the production of proinflammatory molecules [37].
Other alternative routes for 2-AG degradation are also available. Cycloxygenase-2 (COX-2) and lipoxygenases are secondary enzyme systems that also reduce 2-AG. COX-2 serves an important role in the inflammatory process and converts arachidonic acid to prostaglandins. Lipoxygenases oxidizes polyunsaturated fatty acids and these are non-heme, iron-containing enzymes that are found in a broad range of eukaryotes. They are known to be involved in the metabolism of the eicosanoids including the prostaglandins [37].
In the 1990s, the phenomenon of “depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition” (DSI) was first reported in the purkinje cells of the cerebellum [38] and later in hippocampal pyramidal cells [39]. DSI occurs through the activation of the CB1 receptor and is considered the classic example how endocannabinoids regulate neuronal behavior through retrograde signaling and suppression of GABA release. The CB1 receptor is densely expressed on the GABA presynaptic neurons that are abundantly found in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus and amygdala and are essential for higher cortical functions including learning and memory. Small interneurons release GABA and communicate with the larger purkinje cells and pyramidal neurons. This interaction moderated by the release of GABA results in hyperpolarization of the larger post-synaptic cell and subsequent inactivation. Activation of the CB1 receptor located on the presynaptic interneuron inhibits the release of GABA and thus suppresses the inhibition of the larger cells. It is now well established that this inhibition of GABA release from the interneuron is the result of retrograde communication from the activated postsynaptic cell to the presynaptic GABA-containing interneurons through the release of endocannabinoids that facilitate an increase of intracellular calcium2+ and the initiation of the DSI. Other cannabinoid agonists in addition to endocannabinoids are also known to block interneuron release of GABA through depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition. Presynaptic CB1 antagonists, such as rimonabant, have also been reported to block the effect of CB1 receptor activation further establishing the critical role of retrograde modulation of chemical signaling through the ECS [22]. Thus, inhibition of GABA release is governed through depolarization of the presynaptic neuron by endocannabinoid binding to the presynaptic CB1 receptor [40, 41].
A few years after the discovery of DSI, presynaptic stimulation of CB1 through retrograde transmission of endocannabinoids was found to also occur with excitatory neurons and the phenomenon was termed “depolarization induced suppression of excitation”(DSE). Unlike DSI and the inhibition of GABA release, DSE inhibits the release of excitatory neurotransmitters including glutamate through a similar retrograde release of endocannabinoids. Although initially discovered the inactivation of Purkinje cells, DSE has also been observed in other regions of the brain although the role of endocannabinoids in these areas is less well established [42].
Dependent upon the presynaptic neurotransmitter, stimulation of presynaptic CB1 receptor through retrograde release of endocannabinoids moderates the communication between cells. This changing effect of the endocannabinoids on GABA and glutamate release and the shaping of synapses occrs through a process called synaptic plasticity. Activation of a single synapse is usually insufficient to activate the post-synaptic cell and multiple synapses must fire simultaneously. The coordination and magnitude of the synaptic communication determines the change of voltage in the post-synaptic cell and the strength of the signal. Reductions in the number of presynaptic cells or incoordination of firing results in weakening of the signal.
The strengthening of synapses over time is termed long term potentiation and requires coordination of firing of the pre and post synaptic cells within a window of 20 msec. Cellular firing outside the temporal window weakens the synapse and reduces the voltage difference over time and is referred to as long term depression.
There is a balance in the regulation of excitation and inhibition that allows the brain to physically adapt for learning and memory [43]. Generally these changes are incremental and occur continuously at the synaptic level through a process termed synaptic plasticity [44].
Although glutamate has received a great deal of attention in the process of neuroplasticity, GABA also plays an important, or perhaps equal, role in the adaptation of the nervous system. Changes in neuronal activity and excitation by glutamate release may initiate off-setting activation of inhibitory inputs through GABA interneurons. In both activation and inhibition of the synaptic signal, retrograde release of endocannabinoids through DSI and DSE likely mediates synaptic depression [43].
The endocannabinoid system maintains homeostatsis in the CNS primarily through activation of the CB1 receptor. This receptor is also responsible for the well-known behavioral and physiological effects of the phytocannabinoids. The mechanism of how this modulation of the CNS occurs is by retrograde signaling through activation of the CB1 receptor. As noted earlier, the ECS and GABA neurons are collocated in many areas of the brain and this close proximity may explain how CB1 binding influences the GABA system. The cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus and cerebellum are areas in the brain where this overlap of the ECS and GABA is especially prominent.
There are several preclinical studies that have examined the inhibition of GABA release in the presence of cannabinoid agonists. One early
Acute administration of the phytocannabinoid THC has also been studied. In an
Two other studies also evaluated the effect of THC on GABA release in rodent models. One evaluated THC alone and reported a dose-dependent reduction in GABA uptake in the rat globus pallidus [47, 48].
The abundance of CB1 receptors on presynaptic neurons and their relationship to the strength of inhibition was assessed in a study of cholecystokinin (CCK) expressing GABA interneurons in the hippocampus. Earlier studies had demonstrated that the number of ion-channel-forming AMPA receptors could predict the magnitude of the postsynaptic response [49, 50] and that more GABA receptors were associated with greater inhibition. However, CB1 receptors are GPCR and operate through different mechanisms including modulation of voltage-gated Ca2+ and K+ channels and second messenger systems. Using the CB1 receptor antagonist AM251, the effect of activation was measured in basket cells and dendritic-layer innervating (DLI) cells. Basket cells have a significant higher expression of CB1 receptors and DLI have significantly less receptor density. The CB1 receptor antagonist AM251 increased the action-potential inflow of Ca2 by 54% in basket cells but not in DLI. However, this increase was significantly reduced from the expected effect of the large number of receptors. A CB1 agonist decreased Ca2+ independent from the CB1 receptor expression. Collectively this suggests that only a subpopulation of CB1 receptors in close proximity to the Ca2+ channel participate in the endocannabinoid modulation of GABA release [51].
Another study evaluated the effect of exposure to cannabinoids in adolescent rats. Using electrophysiological and immunohistochemical techniques, early-, mid- and late adolescent rats were treated with a CB1 agonist (WIN). Early and middle adolescent rats were found to exhibit significant disinhibition of prefrontal cortex (PFC) behaviors at the later adult stage. This result was reversed when the adolescent rat was infused with the positive allosteric modulator GABAA agonist Indiplon. This response suggests that at certain stages of development exposure to cannabinoid agonists may be critical in the downregulation of GABA in the PFC and expressed in the adult stage of maturation [52].
A recent review summarized the literature on the interaction of endocannabinoids and neurotransmitters [22] although only a few have been reported for GABA. Administration orally or intravenously of the endogenous cannabinoid agonists including the endocannabinoids is technically difficult and their interpretation limited. On the other hand, phytocannabinoids can be smoked, ingested or applied as a topical with significant absorption and physiological effects mediated through cannabinoid receptors. In one report of adolescents, thirteen habitual users of cannabis were compared to sixteen non-canabis normal controls in a study using standard 1H MRS techniques performed on a MAGNETOM trio whole body MRI/MRS system to determine GABA metabolism in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) [53]. reported reduced levels of GABA in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) of adolescents that were habitual users of marijuana when compared to match controls. The ACC surrounds the anterior area of the corpus callosum and communicates with the prefrontal cortex and parietal lobe in addition to deeper limbic structures including the amygdala, nucleus accumbens and hippocampus. It is well established that GABA plays an important role in the maturation of these area in the adolescent brain and disruption of this process may result in neuropsychiatric and substance abuse issues later in life.
