\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7038",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Vitamin D Deficiency",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Vitamin D is the topic for many discussions in the scientific community. Nowadays, a different interpretation of this secosteroid hormone is needed. Today the term "vitamin" may be considered outdated. This compound may be correctly be called a vitamin only when it is administered to humans or animals that suffer from its deficiency. This book attempts to clarify the role of Vitamin D deficiency in many pathological processes in the whole organism. Chapters in this book cover such issues as the earliest clinical and preclinical investigations of the consequences of Vitamin D deficiency for cognitive, cardiovascular, metabolic, immune, and renal disorders.',isbn:"978-1-83880-776-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-775-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-777-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73799",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency",numberOfPages:282,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"ba24f0913341357b0779ff9529c4bbfc",bookSignature:"Julia Fedotova",publishedDate:"February 26th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7038.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5077,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:7,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 16th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 26th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 25th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 18th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 17th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"269070",title:"Prof.",name:"Julia",middleName:null,surname:"Fedotova",slug:"julia-fedotova",fullName:"Julia Fedotova",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/269070/images/system/269070.jfif",biography:"Julia O. Fedotova, MD, PhD habil., Doc. Biol. Sci, was born in\nSt. Petersburg (Russia), in 1973. She graduated with her Diploma of Pharmacist, Pharmaceutical Faculty, St. Petersburg State\nChemical-Pharmaceutical Academy in 1996. She received her\nPhD in specialties – experimental and clinical pharmacology and\nphysiology of human and animals in 1999. She attended Medical\nSchool, Department of Pharmacology, University of Catania in\n2002, and the Institute of Physiology, Medical School, University of Pecs. She graduated from the special doctoral course in neuropharmacology at the Department\nof Neuropharmacology in the Institute for Experimental Medicine of the Russian\nAcademy of Medical Sciences and she received her doctor of Biological Sciences\n(Ph.D. habil.) in 2008. She is currently a professor at the ITMO University and the\nleading researcher at the I.P. Pavlov Institute of Physiology. She has more 200 publications (mostly in Russian), 2 patents, and 4 journal articles in collaboration, as\nwell as 6 chapters in journals.\nShe is a head of the project “The studying of Vitamin D3 role in development of\naffective-related disorders in women with climacteric period, the search of ways for\npharmacorrection”, from the highly prestige Russian Scientific Foundation.",institutionString:"ITMO University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"ITMO University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"379",title:"Vitaminology",slug:"alimentology-vitaminology"}],chapters:[{id:"68649",title:"Vitamin D and Its Deficiency in Saudi Arabia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88745",slug:"vitamin-d-and-its-deficiency-in-saudi-arabia",totalDownloads:531,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Fawzi F. Bokhari and Mai Albaik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68649",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68649",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69039",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency in Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89208",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency-in-children",totalDownloads:304,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Teodoro Durá-Travé, Fidel Gallinas-Victoriano, María Urretavizcaya-Martinez, Lotfi Ahmed-Mohamed, María Malumbres-Chacón and Paula Moreno-González",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69039",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69039",authors:[{id:"53819",title:"Prof.",name:"Teodoro",surname:"Durá-Travé",slug:"teodoro-dura-trave",fullName:"Teodoro Durá-Travé"}],corrections:null},{id:"70755",title:"Maternal Vitamin D Status among Different Ethnic Groups and Its Potential Contribution to Adverse Pregnancy and Child Outcomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90766",slug:"maternal-vitamin-d-status-among-different-ethnic-groups-and-its-potential-contribution-to-adverse-pr",totalDownloads:327,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Pardis Keshavarz, Parisa Jandaghi, Mojtaba Shafiee, Naorin Islam and Hassan Vatanparast",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70755",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70755",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69654",title:"Nutritional Considerations of Vitamin D Deficiency and Strategies of Food Fortification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89612",slug:"nutritional-considerations-of-vitamin-d-deficiency-and-strategies-of-food-fortification",totalDownloads:287,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Sami El Khatib and Malak Abou Shahine",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69654",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69654",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70173",title:"An Evidence-Based Review of Efficacy and Safety of Dietary, Natural Supplements and Sunlight in Vitamin D Deficiency",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89598",slug:"an-evidence-based-review-of-efficacy-and-safety-of-dietary-natural-supplements-and-sunlight-in-vitam",totalDownloads:395,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Jenson Mak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70173",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70173",authors:[{id:"60765",title:"Dr.",name:"Jenson",surname:"Mak",slug:"jenson-mak",fullName:"Jenson Mak"}],corrections:null},{id:"70606",title:"Association of Vitamin D Deficiency and Mood Disorders: A Systematic Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90617",slug:"association-of-vitamin-d-deficiency-and-mood-disorders-a-systematic-review",totalDownloads:358,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Jigna Shah and Sakshi Gurbani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70606",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70606",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69069",title:"The Effects of Vitamin D Deficiency on Neurodegenerative Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89160",slug:"the-effects-of-vitamin-d-deficiency-on-neurodegenerative-diseases",totalDownloads:388,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Anna A. Lauer, Daniel Janitschke, Tobias Hartmann, Heike S. Grimm and Marcus O.W. Grimm",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69069",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69069",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69594",title:"Vitamin D3 Modulates NF-kB/p65, 17β-Estradiol, and Vitamin D Receptors Expression at Estrogen Deficiency",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89357",slug:"vitamin-d-sub-3-sub-modulates-nf-kb-p65-17-estradiol-and-vitamin-d-receptors-expression-at-estrogen-",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Alexandra Koshkina, Olga Volkova and Julia Fedotova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69594",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69594",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70127",title:"Vitamin D and Obesity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90181",slug:"vitamin-d-and-obesity",totalDownloads:324,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Sabrina Ait Gacem and Moyad Jamal Shahwan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70127",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70127",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69402",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency and Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89543",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency-and-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:751,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ihor Shymanskyi, Olha Lisakovska, Anna Mazanova and Mykola Veliky",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69402",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69402",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70095",title:"Vitamin D and Cardiovascular Disease: The Final Chapter?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90106",slug:"vitamin-d-and-cardiovascular-disease-the-final-chapter-",totalDownloads:284,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Jeremy I. Purow and Seth I. Sokol",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70095",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70095",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69633",title:"Vitamin D and Autoimmune Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89707",slug:"vitamin-d-and-autoimmune-diseases",totalDownloads:462,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ifigenia Kostoglou-Athanassiou, Lambros Athanassiou and Panagiotis Athanassiou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69633",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69633",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69574",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency in Renal Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88928",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency-in-renal-disease",totalDownloads:329,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Jean Jeanov Filipov and Emil Paskalev Dimitrov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69574",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69574",authors:[{id:"181956",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",surname:"Filipov",slug:"jean-filipov",fullName:"Jean Filipov"},{id:"185237",title:"Prof.",name:"Emil",surname:"Dimitrov",slug:"emil-dimitrov",fullName:"Emil Dimitrov"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5169",title:"Vitamin K2",subtitle:"Vital for Health and Wellbeing",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b2f9f024939ddc4f5da2a8afa3fcd9c9",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",bookSignature:"Jan Oxholm Gordeladze",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5169.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36345",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Gordeladze",slug:"jan-gordeladze",fullName:"Jan Gordeladze"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5940",title:"Vitamin C",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e23e79359167bb9d4a53edd78c7b5038",slug:"vitamin-c",bookSignature:"Amal H. Hamza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5940.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"188326",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amal",surname:"Hamza",slug:"amal-hamza",fullName:"Amal Hamza"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7263",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6bd8e547b4f3ad7f1675a36b8dbde8f2",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease",bookSignature:"Jose Antonio Morales-Gonzalez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7263.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109774",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Antonio",surname:"Morales-Gonzalez",slug:"jose-antonio-morales-gonzalez",fullName:"Jose Antonio Morales-Gonzalez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8594",title:"Fads and Facts about Vitamin D",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1731029867f0d79c633e3408fc03ebd2",slug:"fads-and-facts-about-vitamin-d",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8594.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",slug:"vitamin-a",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7033",title:"Vitamin C",subtitle:"an Update on Current Uses and Functions",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"719a5742e3271393fe43864e13e996cd",slug:"vitamin-c-an-update-on-current-uses-and-functions",bookSignature:"Jean Guy LeBlanc",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7033.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67023",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean Guy",surname:"LeBlanc",slug:"jean-guy-leblanc",fullName:"Jean Guy LeBlanc"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6709",title:"B Group Vitamins",subtitle:"Current Uses and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f34959a0fcc33a2c6fb3d03e9ec544bf",slug:"b-group-vitamins-current-uses-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Jean Guy LeBlanc and Graciela Savoy de Giori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6709.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67023",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean Guy",surname:"LeBlanc",slug:"jean-guy-leblanc",fullName:"Jean Guy LeBlanc"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"66066",slug:"erratum-microbial-responses-to-different-operating-practices-for-biogas-production-systems",title:"Erratum - Microbial Responses to Different Operating Practices for Biogas Production Systems",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66066.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66066",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66066",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66066",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66066",chapter:{id:"65614",slug:"microbial-responses-to-different-operating-practices-for-biogas-production-systems",signatures:"Maria Westerholm and Anna Schnürer",dateSubmitted:"June 11th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 30th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 12th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"6839",title:"Anaerobic Digestion",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Anaerobic Digestion",slug:"anaerobic-digestion",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"J. Rajesh Banu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6839.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Banu",slug:"rajesh-banu",fullName:"Rajesh Banu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"262546",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Schnürer",fullName:"Anna Schnürer",slug:"anna-schnurer",email:"anna.schnurer@slu.se",position:null,institution:null},{id:"263116",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Westerholm",fullName:"Maria Westerholm",slug:"maria-westerholm",email:"Maria.Westerholm@slu.se",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"65614",slug:"microbial-responses-to-different-operating-practices-for-biogas-production-systems",signatures:"Maria Westerholm and Anna Schnürer",dateSubmitted:"June 11th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 30th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 12th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"6839",title:"Anaerobic Digestion",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Anaerobic Digestion",slug:"anaerobic-digestion",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"J. Rajesh Banu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6839.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Banu",slug:"rajesh-banu",fullName:"Rajesh Banu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"262546",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Schnürer",fullName:"Anna Schnürer",slug:"anna-schnurer",email:"anna.schnurer@slu.se",position:null,institution:null},{id:"263116",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Westerholm",fullName:"Maria Westerholm",slug:"maria-westerholm",email:"Maria.Westerholm@slu.se",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"6839",title:"Anaerobic Digestion",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Anaerobic Digestion",slug:"anaerobic-digestion",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"J. Rajesh Banu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6839.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Banu",slug:"rajesh-banu",fullName:"Rajesh Banu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10708",leadTitle:null,title:"Topics in Regional Anesthesia",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tThe goal of this book on Topics in Regional Anesthesia is to review selected subjects of importance in daily practice. Since the first years of the introduction of cocaine by Carl Koller in 1884, the evolution of regional anesthesia has been continuous, gradual and safe. Its development has been based on anatomy, the pharmacology of local anesthetics and adjuvant drugs, as well as advances in the various blocking techniques, with ultrasound guidance being the most recent advent. The use of ultrasound in regional anesthesia has shown the reduction of complications, which makes it mandatory to knowledge and acquire skills in all ultrasound-guided techniques.
