Major applications, their current utilization of BC/AI and their future requirement.
\r\n\tAn important component of this book must be dedicated to the more recent treatments namely with biologic therapies but focusing also on new small molecule inhibitors and experimental therapies.
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According to the survey, 8 in 10 of those exploring blockchain are investing either in response to financial shifts in their industry, or for the opportunity to develop entirely new business models. The results of the survey echo a recent article in
The purpose of this chapter is to investigate blockchain and the technologies behind it and explain its might and outstanding potential. It consists of three parts. The first part describes blockchain’s achievements and expands on its ability to transform peer-to-peer collaboration by, among its other benefits, removing the need for trusted intermediaries. The second part looks at its future prospects, including its utilization as a distributed ledger and the disruptive changes it will bring while also considering the challenges that would need to be overcome, including the fear of hacking and the possible fraud associated with the utilization of the technology. The final part considers combining blockchain and AI and the breakthrough applications that could result from such a marriage. There is also a concluding section summarizing the chapter and suggesting some directions for future work.
Blockchain is simply a decentralized, or distributed ledger (versus the centralized ones kept by, say, banks to record transactions and keep customer balances) of trustworthy digital records shared by a network of participants. As such, it expands the traditional Internet of information and communications (emails, sending/receiving/searching for information, exchanging files, participating in social media, etc.) to a new category that can be called the “Internet of Value”. Such Internet includes sending/receiving money between two parties without the need for financial intermediaries, buying and selling stocks, keeping/issuing certificates, including real estate titles, creating/executing smart contacts, improving supply chains, etc. Blockchain’s uniqueness comes from the following capabilities:
Blockchain provides a fundamental shift from the Internet of information/communications to the Internet of Value. The difference between the two is fundamental. The first disrupted business models in the 2000s and created the likes of Amazon, Google, Facebook, Alibaba as well as Uber and Airbnb. Its disadvantage is that the information transmitted can be copied, thus making it impossible to guarantee its trustworthiness without the approval of an intermediary, for example, a bank verifying that the money being transmitted is available. The biggest advantage of the Internet of Value is the establishment of trust, through the application of blockchain technology, between strangers who can now trust each other. This means assets can be exchanged in an instant and efficient manner
Blockchain applications started slowly introducing bitcoins after Nakamoto’s 2008 paper and were restricted to cryptocurrencies until July 2015 when the Ethereum platform was released, allowing the issuing of smart contracts. At around the same time Estonia started implementing blockchain technologies in its governmental operations, including an ehealth record system that covered any one of its citizens who had ever visited a doctor. Further applications were introduced in 2016 with smart contracts and decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs) with huge potential thus fundamentally affecting the legal profession and the management of organizations (see below). However, the most significant applications are taking place since 2016 with a large number of startups working on innovative solutions that are going to change the economic landscape [4] and turn blockchain into a momentous technological force.
Apple, Google, Amazon, Facebook, Tencent, Alibaba, Samsung, Netflix, Baidu and Uber (with a combined market surpassing $4.3 trillion at the beginning of 2018) were created by exploiting the advantages provided by the evolving Internet of the late 1990s and the 2000s until now. These eight firms disrupted the economy and business sector by revolutionizing shopping and viewing habits, the search for information and advertising spending, among others, in ways no one could have predicted in the early 1990s when the Internet was introduced. As blockchain holds the potential for equal or even greater disruptions, particularly when combined with AI (see Section 3), revolutionary changes of considerable magnitude covering a wide range of industries and products/services will emerge over the next 20 years and new firms, corresponding to the eight ones mentioned will probably emerge. The great challenge for entrepreneurs is to direct their startups to exploit the emerging blockchain technologies and develop new applications and innovative products/services at affordable prices to better satisfy existing and emerging needs.