Results of the MRS scans revealed significantly lower levels of ACC GABA activity in adolescents that habitually used cannabis. Reduced ACC glutamate levels in adolescents that habitually used cannabis had been reported in an earlier study [54] with MRS imaging and in this follow-up report these findings paralleled the reduction in glutamate with a similar reduction of GABA.
Enhancement of GABA activity has been proposed as a therapeutic approach to the treatment of cannabis use. In one randomized clinical trial (RCT) fifty patients with cannabis dependency were treated with Gabapentin 1200 mg/day or placebo for twelve weeks. Compared to placebo, the study reported significant reduced use of cannabis measured by several assessments including urine drug screens. Gabapentin is a structural analog of GABA and was initially thought to act on the GABA system. Later studies demonstrated that Gabapentin does not alter GABA activity or receptors although it may increase GABA synthesis and non-synaptic GABA release [55].
In the first of two studies, the GABA reuptake inhibitor Tiagabine (Gabitril), was assessed in eight cannabis users and compared when combined with oral THC. THC was dosed at 30 mg p.o. and tiagabine at 6 and 12 mg p.o. Subjects were trained to use established drug-discriminationprocedures to identify placebo and drug conditions, blinded to the study condition and were informed they would receive placebo, THC and tiagabine, alone or in combination during the study. Tiagabine was found to enhance the discriminative-stimulus, self-report and performance results when given with THC and to produce similar outcomes when administered alone [56].
In a subsequent study the investigators replaced tiagabine with baclofen and repeated the trial. In contrast to tiagabine, baclofen is a selective GABAB agonist but has not effect on the GABAA. Results of both studies were similar suggesting that GABAB receptors are involved at least in part with the effect of elevated GABA on cannabinoid-related behaviors [57].
The authors commented that although GABAB enhanced the effects of THC, they could not rule out that accentuation of GABA at GABAA receptors could also contribute to the outcome.
In addition to evaluation of the ECS and GABA through pharmacological enhancement of GABA, an interesting clinical study reporting that pharmacological-induced deficiency of GABA increased the effects of THC in several psychiatric assessments. Using normal subjects, this double-blind, placebo-controlled study evaluated flumazenil, an antagonist and partial inverse agonist of the GABAa receptor, against intravenous THC or placebo. Blocking the GABAa receptor with flumazenil accentuated the psychological effects of THC including psychoses and anxiety and a decrease in the THC-induced P300 amplitude [58].
Through imaging studies of the ECS, manipulation of the synthesis and degradation of endocannabinoids, and pharmacological interventions much has been learned about the cannabinoids since the initial discovery of of the first cannabinoid receptor CB1 in 1988 [59]. The ECS plays a major role in the maturation and homeostatsis of the CNS and activation of the CB1 receptor is the primary initiating event. Modulation of other neurotransmitter systems including GABA can then occur through retrograde transmission [60].
Ligands other than the endocannabinoids also bind to CB1 and CB2 receptors and much can be learned through observation of the effects of these non-endocannabinoids. Although phytocannabinoids, evolved through time in the plant kingdom and differ significantly from endocannabinoids, the overlap in affinity for cannabinoid receptors offer additional means to study the modulation by the ECS and neurotransmitter systems.
Phytocannabinoids are produced in the plant
There are several large epidemiological studies of phytocannabinoid effects on the ECS. Although banned in many areas, Cannabis is the most used illicit drug globally with an estimated 3.8% (182.5 million) of the global population exposed to cannabis [62, 63]. Within the United States, the estimated exposure is even higher with 8.4% (22.2 million) of the population reported to have used cannabis in one year. With relaxation of laws and greater duration of use combined with the change in composition and potency of cannabis, real world studies can provide us important information in understanding the function of the ECS system and the effects of disruption of normal processes.
Among the most important epidemiological studies are reports of exposure to cannabis of pregnant women and the effects on their offspring. In a recent study it was estimated that 5.2% (115,000) of pregnant women are exposed during their preganancy. Some of these women likely use cannabis unaware of their pregnancy and inadvertently expose the first trimester fetus to THC when the nervous system is first initiated. Others may choose to use THC later in pregnancy believing it is a safe remedy for pregnancy-associated nausea and vomiting while neurotransmitter systems are evolving. Others may just believe that cannabis use is safe and be unaware of the potential hazard to the unborn [64].
As with many drugs, however, cannabinoids carry significant safety concerns for pregnant women and as a lipophilic molecule easily traverse the placenta into the fetal bloodstream. Animal studies have shown a clear association between cannabinoids and lower birth weight. In humans, several large, well-conducted studies have explored the short- and long-term effects on fetal, child and adolescents and possible teratogenicity of prenatal cannabis exposure on fetal development (Hurd et al. 2005).
The Ottawa Prenatal Prospective Study (OPPS) was a large, epidemiological study of 291 expectant, middle class Canadian women. Within this group of expectant mothers, 20% used cannabis sometime during their pregnancy. All subjects were evaluated during their pregnancy and for the first six years using standardiazed neuropsychological tools.
At birth, there were observations made of increased startle reflex in children exposed in utero to cannabis, but no significant change in weight or increased presence of congenital malformations. By age four, however, behavioral changes including decreased visual performance, attention, and memory were apparent. In older children, impaired executive function was reported [65, 66].
In 1991 a second longitudinal study named the Maternal Health Practices and Child Development Study (MHPCD) was reported on 519 expectant mothers and live born infants. Unlike the earlier study in Ottawa, expectant mothers were largely lower class economically with poorer prenatal care. Expectant mothers were evaluated at 4 and 7-month gestation offspring evaluated until young adulthood. Growth parameters including birth weight, head or chest circumference, and gestational age were analyzed at birth with no statistical differences noted between newborns with non-exposure in utero and in newborns with maternal use of cannabis. There was a small effect on decreased birth length in exposure the first two months and a positive effect on body weight with usage in the third trimester [67]. In a follow-up of the offspring in this study up to two decades later, prenatal maternal exposure to cannabis was found to result in a greater risk of cannabis use in their children at adolescence (38% before age 15). By age 22 in-utero cannabis-exposed children were more apt to not complete high school (54.4% vs. 37.2% in controls), be unemployed (67.6% vs. 52.1%) and more likely to have been arrested (56% vs. 27.3%) [68].
The Dunedin study was a third, and more controversial, project conducted in New Zealand on 1037 individuals followed from birth to 38 years. One measurement obtained over the course of the study was the evaluation of the association between cannabis use and neuropsychological outcomes. Neuropsychological assessments were obtained before the age when cannabis use occurred and changes studied. Cannabis use was obtained at age 13 and then at age 38 after a pattern of consistent use. It was found that there was an associated decline in IQ related to the frequency and length of exposure to cannabis. The greatest vulnerability appeared to occur with adolescent exposure. The authors found that persistent cannabis use was associated with neuropsychological decline broadly across domains of functioning, most significantly in the domains of executive functioning and processing speed. Study participants with more persistent cannabis dependence also showed greater IQ decline over the years, along with greater overall cognitive decline. Greater cognitive impairment was observed in those who began cannabis use in adolescence. The investigators also pointed out that cessation of cannabis use did not fully restore neuropsychological functioning in these adolescence-onset users [69, 70].