\r\n\r\n\tUltrasound-guided regional blocks will be reviewed extensively, as well as intravenous regional anesthesia, thoracic spinal anesthesia. The role of regional anesthesia and analgesia in critically ill patients is of paramount importance. In addition, we will review the current role of regional techniques during the Covid-19 pandemic. Complications and malpractice is another topic that should be reviewed. Regional anesthesia procedures in some specialties such as pediatrics, orthopedics, cancer surgery, neurosurgery, acute and chronic pain will be discussed.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-570-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-569-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-571-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"264f7f37033b4867cace7912287fccaa",bookSignature:"Prof. Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo and Dr. José Ramón Saucillo-Osuna",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10708.jpg",keywords:"Regional Anesthesia, Ultrasound-Guided Regional Anesthesia, Local Anesthetics, Preventive Analgesia, Peripheral Blocks, Pediatric Regional Anesthesia, Intravenous Regional Anesthesia, Techniques, Complications, Adjuvants in Regional Anesthesia, Opioids, Alfa2 Agonists",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 23rd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 23rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 22nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 10th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 9th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"18 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Whizar-Lugo has published more than 100 publications on Anesthesia, Pain, Critical Care, and Internal Medicine. He works as an anesthesiologist at Lotus Med Group and belongs to the Institutos Nacionales de Salud as an associated researcher.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",middleName:null,surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169249/images/system/169249.jpg",biography:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo graduated from Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México and completed residencies in Internal Medicine at Hospital General de México and Anaesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine at Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán in México City. He also completed a fellowship at the Anesthesia Department, Pain Clinic at University of California, Los Angeles, USA. Currently, Dr. Whizar-Lugo works as anesthesiologist at Lotus Med Group, and belongs to the Institutos Nacionales de Salud as associated researcher. He has published many works on anesthesia, pain, internal medicine, and critical care, edited four books, and given countless conferences in congresses and meetings around the world. He has been a member of various editorial committees for anesthesiology journals, is past chief editor of the journal Anestesia en México, and is currently editor-in-chief of the Journal of Anesthesia and Critical Care. Dr. Whizar-Lugo is the founding director and current president of Anestesiología y Medicina del Dolor (www.anestesiologia-dolor.org), a free online medical education program.",institutionString:"Institutos Nacionales de Salud",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"345887",title:"Dr.",name:"José Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Saucillo-Osuna",slug:"jose-ramon-saucillo-osuna",fullName:"José Ramón Saucillo-Osuna",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000033rFXmQAM/Profile_Picture_1611740683590",biography:"Graduated from the Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Autónoma de Guadalajara, he specialized in anesthesiology at the Centro Médico Nacional de Occidente in Guadalajara, México. He is one of the most important pioneers in Mexico in ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia. Dr. Saucillo-Osuna has lectured at multiple national and international congresses and is an adjunct professor at the Federación Mexicana de Colegios de Anestesiología, AC, former president of the Asociación Mexicana de Anestesia Regional, and active member of the Asociación Latinoamericana de Anestesia Regional.",institutionString:"Centro Médico Nacional de Occidente",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Dr.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"51292",title:"Microfluidics for Ultrafast Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/64428",slug:"microfluidics-for-ultrafast-spectroscopy",body:'The aim of this chapter is to address the gap that exists between two research communities: ultrafast spectroscopy and microfluidics. Indeed, the development of pulsed laser systems in the last few decades has ushered in new techniques in ultrafast spectroscopy. These techniques have opened new doors for the study of fundamental photo-chemical and photo-physical behavior of a variety of photosynthetic protein complexes.[1] For methodological reasons, i.e. samples being rare and the use of highly specialized equipment, there existed a pressing need to apply microfluidics systems in ultrafast spectroscopy, two fields that unfortunately developed separately and whose researchers are rarely knowledgeable in both areas. For the microfluidic readers who may be unfamiliar with this literature, I introduce, in the first part of this chapter, the basic concepts of ultrafast pump-probe spectroscopy. In so doing, I highlight the relevance of this technique in gaining understanding protein dynamics and therefore biological properties and functions. It is in fact due to the laborious procedures that are involved in the purification processes of these proteins complexes that most biological samples are only available in sub-milliliters quantities. In the second part of this chapter, I will therefore expose some of the most common solutions that are in use in order to manipulate liquid samples in ultrafast spectroscopy. Finally, in the third part of this chapter, I describe one of the latest applications to the field of ultrafast spectroscopy—what is now called microfluidics—as it handles micro-liters volumes of a given sample. I illustrate the benefits of the application of such a microfluidic system through an analysis the of the cytochrome bc1. I conclude with a discussion on the areas of the present microfluidic flow-cell in need of further research and investigation.
In this section I will introduce the field of ultrafast spectroscopy to which the microfluidics systems will be applied. I describe the basics of the technique and its relevance to the current fundamental research efforts in biochemistry and biophysics. In the last section of this chapter, I cover the practical challenges that emerge from such studies, which justify the need for microfluidics.
Transient absorption is a spectroscopic technique whose aim is to resolve the relaxation dynamics of an excited molecule “simply” by looking at its spectral modifications. The technique involves two principal light beam: a pump and a probe. While the role of the pump is to promote the molecule to a particular excited state, the probe is used to “look” at the state in which this molecule is in. The fact that these light beams are not continuous but are strains of pulses allows one to excite the molecule for a brief instant (the duration of the pulse) and to probe its state at a later time. The light pulses are first produced in a cavity (oscillator) that is built around a doped crystal such as titanium doped sapphire crystals (Ti:S) as shown in Figure 1.[2]
Ti:S crystal cavity.
The crystal, when excited, serves as a photon tank that will amplify any pulses passing through, via stimulated emission. The cavity then enters into a “mode locked” state as soon as the enclosed pulse strains are in resonance with the dimension of the cavity itself. The energy trapped within the cavity builds up until the pulses are intense enough to leak through one of the cavity end-mirror. Typical Ti:S cavity produces strains of ~30 fs pulses centered around ~800 nm at 80 MHz repetition rate; each pulse being about tenth of nano-Joules. The extracted pulses are then amplified in a similar fashion by passing in a second cavity comprised of a second Ti:S crystal.[2] The frequency is however decreased to few kHz in order to reach few milli-Joules per pulses. It is these amplified pulses that are then split into pump and probe pulses.
Pump-probe experimental scheme.
As illustrated in Figure 2, varying the time delay that separate both pump and probe enables to follow the evolution of the transient excited states over time. This delay is introduced by physically increasing the path of one of the pump or probe arm of the setup via a precision stage. In a typical configuration, a 30 cm stage provides with a temporal window of about 4 ns (round-trip). The time resolution with which we can follow the molecular dynamics is then given by the duration of the light pulses themselves. A regular transient absorption setup is today capable of producing amplified strains of ~40 fs pulse with a kHz repetition rate. Such femto-to-nano-second time window corresponds to the dynamics of energy and electron transfer within and between molecules as well as local structural modifications.[3] Furthermore, the high repetition rate and the development in matters of laser stability and detection system gives the ability to monitor the absorption changes of a single molecule out of a thousand (corresponding to changes of ~10-4 OD) in less than a second of accumulation time.[4] With such setups, it is for example possible to trigger the charge separation in the Photosystem I protein complex and to follow the liberated electron as it progresses from one side of the protein to the other.[4] Another example is the monitoring of the heme-ligand dissociation and rebinding dynamics that results from the absorption of a photon such as it is the case of various types of cytochromes.[5, 6]
The use of non-linear optics, such as in the famous and various kind of optical parametric amplifiers (OPA, Non-collinear OPA and multi-pass OPA)[7] as well as the different pulse shaping devices (in either transmission or reflection),[8] gives the ability to tune both the pump and the probe to the desire wavelength, therefore enabling to excite and to follow a particular molecular transition. For example, in the study of the bacterial reaction centers complexes, being comprise of multiple types of pigments that are spectrally distinct, careful tuning of the pump allows to preferably excite one pigment while living the others in their fundamental state.[9]
It is therefore out of the development in laser technology and specifically in tunable table-top pulsed lasers that the field of ultrafast spectroscopy came to know the success it knows today.