Below is a presentation of what we believe are the 10 most important
Blockchain banking applications can reduce costs by as much as $20 billion by eliminating intermediaries and increasing the safety and efficiency of banking transactions [5]. A leading startup in the field is ThoughtMachine that has developed Vault OS, which is run in the cloud, providing a secure, fast and reliable end to end banking system capable of managing users, accounts, savings, loans, mortgages and more sophisticated financial products (see https://www.thoughtmachine.net/). An alternative blockchain banking application is Corda, a distributed ledger platform that is the outcome of over 2 years of intense research and development by the R3 startup and 80 of the world’s largest financial institutions. It meets the highest standards of the banking industry, yet it is applicable to any commercial scenario. Using Corda, participants can transact without the need for central authorities creating a world of frictionless commerce (see https://www.corda.net/). According to
By avoiding a central authority to verify payments and money transfers, costs can be substantially reduced. At present, there are a good number of services using the technology aimed primarily at those without bank accounts or those looking for important cost savings. Below is a brief description of six blockchain services located in various parts of the world
Blockchain technologies aim to reduce costs and speed up trading while also simplifying the settlement process. For these reasons, many stock exchanges are considering introducing blockchain to their operation. The London Stock Exchange, the Australian Securities Exchange and the Tokyo Stock Exchange are already experimenting with blockchain technologies which are expected to be operational in the near future. Banks and financial companies are also exploring blockchain applications for security trading. T-zero (see https://tzero.com/), a US startup, claims on its website to be the first blockchain-based trading platform that integrate cryptographically secure distributed ledgers with existing market processes to reduce settlement time and costs, increase transparency, efficiency and auditability.
Health care costs are skyrocketing, estimated to be around 10% of GDP in developed countries and exceeding 17% (close to $3 trillion) in the USA. This means that any effort to improve health care services can result in substantial savings and blockchain technologies are prime candidates to achieve such savings while improving efficiency and probably saving lives at the same time. There are short-term blockchain applications ready to apply and ambitious, long-term ones aimed at revolutionizing the health industry.
Estonia has implemented a blockchain application, eHealth, covering all its citizens. In addition, there are a number of startups like GEM claiming to have developed the first application for health claims based on blockchain technology. This is done by introducing real time transparency and substantially reducing the time for bills to be paid by the sharing of the same platform among those involved. There are several other startups, some of which are already operating, and some on the way to becoming functional, like Guardtime, operating in Estonia and being used by patients, providers, private and public health companies and the government to store and access information from their eHealth system in a safe and efficient way. Similar functions are provided by Brontech, an Australian startup, offering reliable health data to improve the diagnostic process among others; Health Co aims at revolutionizing the relationship between medical researchers and users; Factom, Stratumn and Tierion are mostly concerned with improving the quality of health data while the purpose of Blockpharma is to fight drug counterfeiting.
The multinational eBay is the leader for online commerce between consumer-to-consumer sales. OpenBazaar, is a new startup challenging eBay by utilizing blockchain technology to decentralize online person-to-person trade. By running a program on their computer, users can connect to other users in the OpenBazaar network and trade directly with them. This network is not controlled or run by an owning organization but is decentralized and free. This means there are no mandatory fees to pay, and that trades are not monitored by a central organization (see https://www.cbinsights.com/company/openbazaar).
Smart contracts are probably the blockchain technology with the highest potential to affect, or even revolutionize all sorts of transactions from the execution of wills to the Internet of Things (IoT). The major innovation of smart contracts is the elimination of trusted intermediaries. Consider, for example, the executor of a will who approves the directives of the deceased of how the money will be spent/allocated. Instead of an executor, a programmable, legally binding smart contract can achieve the same purpose, using blockchain technology, avoiding the trusted intermediary, while reducing costs and improving efficiency. An additional, application of smart contracts is with IoT, facilitating the sharing of services and resources leading to the creation of a marketplace of services between devices that would allow to automate in a cryptographically verifiable manner several existing, time-consuming work flows [7]. Most importantly, such technology is the central principle behind
Supply chain operations are dominated by paper-based methods requiring letters of credit (costing 1–3%) and factoring (costing 5–10%), increasing costs by an estimated trillion dollars and also slowing down transactions. Such costs could be reduced substantially, using blockchain technology that will eliminate intermediaries by establishing trust between buyers and sellers. There are several startups, among them, Skuchain, aiming its blockchain technology at the intersection of payments (letter of credit or wire transfer), finance (operating and short-term trade loans) and Provenance focusing on tracking the authenticity and social and environmental credentials of goods from the source all the way to the final consumer. In addition to startups, big companies like Walmart, are also aiming at exploiting the advantages of blockchain technology to improve efficiency and reduce supply chain costs [8].