Another recent large, retrospective, cohort study of 661,617 pregnant women study conducted over six years in Ontario, Canada examined the association between self-reported cannabis use in pregnancy and any adverse maternal or perinatal outcomes. The investigators accounted for known confounding factors, such as tobacco use, in one of two cohorts by the use of a matched design analysis. The results showed that preterm birth rate, at less than 37 weeks’ gestation, for both the matched and unmatched cohorts were significantly higher in the women who reported cannabis use. The rate of preterm birth rate in the unmatched cohort was 12.0% in cannabis users, compared to 6.1% in nonusers. In the matched cohort, the rate of preterm birth was 10.2% in cannabis users versus 7.2% in nonusers. A continuous increase in relative risk of preterm birth from cannabis exposure was observed between 34 to 36 6/7 weeks’ and 28 to 31 6/7 weeks’ gestation, respectively. Because this type of increase was not observed for very preterm birth at less than 28 weeks’ gestation, it was conjectured that cannabis exposure may be more strongly associated with early and moderate preterm births versus very preterm births. Cannabis use in the subjects was also significantly associated with the following secondary outcomes: small for gestational age, placental abruption, transfer to neonatal intensive care, and 5-minute Apgar score of less than 4 [71].
Both the OPPS and MHPCD studies were consistent in demonstrating behavioral and cognitive impairment years after exposure to cannabis in-utero. The Dunedin study also reported decline in IQ related to cannabis exposure beginning in adolescence. Collectively, all three studies report important deficits that emerge over time in child and adolescent maturation. A limitation of these studies, however, is the continuing social acceptance of cannabis use and increasing potency of THC.
To provide more current information, an NIH-initiative, the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study is ongoing. This is a national, multisite, longitudinal cohort study that is prospectively following subjects from childhood through adolescence to explore the effects of substance use such as cannabinoids, among other experiences, on neurocognitive development. There are, of course, many challenges associated with long epidemiologic studies. Aside from participant loss and difficulty maintaining controls, the constant flux in the content of cannabinoid products over the years, namely the significant increases in the ratio of THC to CBD, presents significant inconsistency in comparing these long studies or predicting current risk.
GABA is an amino acid concentrated within the CNS and is recognized as the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain [1]. With the exception of a second, excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter glutamate, GABA is present in millimoles/gm in brain tissue compared to nanomolar/gm concentrations of the other classic neurotransmitters [72].
The physiological effects of GABA do not occur in isolation. The functional relationship beween the two systems begins after the release of GABA from an activated presynaptic neuron and stimulation of the postsynaptic cell. Endocannabinoids are then manufactured on-demand and released to bind to cannabinoid receptors on the presynaptic membrane terminating the release of GABA.
The CB1 receptor is highly expressed in several regions of the brain including the forebrain, amygdala, hippocampus, substantia nigra and cerebellum. This receptor is frequently in GABA containing neurons and this overlap allows for close coordination and interaction between the two systems. As a result, the ECS provides an important feedback to the GABA system and participates in the maturation of the CNS and the function of the adult brain [72, 73].
The GABA system and the ECS, similar to all neurotransmitters, are limited to brief synaptic activity at discrete locations and are quickly terminated through either enzymatic breakdown or reuptake mechanisms. GABA is stored in presynaptic vesicles and released after excitation by an action potential into the synapse to stimulate the postsynaptic cell. The endocannabinoids, in contrast, are synthesized in the postsynaptic membrane on demand only after the cell is stimulated. Upon release, the endocannabinoid moves in a retrograde direction across the synapse and binds to the CB1 receptor on the presynaptic neuron. Once the endocannabinoid is bound to the CB1 receptor, the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron is terminated.
How endocannabinoids work in moderating GABA is introduced in the discussion of depolarization induced suppression of inhibition (DSI). This is a critical concept on how the chemical signal with GABA release is moderated by the activation of the CB1 receptor. Although less established, activation of this cannabinoid receptor may also activate another amino acid transmitter glutamate through a similar mechanism termed depolarization induced suppression of excitation (DSE).
Several preclinical studies of ECS and GABA in this chapter followed the initial papers on DSI and DSE and the concept of CB1 receptor activation influencing the release of GABA (and potentially glutamate). Although for technical reasons it has not been possible to study the effect of AEA and 2-AG directly, these studies chose to utilize several laboratory-created CB1 agonists under investigation or the phytocannabinoid THC. No matter the source of the agonist, the findings consistently found that stimulation of the CB1 receptor reduced the release of GABA.
From these studies it is apparent that activation of the CB1 receptor is not exclusive to endocannabinoids. As discussed earlier, the plant
Earlier in this chapter several large epidemiological studies were reviewed reporting the effects of cannabis on the development of the nervous system in utero to maturity. These studies are informative because they describe the effects of cannabinoids on the developing nervous system and adult where GABA plays an important role. From these reports it is likely that early maternal exposure to phytocannabinoids results in impairment in the offspring through disruption of the development of the nervous system with behavioral abnormalities appearing later in life [65, 68, 75, 76].
There are obvious limitations in large scale studies since In normal circumstances ECS and GABA collaborate in limited and localized coordination in development. Phytocannabinoids act systemically throughout the body and are not limited to discrete synapses. In addition, since phytocannabinoids are lipid soluble, sequestered in fat tissue, and broken down by hepatic enzymes, the location and duration of exposure to phytocannabinoids differs from the brief, focused synaptic interaction between GABA and the endocannabinoids. Nevertheless, these large studies of cannabis use provide important information on how phytocannabinoids may disrupt GABA function that may be reflected in the abnormalities reported in these larg scale studies. Cannabis is regarded by many as relatively ‘safe’ and is becoming ‘legal’ in many areas. However, other ‘safe’ and ‘legal’ drugs including nicotine and alcohol are associated with serious public health concerns. These studies give us insight into the possible risks associated with using phytocannabinoids and influencing the communication between GABA and the endocannabinoids.
The interaction of GABA and the ECS is important for normal physiological function. As our knowledge of this modulation of the CNS advances, additional knowledge and treatments will likely emerge that will provide unexpected benefits to patients. However, epidemiological studies of exposure to cannabis also provide important information they reveal the disadvantages and risks of disruption of the GABA-ECS systems. As increased access and duration of usage evolve, we will learn more of the benefits, and risks, of cannabiods.
Carbon is one of the most important elements on earth and it plays a crucial role in living organisms and modern technological world either as complex compounds or in its elemental form. Carbon has several allotropes (e.g. graphite, diamond, lonsdaleite, Buckyball and amorphous carbon etc.) and different morphological textures (nanotube, nanowire and graphene). Specific applications in devices and other uses are highly specific to the textures and nature of the allotrope of desired properties. Notably, ever since graphite and diamond were discovered for the first time in 1779, their innovative applications have been growing untill the present. Leveraging the benefits of these carbon morphologies, the journey towards innovation and discovery has continued to advance at a steady pace and almost two centuries later, Sumio Iijima discovered for the first time the existence of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and in 1992 he observed single-walled CNTs (SWCNTs) [1]. The synthesis and characterization of CNTs is beyond the scope of this chapter. It should be noted that graphite and CNTs have some characteristic properties and features, that enable them to be used in the energy storage and conversion systems. It is worth mentioning that the carbon nanotubes (CNTs), have been envisioned to potentially impact different areas of science and technology due to their unique properties and structural features [2, 3, 4]. Specifically, CNTs have very high tensile strength of 60 GPa and high electronic conductivity reported to be 108 Scm−1 and 107 Scm−1 for single-walled and multi-walled carbon nanotubes, respectively [5, 6]. Besides the potential practical applications in chemical and bio sensors [7, 8], field emission materials [9], catalyst [10], electronic devices [11], CNTs have been used in energy storage and conversion systems like, alkali metal ion batteries [12], fuel cells [13], nano-electronic devices [14] supercapacitors [15], and hydrogen storage devices [16]. The extraordinarily high electronic conductivity of CNTs enable CNT and graphite as an additive to composite electrodes and facilitate activation of poorly conducting electrode materials making them electrochemically active. In this chapter, we emphasize the applications of CNTs in four different areas: alkali metal ion (Li, Na and K) batteries, alkali metal air batteries, supercapacitors, and fuel cells. The underlying governing structural features and morphological impact on the electrochemical performances have been discussed and the specific storage mechanisms are also highlighted.