As implied in the previous section, transient spectroscopy is best suited for the study of compounds that have distinct spectral feature. Fortunately, most organic compounds are made of either aromatic amino acids or incorporates chromophores within their protein structure, each having distinct spectral features. The technics consequently became in the past decade a common analytical tool for biologists and chemists. Ultrafast transient spectroscopy is indeed used for a broad range of investigations: being sensitive to changes in absorption spectrum of the proteins, it is possible to collect data on local conformational deformations, electronic transitions and (low) vibrational modes of oscillation within molecules, intra and inter molecular energy and electron transfers, etc.[10] In the field of solar energy conversion for example, which is one of today’s essential topic in our energy savvy societies, this technique allowed to better understand the conversion processes from light to consumable energy. In particular, the study of photosynthesis showed how the specific arrangement of pigment within larger protein structure either favor the absorption and passing of the photon energy, as it takes place in antennae systems, or favors the generation of a charge separated state, as it happens in photosynthetic reaction centers, [4, 9] which results in the liberation of a high energy, and therefore usable, electron. Other chromophores can also serve as electron docking sites and electron carriers.[6] The knowledge gained from such studies is then applied for medical and industrial purposes and used to optimize specific molecular reactions. From these examples, it is possible to understand why the study of biological samples by means of ultrafast transient spectroscopy, among other spectroscopic techniques, became and remains one of the standard analytical tool for the fundamental understanding of a broad range of molecular dynamics.
As discussed above, ultrafast transient spectroscopy is suitable for the study of biological samples. These samples are usually made of purified and solvated proteins. Once a particular molecule is excited, the deposited energy ultimately dissipates into the solvent (so long as the changes are not permanent). It is to remember that the typical repetition rate of the pulses are in the order of the kHz and at this rate the sample is excited about every milliseconds. The risk is that the photo-induced molecular modifications live for a time that is comparable, which will then results in a rapid saturation of the sample. In other words, the excited molecule might not have sufficient time to relax to its fundamental state before the coming of the next light pulse. Saturation thus takes place and as the molecules gets overexcited: they are unable to release the deposited energy quickly enough and end up by “burning”. In order to avoid such consequences, the sample is usually flown in front of the laser beams. The condition is that the flux is high enough so that the sample is refreshed for each laser pulse.
The second major constraint is related to the quantity of the sample available. The sample being made of purified proteins, it is then concentrated in order to reach an optical density that is suitable for spectroscopic analysis. Ideally, transient absorption spectroscopy requires an optical density of about 0.6 for the transition of interest, which in the case of heme protein corresponds to a concentration of hundreds of micro molars. The samples are consequently limited in terms of volumes and sub-milliliters quantities already requires months-long of successive growth of the organisms and protein purification cycles.[11, 12]
The third constraint concerns the susceptibility of the sample in respect to its solvent and atmosphere in which it is enclosed. Indeed some biological samples are hydrophobic and require to be dissolved in various chemicals in order to avoid aggregation and the subsequent scattering of the light pulses, such as it is the case for solvated porphyrins. Many samples are also sensitive to oxygen and therefore require the atmosphere to be controlled. For example, myoglobin is able to effectively bind a variety of diatomic molecule. It however has a high affinity for oxygen, so much that it is not possible to study its deoxygenated state unless in anaerobic conditions.[13]
In conclusion, ultrafast transient spectroscopy is today one of the standard analytical tool for whoever desire to study the local structural, electronic and vibrational photo-induced dynamics. In particular, solvated chromophores and chromophore-containing proteins are well suited for the techniques as they can be specifically targeted via their absorption band. However, these liquid samples are often limited in quantities and have to be flown in order to avoid any photo-damages. From these challenges arise the need for microfluidics so as to flow the limited sample volumes. Furthermore, in order to perform ultrafast spectroscopic measurement, the probe pulses must pass through the sample, therefore through the flow-cell in which it is enclosed. The cell consequently requires adequate windows that do not alter the signal-to-noise ratio nor the temporal and spectral resolution of the apparatus. Additionally, due to the properties and high sensitivity of certain samples, the cell must be resistant to the solvent while providing control of the atmosphere. In such cases, the sample must be hermetically confined within the microfluidic system which therefore has to also play the role of an anaerobic chamber.
In this section I will review different techniques that are commonly employed to flow the sample in front of the laser beam. I will discuss the advantages and inconveniences of each in terms of their compatibilities with the requirements of ultrafast spectroscopic laser systems.
The main idea is to flow the sample in between two transparent plates. These windows are usually made of quartz so as to permit the broadband (near UV-Visible-near IR) beams to pass through. This type of cell allows for small path lengths and thin windows, down to 0.02 mm such as the one shown in Figure 3, therefore reducing scattering of the excitation beam through the quartz. The thin windows also have the advantage to minimally alter the pulse duration (limited group velocity dispersion), therefore allowing for an optimal time resolution. Furthermore, the cell is steady and its stability allows for optimal signal to noise levels.
Flow cell from Starna Cell [14]
The quartz cells, by themselves, are commercially available.[14] However, due to their size, these cells already enclose about one milliliter of sample. Furthermore they must be connected to a pump, typically a peristaltic or flow-through pump, in order to generate the flow. Altogether, the flow cell system requires few tenth of milliliters and is consequently not adequate for precious samples that are simply not available in such quantities.
The term micro here comes from the diameter of the jet itself, which produces a couple of centimeters-long of regular flow. The advantage of expelling the sample as a jet is to remove the constraints of having it to pass through windows, i.e. avoiding any additional absorption, scattering and group velocity dispersion. It therefore allows pump probe experiment in all spectral region including UV and X-ray region. Associated with an adequate sample collector, as shown in Figure 4, it is also applicable in vacuum chambers and becomes suitable for photo-electron spectroscopy.[15]
Micro-jet implemented for photo-electron spectroscopy. Courtesy of José Ojeda, EPFL.
The inconvenience of having to produce a constant flow rate is that the sample must pass through a sophisticated HPLC pump,[15-17] which consequently requires sample volumes that are larger than our targeted sub-milliliter. Note also that while passing in either the air or in vacuum, the sample’s solvent is subjected to evaporation. In such conditions, recycling of the sample results in a change of the sample’s concentration and temperature over the course of the experiment.[16] Furthermore, the high speed at which the sample go through the nozzle induces charging of the liquid and or of the nozzle, which might alter the measurement.[17]
The idea behind the spinning-cell is similar to that of the flow cell as the sample is housed between two circular glass plates that are spaced by the desirable optical path-length.[18] While rotating, the sample either creates a rim at the edge of the cell, or at lower speed, the solution remains at the bottom of the cell and is constantly mixed due to friction with the glass as shown in Figure 5. The advantage is that it typically requires minimal amounts of sample (~0.3 mL) as well as to provide control over the initial atmosphere in which the sample in enclosed since the sample is hermetically confined.
Spinning cell used if few-kHz spectroscopy setups.
However, because the rotation of the glass plate causes the excitation beam to sweep a large surface, the cleanness of the plates is directly related to the noise. It is consequently burdensome to clean. Furthermore, the fact of having a moving piece of glass in which the beam is focused renders the alignment of the cell crucial, and any slight asymmetry of the glass plates has consequences on the transmitted probe beam. Also, since the glass plates are typically few cm in diameter, the required minimal thickness of the glass lowers the time resolution. Another inconvenience is that once the cell is set it does not allow access to the enclosed sample and each experiments therefore requires its own sample preparation.
In conclusion, the proposed solutions used to flow the sample in front of the laser beam have each distinct advantages and inconveniences, and none ideally respond to all the requirement, i.e. is suitable for sub-milliliter sample volumes; provides a close atmosphere; grant access to the sample once closed; affecting minimally the signal-to-noise ratio and resolution of the apparatus. Through these few examples I hope to have convinced the reader of the need for a development in the application of microfluidic system to the field of ultrafast spectroscopy.
In this section I will describe the recently developed microfluidic flow-cell in order to illustrate the importance and advantages of applying microfluidic systems to the field of ultrafast spectroscopy. I will show that recent improvements in the field of microfluidics have the capabilities to solve the previously mentioned constraint all at once. I will thus discuss the advantages of the system in light of the other technics. Following the technical properties I will illustrate the flow-cell’s effectiveness through a study done on rare bc-cytochrome and conclude with an appeal for further development.
The microfluidic flow-cell, [19] as illustrated in Figure 6, is composed of three main elements that are connected via flexible tubing of 1-mm diameter:
The decantation chamber is a home-made polymer cylindrical chamber as shown in Figure 6. The 0.5-mm diameter inlet and outlet are at the bottom of the chamber in order to minimize turbulences that are created at high flow rates. The chamber requires a minimal amount of ~50 μL of liquid sample in order to have a continuous flow between the inlet and outlet. Any excess of sample fills up the chamber and allows the bubbles that might be enclosed in the closed circuit to rise to the surface. The bubbles are naturally trapped by the chamber while passing through at low flow-speed. At high flow-speed however, larger sample volume are required in order to avoid the suction of air due to the liquid’s turbulences. The top of the chamber is threaded to fit a standard septum screw cap. This allows for the addition of chemicals to the enclosed solution while keeping the confined atmosphere protected and avoiding evaporation of the solvents.
The capillary window is made of a square quartz silica capillary bought from Composite Metal Services Ltd (CMS). It has a path-length of 0.5 mm with 0.1-mm thin walls. Knowing that the focus of the laser beam is about 100 um in diameter, the window can easily be set within the beam path. The capillary is fixed at the center of a xyz-rotation mount that allows for fine adjustment of the angle between the incident beam and the window.
The turbisc pump is a design from CSEM.[20] In short, the flow is created by direct friction between a grooved barrel and the liquid. The inner volume that the pump contains is about 100 μL only. Because the housing and the seal are respectively made out of Polyetherimide and of Polyetheretherketone, the pump is relatively resistant to chemicals.
(A) Overall view of the assembled system, with zoom on the capillary junctions. (B) Side view of the bubble chamber and (C) of the capillary window. Reproduced from Ref. [19].
When the pump, the chamber and the capillary are connected, the minimal volume of sample needed for good working conditions is about 250 μL only. This configuration includes a total tubing (1-mm inner diameter) length of ~6 cm and a sufficient amount of sample in the cuvette to avoid the suction of bubbles due to turbulences with a minimal flow of ~0.1 ml/sec. The flow is proportional to the voltage applied to the pump and under the same configuration the maximum flow rate was measured to be ~0.36 mL/sec, as shown in Figure 7.