Blockchain could revolutionize the IoT if applied securely to the estimated 8.5–20 billion of connected IoT devices that existed in 2017 and are expected to grow to 1 trillion by 2020. Exploiting the information generated by IoT devices intelligently can transform our homes and cities and have a profound effect on the quality of our lives while saving energy. According to Compton [9],
Computer storage was decentralized in individual computers until about a decade ago when Dropbox was founded providing the first, modern, centralized cloud storage unit. Since then cloud computing was introduced revolutionizing applications by encouraging firms to outsource their storage needs to the likes of Amazon, Google or Microsoft Web Services. The advantage of such services was lower costs and greater reliability. Blockchain technology aims to re-decentralize computer storage to individual computers all over the world. According to experts [10], there are three major reasons for such a switch. First, the cost of most cloud services is around $25 per terabyte per month while the corresponding one of blockchain storage is 12.5 times cheaper at $2 per terabyte/month. Second, there is greater security as blockchain data is encrypted, meaning that only users holding the appropriate keys can view it (data stored in commercial cloud services could be viewed by third parties). Finally, blockchain cloud storage is immutable while providing a record of all historical changes done on the data.
One of the great promises of blockchain technology is that it can serve as a decentralized, permanently unalterable storage alternative for all types of information, or assets, not just as a currency or payment system. This makes the technology a prime tool for certifying all sorts of information, transactions, documents and records. What has attracted the greatest interest, however, is the certification of data (with the startup Stampery being the leader) and of identities (with the startup ShoCard being the leader). There are many, additional areas where certification using blockchain technology can be applied including the issuing of IDs and even voting.
There are many additional applications exploiting blockchain technologies. These include true decentralized ride-sharing services (Uber and Lyft are actually centralized taxi services) like those offered by La’Zooz and Arcade City. Stratumn, a platform aiming to automate auditing, Synereo whose purpose is to aid users to create content, publish and distribute it online, Docusign offering the eSigniture solution and Steem, a social media platform where anyone can earn rewards, with some of these startups already operational while others are still being developed.
According to FinTech News, in Switzerland eight major Venture Capital Firms have invested more than $1.55 billion in bitcoin and blockchain startups since 2012. Country wise the USA dominates the race with 55% of the total, followed by UK with 6%, Singapore with 3% and Japan, South Korea and China with 2% each. As interest in blockchain technologies increases, it is expected that VC investments will increase too accelerating the number of available applications.
Ethereum, like bitcoin, is a distributed public blockchain network (developed by the non-profit Swiss foundation of the same name) upholding its unique capabilities (Trust, immutability/transparency, disintermediation, low costs) but with the additional three:
Running applications exactly as programmed without any possibility of downtime, censorship, fraud or third-party interference.
Enabling developers to build and deploy decentralized applications, serving specific purposes that become part of the blockchain network and as such not controlled by any individual or central entity which is the case of Internet applications.
Exploiting the ethereum virtual machine (EVM) to run any desired program, written in any programming language, by using the EVM developers, without the need to create blockchain applications from scratch but can utilize the thousands of existing ones already available (one type of such applications can be smart contracts).
Blockchain is becoming one of the most remarkable technologies since the appearance of the Internet [11]. The large number of innovative applications based on this technology and the great interest shown from business firms, government organizations and individuals is mainly due to its ability to assure trust between parties that do not know each other, guarantee the safety of transactions and attest to the trustworthiness of the information, in addition to its other advantages. The interest in the technology can be seen from the Consensus Blockchain Conference, held in May 2017, which attracted more than 2000 participants and was just one of the more than 200 conferences held during 2017, as well as the more than 110 startups established in recent years and the exponentially increasing number of students attending blockchain programs. For instance, in the University of Nicosia’s online blockchain course, there were 164 registrations from all over the world in 2017, versus 23 when this program was offered for the first time in 2013. In addition, there are 5495 registrations, from all five continents, who follow its MOOC class this year, versus 642 when it was first offered in the Spring of 2014. These numbers show the growing interest from the part of students while the university’s blockchain placement office receives numerous requests each week from companies asking for graduates from its blockchain programs that could work for them.