Carbon nanotubes can be either as single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) or multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). Simply a wrapped graphene sheet with a hallow fiber is the single-walled CNT. On the other hand, a combination and collection of SWCNTs is the multi-walled CNTs. It should be noted that carbon nanotubes are designated as one-dimensional (1D) structures because of the long length-to-diameter ratio (aspect ratio) [17]. The electronic properties of CNTs are associated with the geometrical structure of them which is uniquely specified by a pair of indexes called chiral indexes (n, m). There are three typical types of CNTs can be obtained: armchair (n, n), zigzag (n,0), and chiral (n, m), depending on the orientation of the graphene lattice with respect to the tube axis they are twisted [18, 19, 20]. The formation of a single-walled CNT is shown in Figure 1 by rolling a single graphene sheet in different directions. It is worth to mention that the rolling introduces strain into the carbon bonds oriented circumferentially while the single graphene sheet is made into a tube. This strain will be greater for smaller diameters; therefore, the armchair will be more strained than zigzag single-walled CNTs [21].
Lattice, two off-set triangular sublattices of graphene and graphene sheet rolling vector map. Reproduced from Ref. [
The resistivity of CNTs resulted from the electrical conductivity is determined by their carbon framework (graphite) and the one-dimensional character which is regulated by the quantum mechanical properties. The resistance of CNTs is independent of the length of the tube and act as a good conductor in which the highest current density can be as high as 109 A cm−2. This important property of CNTs may improve the rate capability of electrochemical devices like batteries and capacitors. The helicity and diameter of CNT determines either it would be metallic or semiconducting in nature [24]. It should be mentioned that the strong C=C double bonds in the carbon nanotubes makes them having high Young’s modulus in its axial direction and highest tensile strength. Of course, the presence of imperfection/defects in the tube wall reduces the Young’s modulus and tensile strength remarkably. However, reported experimental data are significantly smaller than the theoretical predictions which is most probably resulted from the high flexibility and aspect ratio [25, 26]. At room temperature the thermal conductivities of individual SWCNTs is reported up to 6600 W/(m K) which is almost double than the pure diamond [27]. Besides these, the CNTs have many others useful properties such as electro-optic effect, saturable absorption and
The favorable and beneficial electrical, mechanical and thermal properties of carbon nanotubes are promising for various electrochemical applications like batteries, supercapacitors, fuel cells and hydrogen storage. Some important properties of SWCNTs and MWCNTs are listed in Table 1.
Property | SWCNT | MWCNT |
---|---|---|
Specific gravity | 0.8 g cm−3 | <1.8 g cm−3 |
Elastic modulus | ~1.4 TPa | ~0.3–1 TPa |
Resistivity | 5–50 | 5–50 |
Thermal conductivity | 3000 W m−1 K−1 | 3000 W m−1 K−1 |
Magnetic susceptibility | 22 × 106 EMU g−1 | 22 × 106 EMU g−1 |
Thermal expansion | Negligible | Negligible |
Thermal stability | 600–800°C (air) 2800°C (vacuum) | 600–800°C (air) 2800°C (vacuum) |
Strength | 50–500 GPa | 10–60 GPa |
Properties of single walled and multi walled nanotubes.
Reproduced from Ref. [30] with permission from the American Chemical Society.
The values of Young’s modulus and tensile strength of CNTs are around 1.2 TPa and 160 GPa, respectively. These unique mechanical properties make CNTs one of the toughest materials and play a vital role in protecting electrode integrity during the charge–discharge cycle of alkali-metal ion batteries. Furthermore, CNT based paper can be used as active material and current collector in supercapacitors, which can reduce the contact resistance as well as electrode weight. The thermal stability of CNTs is also an important property, which can help the composite electrode for stable battery operation at high current rates. SWCNTs and DWCNTs are showing a positive thermal expansion coefficient of 1.9 x 10–5 K–1 and 2.1 x 10–5 K–1, respectively, at room temperature. This negligible thermal expansion coefficient makes CNTs feasible for high energy density battery applications.
CNTs have showed high performance as anode materials and cathode additive for alkali metal ion batteries because of their favorable properties (electrical, mechanical, and structural). The battery electrode based on CNTs attracted attention of many research groups around the world. Recently different modifications in the CNTs have been made for the deployment as a promising electrode material regarding alkali metal ion intercalation, adsorption, and diffusion [31]. In Lithium ion Batteries (LIBs), it has been well established that Li+ ions are stored via two mechanisms, one is intercalation and other one is alloying [32]. The lithium ion storage mechanism in CNTs have been investigated by many research groups. First, let us go into detail about intercalation mechanism in pure carbon nanotubes. Because of different morphologies, the amount of Li+ ion insertion is not limited to LiC6. The capacities (Li ion storage capacity) is highly dependent to the CNT morphology, especially defects and diameter of the carbon nanotubes [33].
Types of defects (rings of the red dots) in a (5,5) SWCNT. Reproduced from Ref. [
Another important note is that Li+ ion can also penetrate the CNTs from its ends. Meunier
Furthermore, there is significant relationship between the ratio of lithium-carbon (Li/C) and the diameter of tube. If the tube diameter is bigger, the intercalated lithium atoms gravitated to form multi-shell structural feature when the system is at the equilibrium state (Figure 3). These structures with a linear chain in the axis will improve the lithium capacity. It was also reported that the interaction potential at the central region is varied with the diameter of the nanotubes and diameter of 4.68 Å has higher interaction energy, that made CNTs better candidate for lithium ion battery anode material [41, 42].
The variation of Li
Another important factor for lithium storage in CNTs is conducting nature of CNTs. There are two different types of CNTs, as mention above, one is semi-conducting another one is metallic CNTs based on their chirality. The experimental measurements and modeling studies indicated that if the chiral vector is a multiple of 3, the CNT behaves like metallic; otherwise it would be semiconducting. The metallic CNTs is able to store approximately 5 times more lithium ions than semiconducting CNTs [43].
As it is discussed above, the one-dimensional carbon nanotube can be obtained as single-walled carbon nanotubes and multiwalled carbon nanotubes. Last 20 years, applications of CNTs are emerging in energy storage research on carbon structures and nano composite materials because of their excellent electrochemical properties including lower density, higher tensile strength, and higher rigidity [44].
Along with SWCNTs, researchers successfully demonstrated the lithium ion intercalation into MWCNTs [50] (Figure 4). It is interesting to note that the specific capacities around 8500 mAh g−1 was reported for multi-walled CNTs at slow current rate (0.1 mA cm−2). On the Contrary, however, most of the carbon nanotubes show capacities typically less than 4000 mAh g−1 [44]. A comparative study has been carried out on highly conductive, binder-free, free-standing flexible films made from three different types of carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs, DWCNTs and MWCNTs). They were able to show that the free standing MWCNT film was retain its capacity after hundreds cycles, which is better than other CNTs films [51]. Lahiri
(a) Schematic representation of the microstructure of nanotube array and energy storage mechanism and (b) cycle performance of carbon nanotube array (CNTA) electrodes. Reproduced from Ref. [
Charan
Up to now discussion was concentrated on the raw CNTs utilization in lithium ion battery as an anode material. Hereafter the discussion will be focused on the collective data for hybrid nanocomposites by incorporating CNTs into Li-storage compounds as new electrode (anode & cathode) materials. In this composite electrode, significance of π-orbital overlap in metallic type CNTs where electrons can transfer with mean free paths along the length of the nanotube (ballistic transport). So, when it is used as an additive, it will increase rate performance, especially combined with the poor electronic conductive cathode materials. Furthermore, CNTs have the mechanical and electrical properties along with a large surface area which is beneficial for lithium ion battery composite electrode [48]. The CNT was employed in silicon based anode consisting of silicon nanowire/graphene sheet (SiNW@G) which was intertwined architectures [58] where CNT can act either as conductive additive or active component depending on the operation voltage of the cell. The molybdenum dioxide was embedded with multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MoO2/MWCNT) by hydrothermal process where hybrid composite consists of spherical flowerlike MoO2 nanostructures interconnected by MWCNTs and exhibits reversible lithium storage capacity of 1143 mAh g−1 at a current density of 100 mA g−1. The zinc oxide was covered by N-doped carbon freestanding membrane electrodes for lithium ion batteries and the hybrid material shows the high performance with a specific capacity (850 mAh g−1at a current density of 100 mA g−1) and excellent cycling stability [59]. The polymer-derived silicon oxy-carbide/carbon nanotube (SiOC/CNT) composites exhibit stable lithium anode material [60].