Measured flow-rate (dots) and its best fit (line, 2nd order polynomial) while the pump is connected to ~6 cm of 1-mm diameter tubing and ~1-cm long 0.5x0.5 mm2 square capillary. In order to ensure fresh sample at each laser shot, while assuming a typical laser focus size of 100 μm, the expected maximum repetition rate of excitation is indicated as a reference only (right axis).
While assuming a typical laser focus diameter of 100 μm within the 0.5x0.5 mm2 square capillary, the flow, when assumed to be uniform, is expected to effectively refresh the sample within the laser focus for each laser shot at an excitation rate of up to ~14 kHz. In practice, it is to remember that the flow is impeded on the edges of the capillary and consequently the value of 14 kHz has to be taken as an upper limit only. Taking into account that the inner volume of the pump is only about 100 μL, it represents one of the best (if not the actual best) compromise between flow-rate and required volume. The assembled microfluidic flow cell, in working conditions is shown in Figure 8.
Microfluidic flow-cell in action
In order to illustrate the applicability of the microfluidic flow-cell as well as some of its advantages I present here a unique analysis, that of the Cytochrome (cyt) bc1 complex. [6] The cyt bc1 complex is a key player in mitochondrial and bacterial respiratory chains.[21] It is the main actor in the protonmotive Q cycle and results in the formation of a proton gradient across the membrane via a series of embedded hemes as shown in Figure 9.[22-24] The generated potential gradient serves as the driving force for the synthesis of ATP, the universal energy transporter in living organisms. The understanding of the protein complex is therefore of primary importance. However the sample is rare and mainly because of the limited quantity available after each purification process, the heme dynamics were until then never studied by means of ultrafast spectroscopy.
(Left) Structure of the bc1 complex[25] with the protein backbone being shaded for clear visualization of the key actors in the proton-coupled-electron mechanisms. (Right) Static absorption spectrum of the sequential reduction and oxidation of the cyt bc1 dimer complex: after pre-reduction by ubiquinol and before (red, c1-hemes reduced) and right after (blue, b- and c1-hemes reduced) the addition of dithionite, and at the end, after oxidation of the complexes by oxygen (green, c1-hemes reduced). The 523-nm excitation pump is indicated as reference. Reproduced from Ref. [6] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.
Thanks to the microfluidic flow-cell, and more particularly to the access it provides to the sample via the septum, the reduction and oxidation of the hemes of interests could be controlled chemically. All data were therefore taken from the same sample preparation within the same experiment, in the same experimental conditions. The different signals that emerge from the reduced states of the hemes could then be directly compared: either the c1-hemes can be exclusively reduced, or both c1- and b-hemes can be reduced together. Direct subtraction of the two data set enabled the extraction of the sole signal form the b-hemes, as shown in Figure 10.
(A) Spectra at selected time delays while both b- and c1-hemes are reduced. (B) Spectra at selected time delays while only the c1-hemes are left reduced. (C) Difference (A-B) corresponding solely to the signal of the ferrous b-heme, as discussed in the text. Note that the vertical scales below and above 515 nm differs by a factor of two. Reproduced from Ref. [6] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.
The dynamics of each heme type could be analysed separately by means of singular value decomposition and global fitting as described in detail elsewhere.[6] The resulting decay associated spectra, shown in Figure 11, revealed the clear differences between the b- and c1-hemes behaviours within the bc1 protein complex: while the c1-hemes undergo photo-dissociation of their axial ligand as a result of ultrafast laser excitation, the b-hemes were shown to undergo photo-oxidation with a high (> 0.4) quantum yield that is beyond all expectations.
Photo-dissociation of the c1-heme (left) and photo-oxidation of the b-heme (right) upon light excitation of the cyt bc1 complex. Reproduced from Ref. [6] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.
The b-heme’s high electronic reactivity makes sense in the light of cyt bc1 having to efficiently fulfil its role in the Q-cycle: it favours the reduction and oxidization of the ubiquinone and ubiquinol, respectively.[22] The b-hemes have to efficiently “process” the electrons, which demand them to easily loose or gain electron. Similar electronic-reactivity would in fact be counterproductive in soluble cytochromes as they would less efficiently keep their electrons from being scavenged by other solutes. The hydrophilic environment of the bc1 core on the other hand preserves the b-hemes from unwanted solvated electron carrier and their high electronic reactivity is then an advantage. In contrast to the high electronic reactivity of the b-hemes, the high photo-dissociation quantum yield of the c1-hemes can be understood as being an efficient “heat sink” that protects the reduced state of the heme against light excitations.
Overall, this study illustrate that, even though the b-hemes in cyt bc1 and in other cyt b have similar ligation to their protein backbone; specific structural constraints and amino-acid arrangements result in clearly different responses, and therefore functions. While cytochromes were known to serve only as electron carriers, this study demonstrates that with the appropriate environment, light-induced charge separation can readily be initiated within single heme structures. The use of the microfluidic flow-cell therefore not only enabled the study of this rare protein complex, but allowed to shine light on the relevance of local heme-bonding and structural environment in initiating larger chemical reactions. This particular case study is only one example of how the field of ultrafast spectroscopy can benefit from the application of microfluidics technologies.
As I mentioned, the described microfluidic flow-cell, beside the numerous advantages it provides in respect to the other systems commonly employed, is certainly not perfect, which leaves room for improvement.
For example, in terms of sample volumes, most of the liquid is contained in the pump that is used to generate the flow and in the tubing. Miniaturization of both would allow to use even smaller sample volumes. Already the small turbisc pump that is employed uses a newly developed friction based technologies[20] that is able to flow even viscous samples. The samples studied in ultrafast spectroscopy are however water-like and, not being in need of the actual viscous sample capabilities of the pump. I can therefore imagine that a simplified version of the pump would be sufficient and require even smaller volumes. Concerning the actual 1 mm diameter tubing, that links the pump with the capillary, it could be replaced by other microfluidics technologies that uses micro-channels that are specifically designed for spectroscopy.[26] The goal through these proposed improvements is to reduce the amount of liquid used, keeping in mind that reducing further the diameter of the channels might impede the overall flow rate.
Another field of improvement that I see is that of the control over the inner atmosphere of the cell in which the sample is enclosed. As I mentioned, the actual pumping is done by friction between a grooved barrel and the sample. The spinning motion is however done via a shaft and under high pressure difference between the inner and outer part of the cell, either the sample can leak through or air can be sucked in via the shaft’s joints. In order to palliate to this issue, I can imagine that the shaft would be replaced, not by another mechanical interaction, but remote electromagnetical interaction so as to preserve the inner atmosphere of the sample. Such systems are already implemented for applications in biomedical for example.[27] Furthermore, the microfluidic flow-cell uses epoxy beads in order to hermetically fit the square capillary in the cylindrical tubing. Better seal could be achieved if the capillary themselves were to be made with initial beads on each sides such as it is the case for the larger commercially available flow-cells.[14]
At last, I would like to precise that, due to friction between the sample and the capillary, the capillary does not provide with a flow that is homogeneous. Sample that is the closest to the window has consequently lower flow rate and might not be refreshed for each laser pulse, being therefore subjected to photo-damage. One solution would be to employ the newly developed Electro-Osmotic flow systems that are used to generate homogeneous flows.[28]
In conclusion, the microfluidic flow-cell that I propose is specifically designed to fits the requirement imposed by the ultrafast spectroscopy of quantity-limited and sensitive sample, while it remains cost effective and easy to use. As an illustration of the flow-cell’s effectiveness, I showed how its implementation enabled the study of the cytochrome bc1. More precisely, I was able to resolve the ultrafast electronic and nuclear motions that precedes some of the larger physiological function of the protein. The microfluidic flow-cell not only facilitates but also opens the door to the study of a whole range of samples that cannot be purified in large quantities such as it is the case for most organic compound that are extracted from living organisms.
The advantages of this microfluidic flow-cell over other pre-existing solutions are clear; as clear as there is room for development.
The implementation of the microfluidic flow-cell to the field of ultrafast spectroscopy can be considered as one of the first attempts to bridge two communities, i.e. that of microfluidics and that of ultrafast spectroscopy. In this chapter I have first described the technique of ultrafast spectroscopy in order to show its requirements in terms of sample as well as the importance of such analytical tool when applied to the study of biological protein complexes. In particular, ultrafast transient spectroscopy became one of the essential approach for whoever desires to understand the local electronic and nuclear modifications that are at the origin of the larger physiological functions of proteins. I then exposed the advantages and inconveniences of the different techniques that are commonly used in order to flow liquid samples in front of the laser beams. The aim of this discussion is to better appreciate how the application of microfluidics technologies is able to responds to the challenges raised by the technique. In this aim, the recently developed microfluidic flow-cell is adequate as it requires only about 250 µL while generating flow rate that are suitable for high repetition rate laser systems. Its steady window and decantation chamber allow for an optimal time and spectral resolution. By providing direct access to the sample while running a single experiment and monitoring chemical changes in “real time”, the microfluidic system enables studies that were otherwise not possible. The advantages of microfluidics over other usual systems are numerous but as it represents only one of the first attempt, there is ample room for improvement. In this regard, one of the goal of this chapter is to serve as an initial step in an effort to bridge the microfluidics community with that of ultrafast spectroscopy in order to foster new ideas, new applications and new perspectives.
Thanks to Professor S. Savikhin (Purdue University, USA) as well as to Professor M. Chergui (EPFL, Switzerland) from whose laboratory of Ultrafast Spectroscopy the different pictures are taken. The described microfluidic flow cell as well as the cyt bc1’s study have been funded by the Swiss NSF via the NCCR:MUST, by the FP7 Marie Curie COFUND, by the Excellence Initiative of the German Federal and State Governments (EXC 294, BIOSS) and by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (RTG 1976).