The previous section of this chapter covered the blockchain technology and the various applications already, or in the process of, being implemented. This section discusses its future prospects and the challenges until its widespread adoption by business firms, governmental organizations and individuals. Faster and cheaper computers, lower storage costs and a host of specialized applications (some of them already discussed in the previous section) will accelerate its widespread adoption and will produce disruptive changes that will become revolutionary when blockchain is combined with AI algorithms, exploiting the advantages of both technologies. There are always the doubters saying that blockchain is overhyped [12, 13] but the same was true when the Internet was in its infancy back in 1995. In a
Recently, Christine Lagarde, IMF’s Managing Director, gave a talk at the Bank of England entitled “Central Banking and FinTech, A Brave New World?” [15] providing her views of banking and policy making in the year 2040. Her talk concentrated on three themes (virtual/digital currencies, new models of financial intermediation and AI, all three major concerns of this paper too) and how they will affect the future as well as what should be done to deal effectively with the challenges they will pose. Her advice
Some countries are experimenting with blockchain while a few are ahead in adopting the technology in some functions of their operations. Estonia is a pioneer having already applied blockchain-based services in eHealth, eSecurity and eSafety, eGovernment Services and eGovernance (including iVoting), estimating that such services save 100 years of working time for its 1.3 million citizens. Countries like Sweden follow Estonia’s example while Dubai plans to implement blockchain to its entire government by 2020, reducing CO2 emission by 114 million tons a year from fewer trips and saving 25.1 million hours and $1.5 billion annually from productivity increases in document processing alone [16]. According to an IBM sponsored survey [16], 9 in 10 government executives plan to make blockchain investments in financial transactions, asset and contract management and regulatory compliance by 2018. Figure 1 shows the expectation of these executives to implement blockchain. According to the
First to finish: Respondents’ expectations of when they will have blockchains in productions and at scale.
While governments are buoyant about adopting blockchain for their operations, they are not so sure about virtual currencies, such as bitcoins, afraid of being used for tax evasion and possible criminal activities associated with the dark web. At present, the legal status of virtual currencies varies considerably from one country to another, with no indications of what countries plan to do in the future. China’s recent decision to ban Initial Coin Offerings (ICO), calling them ‘illegal fundraising’ [20] as well as that of Russia to block cryptocurrency exchanges, are an indication of how virtual currencies are being treated by governments. At the same time, some countries (Switzerland, Singapore, South Korea, Japan, Dubai and Bahrain) are more open to adopt virtual currencies alongside their legal money, while others are openly hostile to its adoption. At the same time, international bodies like IFM encourage such an adoption, initially at least from countries with weak institutions and unstable national currencies. As time passes and the problems of volatility and hacking are addressed, virtual currencies are likely to play a complemental role, supplementing national ones, in trade and financial transactions, among others. However, at present, their future prospect is uncertain.
For health records to be useful they must be shared among doctors, laboratories, hospitals, pharmacies, government health agencies, insurance companies and researchers while, at the same time, protecting patients’ privacy against unauthorized usage and breached health records. Although the challenge for doing so is tremendous, the Estonian eHealth Foundation is operating with considerable benefits, as a secure health record system that can become an example for other countries to follow, although it may be more difficult given the complexities of implementing the system in larger nations. In the USA, there are serious efforts to implement a blockchain health system that among other achievements can reduce fraudulent claims that are estimated at around 5–10% of health care costs at present. The challenge is how to digitize and standardize all health records, some of which are hand written. One system being developed to do so is MedRec [21] that according to its developers
Blockchain, as discussed, is a distributed ledger of trustworthy digital records whose safety is assured and its history can be traced as new data is added and chained, at the end of old ones while no information can be erased. Businesses that can leverage these unique advantages can harness significant gains in efficiency, including lower costs, more effective auditing (the data is immutable) and eliminating, or making fraud practically impossible.