The application of carbon nanotubes as an additive for anode or cathode has huge advantages compared to other carbon form like amorphous carbon, acetylene black tc. As discussed above the CNTs have a high electrical conductivity at room temperature and very small amount (0.2% w/w) of CNTs will be able to create a percolation network for electronic conductivity [61] and therefore, could increase orders of magnitude in electrical conductivity of composite electrodes and form better percolation network. CNTs have been employed as an conducting additive for LiCoO2, LiNi0.7Co0.3O2, LiFePO4, LiMnPO4 and LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 cathodes; showing better in the reversible capacity of the composite electrodes compared to other carbon polymorphs [62, 63, 64, 65].
CNTs have been using as an additive for lower electronic conductive electrode materials in SIBs. It was reported that porous FePO4 nanoparticles were electrically connected by single-wall carbon nanotubes synthesized by hydrothermal reaction. The fabricated composite electrode shows discharge capacity of 120 mAh g−1 at a 0.1 C rate with unprecedented cycling stability [71]. The CNTs have been using as a promising additive for polyhedral cathode materials like NaTi2(PO4)3, Na3V2(PO4)2F3, Na2FePO4F, NaVPO4F, Na4VMn(PO4)3, Na4MnCr(PO4)3, Na3V2(PO4)3, Na2Fe(SO4)2, Na2MnSiO4, Na3V2O2x(PO4)2F3-2x, Na4Co3(PO4)2P2O7, Prussian blue analogues …etc. [72]. Our group published the impact of MWCNT on particle growth as well as electrochemical properties of Na3V2O2x(PO4)2F3-2x cathode. Among three carbon sources (Carbon, MWCNT & rGO), MWCNT is more effective to obtain moderate particle size with enhanced electrochemical properties (Figure 5). The prepared Na3V2O2x(PO4)2F3-2x-MWCNT composite delivers the stable capacity of 98 and 89 mAh g−1 in half cell and full cell with NaTi2(PO4)3-MWCNT configurations, respectively [73]. It should be noted that most of the alloying and conversion anode materials lose their electron conducting path due to the pulverization during charge–discharge cycles. In this case, CNT can be used as conductive additive as well as electrode integrity protector. The battery research community has been encapsulated metal based (e.g. Sn) anode with the CNTs to accommodate the volume expansion during Na insertion to avoid the pulverization. The reported results indicate that the carbon encapsulated, Sn@N-doped, nanotubes is beneficial to get good reversible capacity of 398 mAh g−1 at 100 mA g−1, with capacity retention of 67% over 150 cycles [74, 75]. The ultrathin MoS2 nanosheets was developed on the surfaces of CNTs by a hydrothermal method MoS2/CNTs, which exhibit excellent electrochemical performance as conversion anode materials for SIBs. The MoS2/CNTs, shows a reversible capacity of 504 mAh g−1 at a current rate of 50 mA g−1 over 100 cycles [76]. Many alloying and conversion anode materials have used CNTs as conductive additive, examples TiO2, MoS2, CuS, Fe2O3, & FeO.
(a) Cyclability of Na3V2O2x(PO4)2F3-2x along with three different carbon materials. Charge-discharge curves for the Na3V2O2x(PO4)2F3-2x with (b) carbon, (c) MWCNT, and (d) rGO. Reproduced from Ref. [
The analysis of electron density difference demonstrates the interaction between the K ion and the nitrogen doped CNTs which has strong ionic bonding, and the electron re-distributions between N5 & N6 CNTs. It is shown, in the K ion –N5 CNT systems (Figure 6A), the net gain of electronic charge on the pyrrolic N atom plays more significant role than those of the other two pyridinic N atoms. The N6 CNT (Figure 6B), the alkali metal atom associates strongly with two pyridinic N atoms, therefore, the overlapping of the corresponding peaks in Figure 6 (bottom) is seen. The bonding with the third pyridinic N atom is relatively weaker [80]. The theoretical studies predicted that inner carbon of CNT is dense while outer carbon of CNT is loosely bind. The hierarchical carbon nanotubes structures in the inner dense part act as skeleton while the outer loose-CNT effectively accommodates the K-ion accommodation, which are showing a better specific capacity of 232 mAh g−1 and good cyclic stability [81]. Like other electrode systems these carbon nanotubes are expected to act as a conducting additive assuring the electrical percolation in the composite electrode and to protect the integrity of electrode using their mechanical properties [82, 83].
Differential electron densities (A) K-ion on N5 CNT, (B) K-ion on N6 CNT: top, side view; middle, top view; bottom, electron density differences in the plane. Reproduced from Ref. [
Another critical role of CNTs in batteries is the current collector. Present, flexible CNTs based carbon papers can be fabricated from all CNTs and used as anode and current collector for aqueous battery systems. Conventional current collectors, such as carbon cloth and metal foils (stainless steel, Titanium), are low surface area and highly corrosive in aqueous media. Also, these CNTs can be used as a pure binder in primary thermal battery electrode fabrication. The electrode with the CNTs binder has better thermal stability than conventional organic binders. The traditional organic binders were decomposed before reaching the operating temperature of 500°C, and its residual material can act as an insulator.
The reaction mechanism in Li-air battery and fuel cells has great similarity where oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) are important for fuel cells efficiency. To enhance the efficiency of the fuel cell, a catalyst is needed. Instead of using expensive Pt as a catalyst, researchers started using a supporter, which can improve the capability of low-cost catalyst. Commonly used catalysts supporters are porous carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and other carbon polymorphs. It was demonstrated, at higher current density, CNT supported FCs, exhibited better electrochemical performances than the carbon black supported FCs [93]. Doping with heteroatoms or loading of transition metal catalysts on CNTs substantially enhance the activity of highly efficient fuel cells. There are few reports on encapsulation of Ag, Fe, Co, CuSe (Figure 7) & Ni based compounds in pure CNTs, which are showing the high ORR performance in fuel cells [94]. It is also reported that the higher oxidation state of Ni is very active for OER and inactive to ORR. However, Ni encapsulated N doped CNTs are showing very high ORR activity and less OER active. Several studies are compared the performances of the platinum catalyst with non-noble metal catalysts with the CNT support and they exhibit better catalytic activity and it reduces the cost of whole cell. Furthermore, CNTs can make the fuel cell highly stable and high resistive against corrosion during electrochemical reaction [94, 95]. CNTs not only increase the catalytic activity; enhance the corrosion resistance. Besides, CNTs improve the mass transmission capability of both electrodes in a fuel cell.