The concept of frailty is frequently mentioned in studies related to the elderly population—health status, self-care dependence, healthcare resources or even the configuration of the wards where care is provided. Looking at the scientific knowledge and clinical practice, frailty in the elderly is considered a relevant dimension of quality of life. Moreover, there is a tendency to accept that individuals with severe frailty have to be considered vulnerable and should be protected.
Frailty has been viewed as a cornerstone of geriatric medicine and a platform of biological vulnerability to a host of other geriatric syndromes and adverse health outcomes [1], such as long-term nursing home stay, injurious falls and death, in community-dwelling older adults independent of medical comorbidities and age. The expression “frailty elderly” was used for the first time in 1970, by researchers from the Federal Council on Aging (FCA) of the United States, with the purpose of describing elderly people who lived in unfavourable socioeconomic conditions and presented physical weakness and cognitive deficit that, with advancing age, began to demand more care; in the 1980s, frailty in the elderly people was understood mainly as synonymous of disability or the presence of a disease, chronic or extreme condition linked with ageing [2]. In 1990, the expression “frailty elderly” was referred for the first time on the Journal of the American Geriatrics Society index [2].
The term “frailty” started to be used frequently in terms of diagnosis, clinical decisions and provision of care. Frailty and cognitive and functional decline are relatively common in older dependent people with health problems. One of the challenges for researchers today has been to study the physical characteristics and psychological symptoms of frailty and to relate them to adverse health outcomes. In this chapter, we intend to analyse the matters that have most attracted the attention of researchers and health professionals who deal with people in situations of frailty.
Understanding frailty has become crucial for caring for the elderly. In older people with dementia, the assessment of frailty is more important than determining the degree of dementia, since it is crucial to develop appropriate care people need; there are old people with moderate dementia but with a severe level of frailty.
In this chapter, we intend to review the concepts of frailty, operationalization strategies and assessment tools and clarify some ideas from the debate on what frailty is.
The concept of frailty has grown in importance because of a need to evaluate the health status of older persons and a need to prevent or at least delay the onset of late-life disability and its adverse consequences [3]. There is to date no clear consensus regarding the definition of frailty; some definitions have been proposed, each with their own strengths and weaknesses [3].
Frailty is a multidimensional concept and can be defined as a dynamic state that affects an individual with declines in one or more domains, such as physical, cognitive, social, attention or senses [4]. There is usually a dependence on self-care and need of support from others. Elderly does not mean frailty, but the ageing process led to frailty, which means that there are changes that reflect ageing-related alterations and involve intrinsic and extrinsic factors which are typical of ageing.
The occurrence of frailty is mainly a state of vulnerability resulting from comorbidities and the overall decline in organ functions. The progression to later stages of dementia often signals a loss of autonomy, dependence and reduction in physical and cognitive function. Frailty of people is positively related with their caregiver burden and associated with higher levels of depression on the caregiver. A lack of understanding about frailty has been identified as a barrier to providing optimal care to elderly people, for example, people with advanced dementia [4].
Frailty is an emerging concept used in the field of geriatrics and gerontology, to make reference to the clinical condition of the elderly. There is a deficit of information regarding the incidence and prevalence of frailty in the elderly, mainly due to the lack of consensus definition that can be used as reference in different populations. There is usually a “clinical sense” about what is frailty and what a frail elderly person is, but there is no agreement, a standard definition regarding this concept, that can assist in the diagnosis of frailty condition. As mentioned above, frailty is often considered an inherent condition of ageing, an attitude that can cause late interventions with minimal potential for prevention or reversing the consequences and adverse effects from the problem.
The concept of frailty, widely used in the recent years, focuses primarily on the physical dimensions. That is why it is understood that the criteria for assessing presence/absence are the physical signs and symptoms, sedentary behaviour, weight loss, exhaustion, slowed gait, decreased muscle strength, with three or more of these five criteria we are facing physical frailty and the presence of one or two criteria indicates pre-physical frailty [5].
The diagnosis of frailty relies currently on the assessment of a small subset of easily measurable clinical markers. Just as conceptual disagreements arise about what frailty means, there are also disagreements about how to evaluate it. While recognizing the multifactorial nature of frailty, it is important to develop an “operational definition” of frailty that is simple enough to be used clinically and to guide prevention and care [3].
Frailty among older persons appears in the investigation as a dynamic process, characterized by frequent changes over time. The evolution of frailty incorporates quantitative and qualitative data, which motivated researchers to invest in modelling. Recent studies have highlighted age, medical factors and higher socioeconomic status to be protective [6]. In the study carried out by the Canadian Study of Health and Aging (CSHA) [6], it was concluded that cognitive status and frailty are associated. Functional decline contributes to increase costs in caring for people with dementia. Despite all the research related to Alzheimer’s disease, very little has been indicated as effective therapies to deal with the disease, although it is known that cognitive decline is one of the first symptoms to appear and that interventions at this level can delay the evolution of the disease [6].
Andrade et al. [2] state that currently, two research groups have distinguished in the pursuit of consensus on the definition of frailty in the elderly: one of them in the United States, at the Johns Hopkins University, and the other one in Canada, the Canadian Initiative on Frailty and Aging (CIF-A). The group of researchers from the Johns Hopkins University produced an operational definition of frailty in the elderly and proposed measurable and objective criteria to the phenomenon. This operational definition starts from the hypothesis that the term is a geriatric syndrome and it can be identified by means of a phenotype that includes five measurable components: (a) unintentional weight loss, greater than 4.5 kg or more than 5% of body weight in the last year; (b) signs of fatigue; (c) reduction of handgrip strength, assessed with a specific instrument and adjusted to the person’s sex and body mass; (d) little physical activity assessed by calorie consumption (measured in kcal), adjusted by sex; and (e) reduction of march activity in seconds, distance of 4.5 m adjusted by gender and height [2].
A second definition was formulated by researchers from the CIF-A, indicated above. This is based on a multidimensional construct—frailty was defined using a more holistic approach, which emphasizes the complex aetiology of the phenomenon, understood as a not optimal condition in elderly, multifactorial and dynamic in nature, relating it to its history or trajectory of life [2]. The indicated trajectory can be shaped by biological, psychological and social, whose interactions result in resources and/or individual deficits in a given context. A tool was developed to measure frailty in the elderly—the Edmonton Frail Scale (EFS)—contemplating nine domains: (I) cognition, (II) general state of (III) functional independence, (IV) support, (V) medication use, (VI) nutrition, (VII) humour, (VIII) continence and (IX) functional performance. These authors consider this scale more comprehensive, especially considering aspects of cognition, humour and social support [2].
Some definitions of frailty promote a multidimensional approach based on an evaluation according to “frailty indexes”, which are calculated considering the accumulation of possible deficits, such as the presence of diseases, abnormal laboratory values, signs and symptoms or disabilities [7, 8].
It is difficult to establish a typology of frailty, given its multidimensional nature. On the one hand, frailty results from an articulation of factors of a physical and psychological nature. On the other hand, it is possible to assess frailty to highlight one or another aspect. Also, the investigation indicates that emotional management strategies can interfere with the signs and symptoms of frailty and with the ability to adjust to different disabilities.
Given the definitive trends in frailty, and although the creation of a typology is sometimes an academic task, we will try to describe four types of frailty in the elderly, on the assumption that they intersect and present common dimensions: physical, cognitive, social and emotional.
Frailty is a clinical situation known for the great vulnerability of the person in terms of the different physiological systems. In addition to the physical dimension, frailty is characterized by problems at the social, emotional and cognitive levels, despite the possibility of delaying its evolution in early stages [3, 9]. Fried et al. [10] proposed a clinical phenotype of frailty, defining it as a situation of increased vulnerability in the person for homeostatic resolution after pronounced distress. This growing vulnerability increases the risk of adverse outcomes, such as falls, fractures, hospitalization and ultimately mortality in elderly people living in organizations in the community or in their own homes.
Four main mechanisms can be identified in the progression of frailty: atherosclerosis, sarcopenia, cognitive deterioration and malnutrition [11]. It has been proven that malnutrition can be the cause of cognitive and functional decline and that the lack of some nutrients can cause cognitive frailty and vascular dementia [11].
There is an evident relationship between functionality and cognition, as evidenced by research evidence and some assessment tools (e.g., Clinical Dementia Rating). Many cross-sectional studies demonstrated the relationship between general cognitive function, emotions and physical frailty [12]. However, it is important to keep in mind that the decline in cognition and capacity of emotional management, given its functions and nature, evokes so many limitations to functionality that it becomes relevant to consider a cognitive frailty as a specific type.
Many studies have focused on the proposed entity of “cognitive frailty” to describe a clinical condition that is characterized by simultaneous occurrence of physical frailty and cognitive impairment in the absence of overt dementia [13]. Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by an association between physical and cognitive decline, but in the opposite direction, people with physical limitations are more predisposed to suffer emotional and cognitive problems. However, it should be noted that in recent years studies are more focused on physical frailty, with a relative paucity of data available for concomitant transitions in cognitive status [6].
An International Consensus Group studied the “cognitive frailty” condition. “Cognitive frailty”, although so defined, implies the presence of physical and cognitive decline. The key symptoms to characterize cognitive frailty are as follows: (1) presence of physical frailty and cognitive impairment and (2) exclusion from the concomitant presence of any type of dementia [14]. At the same time, the group indicated that “cognitive frailty” implies a rigorous diagnosis in terms of memory performance but also of other cognitive functions [14].
“Cognitive frailty” could represent a cognitive entity with specific neuropsychological patterns (executive and selective attention) [14]. The mechanisms in action and how deterioration occurs are not yet fully understood.
The loss of emotional management capacities and of establishing social interactions generates potential situations of frailty. It is also evident that any types of frailty (physical or psychological) also interfere with the emotional and social spheres. Usually, people with frailty (with cognitive impairment) experienced high levels of emotional discomfort and behavioural changes. Even without significant cognitive changes, symptoms usually emerge that emphasize the importance of emotions and social interactions: sadness, loneliness, nervousness, concern for oneself, self-concept, self-care and sense of hope.
The relationship between emotions, behaviour and frailty emerges in studies that explore this association. Emotion, which can be considered positive or negative, interferes with the perception of self-efficacy and the subjective sense of well-being. Furthermore, studies conducted in older adults found that positive emotions were associated with lower disability in the execution of daily living activities, higher levels of mobility, less physical dependence and major likelihood of survival, as well as higher level of adjustment to chronic health problems; on the other hand, negative emotions are correlated with stress sensations and poor coping abilities [15].
Clark and Watson [16] emphasize the relationship between emotions and functionality, which is understood by the well-known association between emotions and behaviour. They concluded, in a study carried out with older adults, that positive emotions may be associated with lower disability in the execution of daily living activities, better mobility, good functional status and major likelihood of survival; on the contrary, negative emotions can be correlated with distress and poor coping abilities. Mulasso et al. [15] provide empirical evidence to the multidimensional theorization and definition of frailty, hypothesizing that a reduced level of positive emotions and high level of negative emotions may contribute to increases in the severity of frailty condition; on the other hand, they highlighted the role of emotion experience in interventions for the prevention of frailty, such as interventions of physical exercise or cognitive training associated with frequent experience of positive emotions.
Simultaneously, studies emphasize also the need to identify risks for frailty [4, 6, 9]. All dimensions that constitute limitations on functionality, carrying out activities of daily living, cognitive impairment and social isolation can and should be considered risks for frailty [4]. There are currently models, mathematical equations and Bayesian networks that allow identifying these risks and even predicting them, conjugating certain variables. Usually, these models take into account demographic, social and clinical variables. These models can have good performance, isolated or conjugated with other evaluation tools. Moreover, they can predict frailty evolution and enable dependent persons to be identified for further specific assessment or interventions.
There are many studies that explore frailty, types of frailty and predictors of frailty every year. The relationship between frailty and functionality and the psychological sphere and relationship between the frailty of the recipient of care and burden on the caregiver are increasingly studied.
Armstrong et al. [17] used of a large database (n = 23,952) with comprehensive health information on home care clients (aged 65+) of eight Community Care Access Centres (CCACs) in Ontario, Canada. In this large cohort of older home care clients, they found that greater evidence of frailty as defined by each of the three measures was associated with greater risk of adverse outcomes. This result additionally confirmed the potential utility of a frailty concept for identifying vulnerable individuals within the home healthcare sector. They concluded that mathematical models can utilize data collected during clinical assessments to provide a quantitative indicator of a client’s level of frailty.
Dudzińska-Griszek, Szuster and Szewieczek [18] developed a study whose aim was to assess conditions that influence grip strength in geriatric inpatients. A comprehensive geriatric assessment was complemented with assessment for the frailty phenotype. Functional assessment included Barthel Index of Activities of Daily Living (Barthel Index), Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale and Mini-Mental State Examination. The conclusion was that cognitive function, somatic comorbidity and medical treatment affect grip strength as a measure of physical frailty in geriatric inpatients.
A retrospective cohort study on 18,341 Medicare Advantage enrollees aged 65+ was conducted by Anzaldi et al. [19] in Massachusetts. When analysing the clinical information systems, they identified the presence of 10 syndromes commonly found in the elderly (falls, malnutrition, dementia, severe urinary incontinence, absence of faecal control, visual impairment, walking impairment, pressure ulcers, lack of social support and weight loss), as well as references to the presence of frailty identified in the natural language processing (NLP) algorithm. The main conclusion was that patients identified as “frail” by providers in clinical notes have higher rates of healthcare utilization and more geriatric syndromes than other patients. Certain geriatric syndromes were more highly correlated with descriptions of frailty than others.
Shimada et al. [20] studied the cognitive frailty in 4570 older adults. The aim of the study was to analyse the extent to which a new perspective of cognitive frailty could be considered as a predictor of dementia. There are 2326 women and the average age was 71.9 ± 5.5 years. Physical frailty was defined as the presence of more than one of these symptoms: slow walking speed and muscle weakness. Cognitive frailty was defined as comorbid physical frailty and cognitive impairment. They concluded that cognitive impairment and cognitive frailty could be considered risk factors for dementia. Findings showed clearly that individuals with comorbid physical frailty and cognitive impairment could have a higher risk of dementia than healthy older adults or older adults with either physical frailty or cognitive impairment alone.
The estimation of the prevalence of frailty in patients admitted to intensive care unit (ICU) and its impact on intra-ICU mortality, at 1 month and at 6 months, was developed by Cuenca et al. [21]. A prospective cohort study was conducted. Frailty was present in 35% of patients admitted to the ICU, associated with higher rates of mortality.
Ma et al. [22] carried out a study to determine social frailty status via developing a simple self-reported screening tool, termed the HALFT scale, and to examine the association between social frailty and physical functioning, cognition, depression and mortality among community-dwelling older adults. They state that social frailty is related to adverse health-related outcomes. Moreover, they added that research into the relationship between social frailty and physical functioning remains limited. A prospective cohort study was carried out, with 1697 community-dwelling adults aged ≥60 years from Beijing. The scale developed was based on five items: unhelpful to others, limited social participation, loneliness, financial difficulty and not having anyone to talk to.
The prevalence of social frailty in the participants was 7.7%. Social frailty was positively associated with physical frailty, low levels of physical activity and poor physical functioning. Researchers also found that social frailty was associated with dementia, memory decline, depression and cognitive impairment. Having experienced a negative or traumatic event was also associated with social frailty. Additionally, social frailty was associated with physical functioning, cognition and depression and predicts mortality; they emphasize that interventions aimed at preventing or delaying social frailty are warranted.
In a cross-sectional study carried out by Mulasso et al. [15] the association between frailty and emotional experience was studied in a sample of Italian community-dwelling older adults. Participants consisted of 104 older adults (age 76 ± 8 years; 59.6% women) living in Italy. Frailty and emotion perception were measured with appropriate and valid tools. The Mini-Mental State Examination was used as a screening tool for cognitive functions (people with a score ≤ 20 points were excluded). The researchers stated that frailty increases individual vulnerability to external stressors and involves high risk for adverse geriatric outcomes [15]; findings demonstrate that emotion perception may influence frailty, which is really relevant for the evaluation and prevention of frailty in older adults.
A theoretical study based on research studies that equate the role of nutrition and nutrients in cognitive and functional decline was developed by Gomez-Gomez and Sapico [23]. They state that one of the most important factors to consider in the development of cognitive deterioration is oxidative stress. Consequently, they added that increasing antioxidants in the diet may be one of the therapeutic strategies in the management of these patients.
Some studies were analysed, mainly those that showed the effectiveness of antioxidants in the adjustment of oxidative stress, given their function as free radical scavengers, or factors that potentiate the antioxidant effect. Anyway, the studies emphasized that the inappropriate use of antioxidants could have side effects and become toxic at high doses. Given the multiplicity and some divergence in the results, additional studies are required as well as clinical trials to increase the clinical effectiveness [23].
Several studies were analysed, namely, those that have shown the effectiveness of antioxidants in the adjustment of oxidative stress, either by their function as free radical scavengers or potentiating the antioxidant effect. Studies showed that the inappropriate use of antioxidants could have side effects and toxicity at high doses. However, it was indicated that additional studies are required as well as clinical trials to increase the clinical effectiveness [23].
Abreu et al. [4] examined the healthcare needs of community-dwelling older people, trying to understand the relationship between frailty, functional dependence and healthcare needs among community-dwelling people with moderate to severe dementia. A sample of 83 participants was recruited. The Edmonton Frail Scale was used to evaluate frailty, in addition to tools that were chosen to collect data on other variables. A set of 26 healthcare needs was defined to support the assessment. There was a significant association between “severe frailty” and “severe dementia” and “fully dependent” and “severely or fully dependent in the activities of daily living”. The most prevalent healthcare needs in the sample were food preparation, medication/taking pills, looking after their home, toilet use, sensory problems, communication/interaction, bladder, bowels, eating and drinking, memory, sleeping and fall prevention. In particular, the study shows a set of needs that are present simultaneously in both frailty and dementia stages, according to their severity. They found in the study that 16.7% of people with moderate dementia were also diagnosed with severe frailty. Concerning the needs assessment, the authors state that the concept of “severe dementia” is clearly a limiter in the matter of frailty. As an alternative, they suggest the expression of “advanced dementia”, encompassing people with severe dementia and people with moderate dementia but who also have severe frailty.
Usually, scales assess some domains of frailty in old people (cognition, general health status, functional independence, social support, medication usage, nutrition, mood, continence and functional performance). These tools are important on clinical point of view, for research and decision-making. Several tools that evaluate functionality and cognition also evaluate several dimensions that we are traditionally including in frailty.
Armstrong et al. [17] indicate, in the scope of their study, three conceptually different approaches to the measurement of frailty: (1) Changes in Health, End-Stage Disease and Signs and Symptoms (CHESS) scale, (2) Edmonton Frail Scale (EFS), (3) the frailty index (FI) and the Tilburg Frailty Indicator (TFI).
The CHESS scale is a tool that uses information from the person’s clinical assessment, which is used to calculate the person’s level of decline. The tool was developed using statistical methods, based on the items available in the inter-RAI instruments. It is not a tool for objectively assessing frailty, but it allows assessing the “instability” of health status, which is also a predictor of mortality [17]. The scores ranging from 0 (meaning no instability) to 5 (for the highest level of instability) have been demonstrated to be a strong predictor of mortality (P < 0.0001) in continuing care patients [24].