Carbon nanotubes decorated with copper selenide (CuSe) nanoparticles for microbial fuel cells. Reproduced from Ref. [
The morphology of electrode materials and fabrication process plays an important role for the performance of a supercapacitor. The capacitance value of a supercapacitor is highly dependent on electrode surface-area and porosity. The basic principle of a capacitor is to store energy by separation of charge at the electrode and electrolyte interface (i.e., double layer capacitance). The ions transfer between the two electrodes is mediated by diffusion across the electrolyte [96]. Supercapacitors exhibits better reversibility, higher power density, and longer cycle life which made it attentive and promising for energy-storage devices. It is worth to mention that supercapacitors exhibit the highest known power capability (2–5 kW kg−1), but they suffer from a moderate energy density (3–6 Wh kg−1). Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are very promising as supercapacitor electrode materials because of their excellent electrical properties and one-dimensional nanostructures. Noting that defect free or less defect CNTs has smaller surface area and micropore content than conventional activated carbon (AC), which made them insufficient capacitance in CNT-based electrodes. However, it is reported that the formation of defects on surface and open ends by alkaline solution activation increases the surface area of CNTS [97] and exhibits better capacitance value. The SWCNTs show enhanced specific capacitance than those of MWCNTs which results from large surface area of SWCNTs. However, that MWCNTs could generate capacitance twice as high in comparison to SWCNTs which is attributed to the presence of mesopores and entangled tube structure, facilitating the transport of the ions [98]. The flexible aligned SWCNTs with high surface area and better electrical conductivity is beneficial for capacitors applications [99]. It should be mentioned that contact resistance reduces the performance of supercapacitor and therefore, polished metal foils is used as current collectors to grow the carbon nanotubes for lowering contact resistance. The better discharge efficiency can be obtained through the electrodynamics and can result high power density [100]. The cell resistance can be lower either by fabricating carbon nanotubes as thin film electrodes which has coherent structures with highly concentrated colloidal suspension or fabricating CNT based thin film electrodes using an electrophoretic deposition (EPD) method. It is reported that these flexible CNTs films are binder free and forms network with negligible electrode resistance [101]. As we mentioned in above applications, N doped CNTs may contribute to improving the power characteristics of supercapacitors their own way. The doped nitrogen modifies the conduction band and the modified electronic structure which helps to enhance the quantum capacitance and electrical conductivity of CNTs [102]. Recently researchers have started the fabrication of a high-performance wire-type supercapacitor with CNTs to get the high voltage and high energy density (Figure 8). It should be noted that the carbon nanotube sheets were wrapped to make a fiber shaped supercapacitors on elastic polymeric fibers with moderate stretch ability [103, 104].
(a) Schematic representation of the wire-type supercapacitor, (b) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves and (c) Comparison plots of areal capacitance versus current density for CF electrodes coated with CNT, CNT-IL, Ppy/CNT-Ionic Liquid, and Ppy/CNT-Ionic Liquid/AuNP. Reproduced from Ref. [
Graphitization and pore size distribution of CNT are also significant factors for supercapacitor application. While heating, the specific surface area increases, but the capacitance decreased due to the average pore diameter decreases and saturated at high temperature. Furthermore, chemically activated of CNTs also shows tubular morphology with defects on the surface that gave a significant increase in pore volume. Aligned CNTs can also significantly improve the capacitance and power density of supercapacitors. It is also reported that the highly packed and aligned CNTs showed higher capacitance and less capacitance drop when compared to other thick CNT based electrodes.
One-dimensional carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been considered as potential candidates for the development of energy storage materials based on their unique chemical and physical properties. The architecture and quality of the CNTs plays a vital role on the electrochemical performances exhibited by both batteries and supercapacitors. It is observed that a slight modification (defects creation, heteroatoms doping & controlling the distribution of pore sizes) in the CNT structure brings out complementary properties that translate to excellent electrochemical performances. Anchored and directly grown aligned structure of CNTs trends to have high stability and fast ion transportation. The composite electrode with incorporated CNTs is being benefited from the high surface area, excellent conductivity, enhanced specific capacity, better cyclability and rate capability. CNTs can be used as an electrochemically active and inactive electrode component in energy storage systems. It turns out that all types of CNTs can serve as flexible supporting materials and can also enable next generation flexible energy storage devices. The future of advanced energy storage systems (either batteries or supercapacitor) can certainly be benefited from the incorporation of CNTs. The extraordinarily high electronic conductivity also enables CNTs and graphite as an additive to the composite electrode and enable to activate poorly conducting electrode materials to make them electrochemically active. Moreover, the structures and morphologies of CNTs are beneficial for supercapacitors and as catalyst support for fuel cells.
This manuscript has been supported by Oak Ridge Nation Laboratory (ORNL) managed by UT-Battelle, LLC, under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with the US Department of Energy (DOE).
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\\n\\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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\\n\\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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\\n\\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
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It is possible to evaluate the silica network formation along the hydrolysis and condensation reactions in terms of siloxane rings formation and Si–O(–Si) angle deformation due to the introduction of organic groups, the employed synthetic route or encapsulated species interaction. The siloxane four- or six-membered rings imply in a more rigid or flexible network, respectively, in order to accommodate the organic groups. A structural analysis of the materials is of high importance, since interactions between the encapsulated molecules and the matrix are critical for the device performance, such as sensors. This type of device needs the permeation of an analyte to activate the encapsulated receptor molecules inside the silica structure. Fourier transform infrared spectrometry can be also used to determine parameters of the silica network as a function of the hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity degree and the siloxane ring structure with respect to thin film porosity. This silica structural analysis is reviewed along the text in a tentative of better exploring the data resulting from these powerful techniques. In addition, the functionalization of silica structures by the use of organoalkoxysilanes, which is important to the creation of high-specific materials, can be well described by these two complementary techniques. The Si–C bonds and the maintenance of the organic substituents such as methyl, octyl, octadecyl, vinyl, phenyl, aminopropyl, mercaptopropyl, isocyanatopropyl, iodopropyl, chloropropyl and glicydoxypropyl could be evaluated after the sol-gel synthesis process. The literature regarding silica vibrational spectroscopy is also explored creating a data bank of wave numbers for the most important bonds for different types of silica and hybrid silica materials obtained by different synthetic routes.",book:{id:"5283",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopy-to-current-research-in-the-chemical-and-biological-sciences",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences",fullTitle:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences"},signatures:"Larissa Brentano Capeletti and João Henrique Zimnoch",authors:[{id:"178200",title:"Prof.",name:"Joao Henrique",middleName:null,surname:"Zimnoch Dos Santos",slug:"joao-henrique-zimnoch-dos-santos",fullName:"Joao Henrique Zimnoch Dos Santos"},{id:"186947",title:"Dr.",name:"Larissa",middleName:null,surname:"Brentano Capeletti",slug:"larissa-brentano-capeletti",fullName:"Larissa Brentano Capeletti"}]},{id:"63324",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80430",title:"Fatty Acids: From Membrane Ingredients to Signaling Molecules",slug:"fatty-acids-from-membrane-ingredients-to-signaling-molecules",totalDownloads:1598,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Fatty acid constitutes the foundation cell membranes, provides metabolic energy, affects