The EFS is a brief multidimensional clinical measure, widely used and designed to use in both inpatient and outpatient settings [25]. The scale assesses nine domains of frailty in old people (cognition, general health status, functional independence, social support, medication usage, nutrition, mood, continence and functional performance) [25]. Total score can vary from 0 to 17. The participants were classified into categories, and a higher score represents a higher degree of frailty. Severe frail and non-frail participants were defined according of the EFS score from not frail (0–5), vulnerable (6–7), mild frailty (8–9), moderate frailty (10–11) and severe frailty (12–17). The EFS is a measure of frailty compared to the clinical impression of specialists after their more comprehensive assessment. A larger part of the assessment tools is focused primarily on determining the person’s level of functioning in terms of managing activities of daily living and instrumental activities of daily living. In post-operative older adults, high scores on the EFS have been shown to be associated with increased complications and a lower chance of being discharged home after surgery [17].
The FI was developed by Rockwood and Mitnitski based on an idea of “accumulation of deficits” [17]. The FI is based on the view that frailty is a non-specific multifactorial state, best characterized by the quantity, rather than the quality, of the health deficits that the person accumulates during the course of life [26]. The FI is thus calculated as the proportion of potential deficits present in the person and can be calculated from the information present in most previous systems of clinical data (databases) [17].
The TFI is a tool widely used to assess 3 frailty domains and their 15 components. It is a user-friendly questionnaire and has good psychometric properties assessed in the initial validation process, constituting a good strategy for multidimensional assessment of frailty in community settings [27]. The instrument consists of two parts. Part A includes life-course determinants of frailty (sex, age and marital status), and part B assesses 15 components of frailty. The score on total frailty has a range of 0–15; people with a score ≥ 5 are considered frail; for physical, psychological and social frailty, the score ranges are 0–8, 0–4 and 0–3, respectively [28].
Studies carried out in different countries have demonstrated that these tools have in general good psychometric properties and are reliable and valid instruments for assessing frailty in community-dwelling older people [4, 17, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30].
Frailty’s assessment is inseparable from an objective and competent evaluation of healthcare needs. Frailty is a multidimensional concept and can be defined as a dynamic state that affects an individual with declines in one or more domains, such as physical, cognitive, social, attention or senses. The assessment of frailty is of limited interest if healthcare professionals do not invest in assessing the needs of frailty people in healthcare. This assessment must be multidimensional, multifactorial, longitudinal and comprehensive, covering all activities of life.
There are many debates on what are health needs assessment and problem identification. What is important to note is that care needs assessment is a systematic and sequential process, conducted by a care professional, which begins with the assessment of dependency focus, accounts for the presence and efficacy of current help, recognizes perceived need and finally determines the type of intervention needed to meet those needs [31].
It has been recognized that needs in the elderly should be patient-centred; holistic; analysed on by dependent people, caregivers and professionals; communicated to other professionals; and met in order to achieve better coordination between leading disciplines; needs assessment enhances the patient and carers experience and leads to more accurate information, but the level of reassessment by other professionals and the incidence of service duplication should also be reduced [31].
Care needs assessment has to promote an objective, competent evaluation of the self-care deficits. A self-care deficit is an inability to perform certain daily activities dependent on health and well-being. Common activities of daily living are the following: eating, bathing, getting dressed, toileting, transferring and continence. Self-care deficits can arise from physical or mental impairments. In elderly people, some of these problems accumulate and comorbidities appear. Health professionals play an important role when it comes to addressing self-care deficits through assessment and intervention. For assessment, evaluation of needs and identification of focuses of attention are necessary. Intervention can include, but is not limited to, helping patients to manage signs and symptoms, adhere to the therapeutic regime, adjust to deficits and strive to preserve, as far as possible, their self-care capacity.
With the ageing of the population and increased longevity, the need to provide palliative care is emphasized. However, this increased need is not usually accompanied by the availability of beds, which requires the use of indicators to manage the availability of palliative care provision. When to begin palliative care is a troublesome question for patients, families and healthcare providers [32]. Severe frailty is a relevant marker, along with functional dependence, cognitive impairment, symptom distress and family support for beginning palliative care. Frailty, independent of specific diseases, can be associated with a limited life expectancy and therefore is an important indication for palliative care [32]. Frailty is an essential model for palliative care in older adults as optimal medical treatment for the frail patient typically includes preventive, life-prolonging, rehabilitative and palliative measures in varying proportion and intensity based on the individual patient’s needs and preferences [33].
Frailty elderly usually have dependence on self-care and need of support from others. Elderly does not mean frailty, but the ageing process led to frailty, which means that there are changes that reflect ageing-related alterations and involve intrinsic and extrinsic factors which are typical of ageing [4]. Usually, scales assess some domains of frailty in old people (cognition, general health status, functional independence, social support, medication usage, nutrition, mood, continence and functional performance). The occurrence of frailty is mainly a state of vulnerability resulting from comorbidities and the overall decline in organ functions. The progression to later stages of frailty often signals a loss of autonomy, dependence and reduction in physical and cognitive function.
Frailty is commonly positively related with caregiver burden and associated with higher levels of depression on the caregiver. A lack of understanding about frailty has been identified as a barrier to providing optimal care to elderly people. Self-care deficit theories suggest people are better able to recover when they maintain some independence over their own self-care. The evaluation of frailty is closely linked to the identification of dependencies in self-care. The use of frailty and self-care dependence assessment helps to determine the focus of attention, to respect vulnerability, to limit dependence as much as possible and to provide quality, safety and competent care.
The Edited Volume, also known as the IntechOpen Book, is an IntechOpen pioneered publishing product. Edited Volumes make up the core of our business - and as pioneers and developers of this Open Access book publishing format, we have helped change the way scholars and scientists publish their scientific papers - as scientific chapters.
",metaTitle:"Edited Volumes",metaDescription:"The Edited Volume, also known as the InTechOpen Book, is an InTechOpen pioneered publishing product. Edited Volumes make up the core of our business - and as pioneers and developers of this Open Access book publishing format, we have helped change the way scholars and scientists publish their scientific papers - as scientific chapters. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/pages/edited-volumes",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"WHY PUBLISH IN AN INTECHOPEN EDITED VOLUME?
\\n\\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\\n\\nQUALITY CONTENT
\\n\\nOver the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
\\n\\nOur books contain scientific content written by two Nobel Prize winners, two Breakthrough Prize winners and 73 authors who are in the top 1% Most Cited.
\\n\\nWith regular submission for coverage in the single most important database, the Book Citation Index in the Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI), and no rejected submissions to date, over 43% of all Open Access books indexed in the BKCI are IntechOpen published books.
\\n\\nIn addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
\\n\\nACCESS
\\n\\nThe need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
\\n\\nYOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\\n\\nThe utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\\n\\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
\\n\\nOur Open Access book collection includes:
\\n\\n3,332 OPEN ACCESS BOOKS
\\n\\n107,564 INTERNATIONAL AUTHORS AND ACADEMIC EDITORS
\\n\\n113+ MILLION DOWNLOADS
\\n\\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\\n\\nSee a complete overview of all publishing process steps and descriptions here.
\\n\\nCURRENT PROJECTS
\\n\\nTo view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\\n\\nNot sure if this is the right publishing option for you? Feel free to contact us at book.department@intechopen.com.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'WHY PUBLISH IN AN INTECHOPEN EDITED VOLUME?
\n\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nQUALITY CONTENT
\n\nOver the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
\n\nOur books contain scientific content written by two Nobel Prize winners, two Breakthrough Prize winners and 73 authors who are in the top 1% Most Cited.
\n\nWith regular submission for coverage in the single most important database, the Book Citation Index in the Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI), and no rejected submissions to date, over 43% of all Open Access books indexed in the BKCI are IntechOpen published books.
\n\nIn addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
\n\nACCESS
\n\nThe need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
\n\nYOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\n\nThe utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\n\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
\n\nOur Open Access book collection includes:
\n\n3,332 OPEN ACCESS BOOKS
\n\n107,564 INTERNATIONAL AUTHORS AND ACADEMIC EDITORS
\n\n113+ MILLION DOWNLOADS
\n\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\nSee a complete overview of all publishing process steps and descriptions here.