functions of membrane-bound enzymes/receptors, conducts signaling cascades, and helps in learning-related memory cognition in mammals, including humans. Structurally, the fatty acids are of two kinds: saturated and unsaturated; the latter are again of mono- and polyunsaturated types. From nutritional perspectives, they are of essential and nonessential types. Omega-6 linoleic acid (ω-6 LLA, C18:2) and ω-3 alpha linolenic acid (ω-3 αLLN, C18:3) and ω-6 arachidonic acid [(ω-6 AA, C20:4); it is conditional] are essential fatty acids (EFAs). In addition, mammalian brains cannot biosynthesize the ω-3 docosahexaenoic acid (ω-3 DHA, C22:6) in adequate amounts because of lack of necessary enzymes. Thus, DHA is essential for the growth and development of the brains. Deficiency of DHA produces visual- and learning-related memory impairments, and neurodegeneration in the aged brains and Alzheimer’s disease brains. Finally, this chapter will highlight and broaden the awareness about the essentiality of different fatty acids with a special emphasis on DHA.",book:{id:"7006",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids"},signatures:"Michio Hashimoto and Shahdat Hossain",authors:[{id:"260006",title:"Prof.",name:"Shahdat",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"shahdat-hossain",fullName:"Shahdat Hossain"},{id:"260206",title:"Prof.",name:"Michio",middleName:null,surname:"Hashimoto",slug:"michio-hashimoto",fullName:"Michio Hashimoto"}]},{id:"43080",doi:"10.5772/55287",title:"Grain Yield Determination and Resource Use Efficiency in Maize Hybrids Released in Different Decades",slug:"grain-yield-determination-and-resource-use-efficiency-in-maize-hybrids-released-in-different-decades",totalDownloads:4844,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"3586",slug:"agricultural-chemistry",title:"Agricultural Chemistry",fullTitle:"Agricultural Chemistry"},signatures:"Laura Echarte, Lujan Nagore, Javier Di Matteo, Matías Cambareri, Mariana Robles and Aída Della Maggiora",authors:[{id:"164811",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Echarte",slug:"laura-echarte",fullName:"Laura Echarte"},{id:"165595",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:"Lujan",surname:"Nagore",slug:"maria-nagore",fullName:"Maria Nagore"},{id:"165596",title:"BSc.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Di Matteo",slug:"javier-di-matteo",fullName:"Javier Di Matteo"},{id:"165598",title:"BSc.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Robles",slug:"mariana-robles",fullName:"Mariana Robles"},{id:"165599",title:"MSc.",name:"Aída",middleName:null,surname:"Della Maggiora",slug:"aida-della-maggiora",fullName:"Aída Della Maggiora"},{id:"167765",title:"Dr.",name:"Matias",middleName:null,surname:"Cambareri",slug:"matias-cambareri",fullName:"Matias Cambareri"}]},{id:"51767",doi:"10.5772/64581",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopic Methods to the Elucidation of Lignin Structure",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopic-methods-to-the-elucidation-of-lignin-structure",totalDownloads:2909,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Lignin in plant cell wall is a complex amorphous polymer and is biosynthesized mainly from three aromatic alcohols, namely, p-coumaryl, coniferyl, and sinapyl alcohols. This biosynthesis process consists of mainly radical coupling reactions and creates a unique lignin polymer in each plant species. Generally, lignin mainly consists of p-hydroxyphenyl (H), guaiacyl (G), and syringyl (S) units and is linked by several types of carbon-carbon (β-β, β-5, β-1, and 5–5) and ether bonds. Due to the structural complexity, various molecular spectroscopic methods have been applied to unravel the aromatic units and different interunit linkages in lignin from different plant species. This chapter is focused on the application of ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, Fourier transform Raman (FT-Raman) spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to lignin structural elucidation.",book:{id:"5283",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopy-to-current-research-in-the-chemical-and-biological-sciences",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences",fullTitle:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences"},signatures:"Tingting You and Feng Xu",authors:[{id:"174103",title:"Prof.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"feng-xu",fullName:"Feng Xu"},{id:"182550",title:"Dr.",name:"Tingting",middleName:null,surname:"You",slug:"tingting-you",fullName:"Tingting You"}]},{id:"62041",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78301",title:"Assessment of Sugarcane-Based Ethanol Production",slug:"assessment-of-sugarcane-based-ethanol-production",totalDownloads:2209,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter aims to explain how bio-ethanol has been drawn to become a successful alternative to partially replace petroleum as a source of liquid fuels in Brazil. A brief historical analysis about the production of bio-ethanol from sugarcane is presented. The motivation to start the production of the ethanol as biofuel in the 1970s and how the governmental policies have contributed to the ups and downs, successes, and failures of the sugarcane industry is shown. Then, the efficiency of the sector is addressed; firstly, the increasing efficiency of the agricultural sector is discussed, showing how the productivity per hectare has increased in the last decades and which improvements are further expected in a near future. Finally, the industrial process is discussed: the current efficiency in processing sugarcane to produce ethanol and the emerging technologies, not only to process sugarcane juice, but also to harness bagasse, vinasse, and sugarcane straw.",book:{id:"7238",slug:"fuel-ethanol-production-from-sugarcane",title:"Fuel Ethanol Production from Sugarcane",fullTitle:"Fuel Ethanol Production from Sugarcane"},signatures:"Rubens Eliseu Nicula de Castro, Rita Maria de Brito Alves,\nCláudio Augusto Oller do Nascimento and Reinaldo Giudici",authors:[{id:"50350",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Oller Do Nascimento",slug:"claudio-oller-do-nascimento",fullName:"Claudio Oller Do Nascimento"},{id:"98033",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita Maria",middleName:null,surname:"De Brito Alves",slug:"rita-maria-de-brito-alves",fullName:"Rita Maria De Brito Alves"},{id:"248441",title:"BSc.",name:"Rubens E",middleName:null,surname:"N De Castro",slug:"rubens-e-n-de-castro",fullName:"Rubens E N De Castro"},{id:"248442",title:"Prof.",name:"Reinaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Giudici",slug:"reinaldo-giudici",fullName:"Reinaldo Giudici"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51767",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopic Methods to the Elucidation of Lignin Structure",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopic-methods-to-the-elucidation-of-lignin-structure",totalDownloads:2909,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Lignin in plant cell wall is a complex amorphous polymer and is biosynthesized mainly from three aromatic alcohols, namely, p-coumaryl, coniferyl, and sinapyl alcohols. This biosynthesis process consists of mainly radical coupling reactions and creates a unique lignin polymer in each plant species. Generally, lignin mainly consists of p-hydroxyphenyl (H), guaiacyl (G), and syringyl (S) units and is linked by several types of carbon-carbon (β-β, β-5, β-1, and 5–5) and ether bonds. Due to the structural complexity, various molecular spectroscopic methods have been applied to unravel the aromatic units and different interunit linkages in lignin from different plant species. This chapter is focused on the application of ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, Fourier transform Raman (FT-Raman) spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to lignin structural elucidation.",book:{id:"5283",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopy-to-current-research-in-the-chemical-and-biological-sciences",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences",fullTitle:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences"},signatures:"Tingting You and Feng Xu",authors:[{id:"174103",title:"Prof.