\n\nCURRENT PROJECTS
\n\nTo view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right publishing option for you? Feel free to contact us at book.department@intechopen.com.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5775},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5238},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10409},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15805}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118374},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5247},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"403",title:"Microbial Genetics",slug:"karyology-microbial-genetics",parent:{title:"Karyology",slug:"karyology"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:169,numberOfWosCitations:69,numberOfCrossrefCitations:34,numberOfDimensionsCitations:80,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"karyology-microbial-genetics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5085",title:"Telomere",subtitle:"A Complex End of a Chromosome",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2a8f40859d7bc312dea327fd9b058a20",slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5085.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4720",title:"Flow Cytometry",subtitle:"Select Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5a842a00d86bc7f956a5fd1fe6d62b8a",slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",bookSignature:"Ingrid Schmid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4720.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109787",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Schmid",slug:"ingrid-schmid",fullName:"Ingrid Schmid"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3536",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"31abe97fe35989e4547bab854b38e03a",slug:"chromatin-remodelling",bookSignature:"Danuta Radzioch",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165250",title:"Dr.",name:"Danuta",middleName:null,surname:"Radzioch",slug:"danuta-radzioch",fullName:"Danuta Radzioch"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1578",title:"Flow Cytometry",subtitle:"Recent Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fccad401cbcf998ea4de62d524abf82d",slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",bookSignature:"Ingrid Schmid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1578.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109787",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Schmid",slug:"ingrid-schmid",fullName:"Ingrid Schmid"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2291",title:"Clinical Flow Cytometry",subtitle:"Emerging Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5414617aafe62d7c6ec8205028f6967",slug:"clinical-flow-cytometry-emerging-applications",bookSignature:"Ingrid Schmid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2291.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109787",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Schmid",slug:"ingrid-schmid",fullName:"Ingrid Schmid"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"44225",doi:"10.5772/55370",title:"Role of Enhancer of Zeste Homolog 2 Polycomb Protein and Its Significance in Tumor Progression and Cell Differentiation",slug:"role-of-enhancer-of-zeste-homolog-2-polycomb-protein-and-its-significance-in-tumor-progression-and-c",totalDownloads:3389,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"chromatin-remodelling",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",fullTitle:"Chromatin Remodelling"},signatures:"Irene Marchesi and Luigi Bagella",authors:[{id:"91878",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Bagella",slug:"luigi-bagella",fullName:"Luigi Bagella"},{id:"164852",title:"Dr.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Marchesi",slug:"irene-marchesi",fullName:"Irene Marchesi"}]},{id:"52461",doi:"10.5772/65353",title:"Molecular Diagnosis and Precision Therapeutic Approaches for Telomere Biology Disorders",slug:"molecular-diagnosis-and-precision-therapeutic-approaches-for-telomere-biology-disorders",totalDownloads:1213,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",title:"Telomere",fullTitle:"Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome"},signatures:"Rosario Perona, Laura Iarriccio, Laura Pintado-Berninches, Javier\nRodriguez-Centeno, Cristina Manguan-Garcia, Elena Garcia, Blanca\nLopez-Ayllón and Leandro Sastre",authors:[{id:"179373",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",middleName:null,surname:"Sastre",slug:"leandro-sastre",fullName:"Leandro Sastre"},{id:"184869",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosario",middleName:null,surname:"Perona",slug:"rosario-perona",fullName:"Rosario Perona"},{id:"184870",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Iarriccio",slug:"laura-iarriccio",fullName:"Laura Iarriccio"},{id:"184871",title:"MSc.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Pintado-Berninches",slug:"laura-pintado-berninches",fullName:"Laura Pintado-Berninches"},{id:"184872",title:"MSc.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Centeno",slug:"javier-rodriguez-centeno",fullName:"Javier Rodriguez-Centeno"},{id:"184873",title:"Ms.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Manguan-Garcia",slug:"cristina-manguan-garcia",fullName:"Cristina Manguan-Garcia"},{id:"184874",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"elena-garcia",fullName:"Elena Garcia"},{id:"184875",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanca",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Ayllon",slug:"blanca-lopez-ayllon",fullName:"Blanca Lopez-Ayllon"}]},{id:"37421",doi:"10.5772/38616",title:"What Flow Cytometry can Tell Us About Marine Micro-Organisms – Current Status and Future Applications",slug:"what-flow-cytometry-can-tell-about-marine-microrganisms-current-status-and-future-applications",totalDownloads:2396,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Recent Perspectives"},signatures:"A. Manti, S. Papa and P. Boi",authors:[{id:"118302",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Manti",slug:"anita-manti",fullName:"Anita Manti"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49878",title:"Immunophenotyping of Acute Leukemias – From Biology to Clinical Application",slug:"immunophenotyping-of-acute-leukemias-from-biology-to-clinical-application",totalDownloads:2485,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"Francesco Mannelli",authors:[{id:"178848",title:"M.D.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Mannelli",slug:"francesco-mannelli",fullName:"Francesco Mannelli"}]},{id:"50878",title:"Detection of Anti-HLA Antibodies by Flow Cytometer",slug:"detection-of-anti-hla-antibodies-by-flow-cytometer",totalDownloads:2351,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"Tülay Kılıçaslan Ayna and Aslı Özkızılcık Koçyiğit",authors:[{id:"178265",title:"Dr.",name:"Tulay",middleName:null,surname:"Kilicaslan Ayna",slug:"tulay-kilicaslan-ayna",fullName:"Tulay Kilicaslan Ayna"}]},{id:"37054",title:"Effect of Monocyte Locomotion Inhibitory Factor (MLIF) on the Activation and Production of Intracellular Cytokine and Chemokine Receptors in Human T CD4+ Lymphocytes Measured by Flow Cytometry",slug:"effect-of-monocyte-inhibitory-locomotion-factor-mlif-on-the-activation-and-production-of-intracellul",totalDownloads:1566,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"clinical-flow-cytometry-emerging-applications",title:"Clinical Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Clinical Flow Cytometry - Emerging Applications"},signatures:"Sara Rojas-Dotor",authors:[{id:"109461",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas-Dotor",slug:"sara-rojas-dotor",fullName:"Sara Rojas-Dotor"}]},{id:"50807",title:"The Role of Cytometry for Male Fertility Assessment in Toxicology",slug:"the-role-of-cytometry-for-male-fertility-assessment-in-toxicology",totalDownloads:1268,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"Maria de Lourdes Pereira, Helena Oliveira, Henrique M.A.C.\nFonseca, Fernando Garcia e Costa and Conceição Santos",authors:[{id:"79715",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria De Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"maria-de-lourdes-pereira",fullName:"Maria De Lourdes Pereira"},{id:"174419",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia E Costa",slug:"fernando-garcia-e-costa",fullName:"Fernando Garcia E Costa"},{id:"185982",title:"Prof.",name:"Helena",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"helena-oliveira",fullName:"Helena Oliveira"},{id:"185983",title:"Prof.",name:"Henrique M.A.C.",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca",slug:"henrique-m.a.c.-fonseca",fullName:"Henrique M.A.C. Fonseca"},{id:"185984",title:"Prof.",name:"Conceição",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",slug:"conceicao-santos",fullName:"Conceição Santos"}]},{id:"37421",title:"What Flow Cytometry can Tell Us About Marine Micro-Organisms – Current Status and Future Applications",slug:"what-flow-cytometry-can-tell-about-marine-microrganisms-current-status-and-future-applications",totalDownloads:2393,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Recent Perspectives"},signatures:"A. Manti, S. Papa and P. Boi",authors:[{id:"118302",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Manti",slug:"anita-manti",fullName:"Anita Manti"}]},{id:"37445",title:"Retracted: Applications of Quantum Dots in Flow Cytometry",slug:"applications-of-quantum-dots-in-flow-cytometry",totalDownloads:1852,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Recent Perspectives"},signatures:"Dimitrios Kirmizis, Fani Chatzopoulou, Eleni Gavriilaki and Dimitrios Chatzidimitriou",authors:[{id:"45414",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kirmizis",slug:"dimitrios-kirmizis",fullName:"Dimitrios Kirmizis"},{id:"122229",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Chatzidimitriou",slug:"dimitrios-chatzidimitriou",fullName:"Dimitrios Chatzidimitriou"},{id:"134576",title:"BSc.",name:"Fani",middleName:null,surname:"Chatzopoulou",slug:"fani-chatzopoulou",fullName:"Fani Chatzopoulou"},{id:"134577",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen",middleName:null,surname:"Gavriilaki",slug:"helen-gavriilaki",fullName:"Helen Gavriilaki"}]},{id:"51979",title:"Telomeres and Cellular Senescence in Metabolic and Endocrine Diseases",slug:"telomeres-and-cellular-senescence-in-metabolic-and-endocrine-diseases",totalDownloads:1188,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",title:"Telomere",fullTitle:"Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome"},signatures:"Ryusaku Matsumoto and Yutaka Takahashi",authors:[{id:"187040",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Takahashi",slug:"yutaka-takahashi",fullName:"Yutaka Takahashi"}]},{id:"52461",title:"Molecular Diagnosis and Precision Therapeutic Approaches for Telomere Biology Disorders",slug:"molecular-diagnosis-and-precision-therapeutic-approaches-for-telomere-biology-disorders",totalDownloads:1213,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",title:"Telomere",fullTitle:"Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome"},signatures:"Rosario Perona, Laura Iarriccio, Laura Pintado-Berninches, Javier\nRodriguez-Centeno, Cristina Manguan-Garcia, Elena Garcia, Blanca\nLopez-Ayllón and Leandro Sastre",authors:[{id:"179373",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",middleName:null,surname:"Sastre",slug:"leandro-sastre",fullName:"Leandro Sastre"},{id:"184869",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosario",middleName:null,surname:"Perona",slug:"rosario-perona",fullName:"Rosario Perona"},{id:"184870",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Iarriccio",slug:"laura-iarriccio",fullName:"Laura Iarriccio"},{id:"184871",title:"MSc.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Pintado-Berninches",slug:"laura-pintado-berninches",fullName:"Laura Pintado-Berninches"},{id:"184872",title:"MSc.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Centeno",slug:"javier-rodriguez-centeno",fullName:"Javier Rodriguez-Centeno"},{id:"184873",title:"Ms.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Manguan-Garcia",slug:"cristina-manguan-garcia",fullName:"Cristina Manguan-Garcia"},{id:"184874",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"elena-garcia",fullName:"Elena Garcia"},{id:"184875",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanca",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Ayllon",slug:"blanca-lopez-ayllon",fullName:"Blanca Lopez-Ayllon"}]},{id:"44220",title:"Condensins, Chromatin Remodeling and Gene Transcription",slug:"condensins-chromatin-remodeling-and-gene-transcription",totalDownloads:2090,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"chromatin-remodelling",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",fullTitle:"Chromatin Remodelling"},signatures:"Laurence O. W. Wilson and Aude M. Fahrer",authors:[{id:"164464",title:"Mr.",name:"Laurence",middleName:null,surname:"Wilson",slug:"laurence-wilson",fullName:"Laurence Wilson"},{id:"164788",title:"Dr.",name:"Aude",middleName:null,surname:"Fahrer",slug:"aude-fahrer",fullName:"Aude Fahrer"}]},{id:"44225",title:"Role of Enhancer of Zeste Homolog 2 Polycomb Protein and Its Significance in Tumor Progression and Cell Differentiation",slug:"role-of-enhancer-of-zeste-homolog-2-polycomb-protein-and-its-significance-in-tumor-progression-and-c",totalDownloads:3388,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"chromatin-remodelling",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",fullTitle:"Chromatin Remodelling"},signatures:"Irene Marchesi and Luigi Bagella",authors:[{id:"91878",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Bagella",slug:"luigi-bagella",fullName:"Luigi Bagella"},{id:"164852",title:"Dr.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Marchesi",slug:"irene-marchesi",fullName:"Irene Marchesi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"karyology-microbial-genetics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/204706/adelia-viviane-mello-de-luna",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"204706",slug:"adelia-viviane-mello-de-luna"},fullPath:"/profiles/204706/adelia-viviane-mello-de-luna",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()