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"feng-xu",fullName:"Feng Xu"},{id:"182550",title:"Dr.",name:"Tingting",middleName:null,surname:"You",slug:"tingting-you",fullName:"Tingting You"}]},{id:"62041",title:"Assessment of Sugarcane-Based Ethanol Production",slug:"assessment-of-sugarcane-based-ethanol-production",totalDownloads:2209,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter aims to explain how bio-ethanol has been drawn to become a successful alternative to partially replace petroleum as a source of liquid fuels in Brazil. A brief historical analysis about the production of bio-ethanol from sugarcane is presented. The motivation to start the production of the ethanol as biofuel in the 1970s and how the governmental policies have contributed to the ups and downs, successes, and failures of the sugarcane industry is shown. Then, the efficiency of the sector is addressed; firstly, the increasing efficiency of the agricultural sector is discussed, showing how the productivity per hectare has increased in the last decades and which improvements are further expected in a near future. Finally, the industrial process is discussed: the current efficiency in processing sugarcane to produce ethanol and the emerging technologies, not only to process sugarcane juice, but also to harness bagasse, vinasse, and sugarcane straw.",book:{id:"7238",slug:"fuel-ethanol-production-from-sugarcane",title:"Fuel Ethanol Production from Sugarcane",fullTitle:"Fuel Ethanol Production from Sugarcane"},signatures:"Rubens Eliseu Nicula de Castro, Rita Maria de Brito Alves,\nCláudio Augusto Oller do Nascimento and Reinaldo Giudici",authors:[{id:"50350",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Oller Do Nascimento",slug:"claudio-oller-do-nascimento",fullName:"Claudio Oller Do Nascimento"},{id:"98033",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita Maria",middleName:null,surname:"De Brito Alves",slug:"rita-maria-de-brito-alves",fullName:"Rita Maria De Brito Alves"},{id:"248441",title:"BSc.",name:"Rubens E",middleName:null,surname:"N De Castro",slug:"rubens-e-n-de-castro",fullName:"Rubens E N De Castro"},{id:"248442",title:"Prof.",name:"Reinaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Giudici",slug:"reinaldo-giudici",fullName:"Reinaldo Giudici"}]},{id:"52212",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman Characterization of Silica-Based Materials",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-and-raman-characterization-of-silica-based-materials",totalDownloads:3375,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman are powerful techniques to evaluate silica and hybrid silica structure. It is possible to evaluate the silica network formation along the hydrolysis and condensation reactions in terms of siloxane rings formation and Si–O(–Si) angle deformation due to the introduction of organic groups, the employed synthetic route or encapsulated species interaction. The siloxane four- or six-membered rings imply in a more rigid or flexible network, respectively, in order to accommodate the organic groups. A structural analysis of the materials is of high importance, since interactions between the encapsulated molecules and the matrix are critical for the device performance, such as sensors. This type of device needs the permeation of an analyte to activate the encapsulated receptor molecules inside the silica structure. Fourier transform infrared spectrometry can be also used to determine parameters of the silica network as a function of the hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity degree and the siloxane ring structure with respect to thin film porosity. This silica structural analysis is reviewed along the text in a tentative of better exploring the data resulting from these powerful techniques. In addition, the functionalization of silica structures by the use of organoalkoxysilanes, which is important to the creation of high-specific materials, can be well described by these two complementary techniques. The Si–C bonds and the maintenance of the organic substituents such as methyl, octyl, octadecyl, vinyl, phenyl, aminopropyl, mercaptopropyl, isocyanatopropyl, iodopropyl, chloropropyl and glicydoxypropyl could be evaluated after the sol-gel synthesis process. The literature regarding silica vibrational spectroscopy is also explored creating a data bank of wave numbers for the most important bonds for different types of silica and hybrid silica materials obtained by different synthetic routes.",book:{id:"5283",slug:"applications-of-molecular-spectroscopy-to-current-research-in-the-chemical-and-biological-sciences",title:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences",fullTitle:"Applications of Molecular Spectroscopy to Current Research in the Chemical and Biological Sciences"},signatures:"Larissa Brentano Capeletti and João Henrique Zimnoch",authors:[{id:"178200",title:"Prof.",name:"Joao Henrique",middleName:null,surname:"Zimnoch Dos Santos",slug:"joao-henrique-zimnoch-dos-santos",fullName:"Joao Henrique Zimnoch Dos Santos"},{id:"186947",title:"Dr.",name:"Larissa",middleName:null,surname:"Brentano Capeletti",slug:"larissa-brentano-capeletti",fullName:"Larissa Brentano Capeletti"}]},{id:"63324",title:"Fatty Acids: From Membrane Ingredients to Signaling Molecules",slug:"fatty-acids-from-membrane-ingredients-to-signaling-molecules",totalDownloads:1598,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Fatty acid constitutes the foundation cell membranes, provides metabolic energy, affects functions of membrane-bound enzymes/receptors, conducts signaling cascades, and helps in learning-related memory cognition in mammals, including humans. Structurally, the fatty acids are of two kinds: saturated and unsaturated; the latter are again of mono- and polyunsaturated types. From nutritional perspectives, they are of essential and nonessential types. Omega-6 linoleic acid (ω-6 LLA, C18:2) and ω-3 alpha linolenic acid (ω-3 αLLN, C18:3) and ω-6 arachidonic acid [(ω-6 AA, C20:4); it is conditional] are essential fatty acids (EFAs). In addition, mammalian brains cannot biosynthesize the ω-3 docosahexaenoic acid (ω-3 DHA, C22:6) in adequate amounts because of lack of necessary enzymes. Thus, DHA is essential for the growth and development of the brains. Deficiency of DHA produces visual- and learning-related memory impairments, and neurodegeneration in the aged brains and Alzheimer’s disease brains. Finally, this chapter will highlight and broaden the awareness about the essentiality of different fatty acids with a special emphasis on DHA.",book:{id:"7006",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids"},signatures:"Michio Hashimoto and Shahdat Hossain",authors:[{id:"260006",title:"Prof.",name:"Shahdat",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"shahdat-hossain",fullName:"Shahdat Hossain"},{id:"260206",title:"Prof.",name:"Michio",middleName:null,surname:"Hashimoto",slug:"michio-hashimoto",fullName:"Michio Hashimoto"}]},{id:"63553",title:"Cyclic Fatty Acids in Food: An Under-Investigated Class of Fatty Acids",slug:"cyclic-fatty-acids-in-food-an-under-investigated-class-of-fatty-acids",totalDownloads:1327,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Cyclic fatty acids are an unusual class of minor fatty acids generally produced by bacteria and less frequently by plants. Among plants, the most known cyclic fatty acid is sterculic acid (9, 10-methyleneoctadecenoic acid) produced by Sterculia foetida. Bacteria (e.g., lactic acid bacteria) synthetize cyclopropane fatty acids, such as dihydrosterculic acid (9, 10-methylene octadecanoic acid) and lactobacillic acid (11, 12 methylene octadecanoic acid), to strength their membrane, improving their resistance to environmental stress. Another class of cyclic fatty acids is omega-cyclohexyl fatty acids, present in milk and probably produced by rumen bacteria. Cyclopropane and omega-cyclohexyl fatty acids have been recently found in bovine meat and dairy products, representing important foodstuffs in human diet. In this chapter, a review of literature data concerning the presence of cyclic fatty acids in foods, their metabolism in humans, and their potential bioactivity will be provided. The role of some cyclic fatty acids as molecular markers for food authenticity will also be highlighted.",book:{id:"7006",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids"},signatures:"Augusta Caligiani and Veronica Lolli",authors:[{id:"257412",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Augusta",middleName:null,surname:"Caligiani",slug:"augusta-caligiani",fullName:"Augusta Caligiani"},{id:"257577",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Lolli",slug:"veronica-lolli",fullName:"Veronica Lolli"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"82",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. His research interests include biochemistry, oxidative stress, reactive species, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, reproductive hormones, phenolic compounds, female infertility.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. 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He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259308/images/system/259308.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Southern California",institution:{name:"University of Southern California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9973",title:"Data Acquisition",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9973.jpg",slug:"data-acquisition-recent-advances-and-applications-in-biomedical-engineering",publishedDate:"March 17th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",hash:"75ea6cdd241216c9db28aa734ab34446",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Data Acquisition - Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",editors:[{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9905",title:"Biometric Systems",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9905.jpg",slug:"biometric-systems",publishedDate:"February 10th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",hash:"c730560dd2e3837a03407b3a86b0ef2a",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Biometric Systems",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kuwait"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8622",title:"Peptide Synthesis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8622.jpg",slug:"peptide-synthesis",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jaya T. 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