Blockchain technology can be used for secure and direct alternatives to the complex and expensive banking processes used today, reducing transaction costs from $25 to less than a single dollar and avoiding costly intermediaries [3]. Such a huge saving has obliged practically all major banks to test the technology and many of them have joined R3, a startup developing Corda, a blockchain-based platform geared toward the banking industry. Corda and similar platforms will transform the sector by simplifying operations, eliminating intermediaries, reducing operating costs and offering a wide variety of new, innovative products and services, in addition to opening up banking to billions of people who are excluded at present. Financial firms face similar challenges as banks. In remarks at a FinTech-focused conference at the end of September 2017, Yasuhiro Sato, the president and CEO of the Mizuho Financial Group, said “
As mentioned, supply chain transactions are dominated by paper-based, time-consuming and bureaucratic procedures, involving banks, financial firms and custom agencies among others. In the future blockchain can eliminate the paper trail and introduce trust among the various players while also assuring firms receiving materials/parts and consumers on the authenticity of goods (from the raw materials to the final product). This can be done, for instance, by installing RFID tugs that can immutably record every movement of material/product, guaranteeing its provenance and testifying its physical presence, thus, eliminating the need for letter of credits, factoring and detailed inspections. Moreover, the optimization of supply chain can be achieved at present using AI for its logistics part (scheduling and planning) while it can be extended in the future to automate the majority of supply chain transactions (in conjunction with smart contracts) that could include the majority of AI transactions.
The safety provided by blockchain technology is indispensable for the smooth running of self-driving vehicles and the untroubled functioning of IoT devices. By 2020, it is estimated that a sizable number of AVs will be on the road while there will be more than 1 trillion IoT gadgets, providing a unique challenge for blockchain technology to provide interconnectivity for all AVs and the smooth integration of the trillion of IoT devices. The implications are immense. If AVs are interconnected, they could communicate traffic jams, facilitate car sharing, receive and make payments and select the best insurance option among other tasks that can be performed using blockchain. Interconnected IoTs can optimize the functioning of all its devices, say at home, setting optimal temperatures, reducing energy consumption, ordering food and checking and paying utility bills.
Despite being in their infancy, smart contracts hold the potential to become a groundbreaking legal innovation, becoming a cornerstone of future commerce. At present, there are several problems limiting its applicability as a legal document [24]. Once these problems can be resolved, they can safely move assets around, interact with IoT devices and automate many business-related processes that demand human resources. How smart contracts will affect lawyers and law practices is debatable, with some predicting a serious decline in the need for lawyers [25] or at least providing an alternative to expensive legal practices.
DAO is another major innovation of blockchain technology. A DAO is a company without a CEO, managers, employees or office buildings. It is created and run based on the computer code included in a smart contract. Although, the first DAO firm was hacked and its assets were stolen [26], the potential for DAOs are significant once the technical security problems are resolved. For instance, there is no reason for portfolio funds solely investing in market indexes to pay expensive executives, employ personnel and occupy offices when they can be run more effectively as a DAO, open 24/7. There are immense possibilities to be exploited, leading to great cost reductions and more efficient operations as DAOs, once perfected, are not prone to human errors.
There are numerous, additional applications of the blockchain technology pointing to substantial improvements. Some of them are listed below while there is practically no limit to future ones being developed and implemented
Blockchain-enabled energy trading saving millions of dollars per year.
Maritime insurance, reducing costs, decreasing fraud and speeding up the settlement of claims [27].
Identifying epidemics faster while avoiding to cause panic [28].
Educational material can be exchanged safely among academic institutions while safeguarding the intellectual rights of the writers [29].
As the adoption of new technologies has accelerated over time [30], the same phenomenon would probably occur with blockchain, resulting in more applications and faster penetration rates allowing us to exploit its considerable benefits in record time and witnessing quickening progress in the field.
The blockchain challenges can be classified as
As we have shown in this chapter, blockchain is a groundbreaking technology permitting the safe and reliable storage and transmission of data, among its other advantages. AI, on the other hand, is a revolutionary technology that can learn on its own by analyzing and discovering patterns in massive amounts of (big) data. There is, therefore, a natural complementarity between the two, as blockchain safely stores/transmits trustworthy data while AI requires huge amounts of reliable data to discover patterns and learn. In this section, we discuss the complementarity between the two technologies and consider the breakthrough innovations that could result by marrying them. The potential benefits are expected to be in the areas of medicine, autonomous vehicles (AV), smart contracts, Internet of Things (IoT), decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs) and many additional areas of applications, not yet conceived at present. In many cases, AI could not be used without the assurance of the safety and reliability of the data provided by blockchain and vice versa the value of many blockchain applications will be limited without AI.
Two examples can illustrate the complementarity and mutual benefits of joining blockchain and AI. Consider AVs in the simple case, as more carmakers adopt “over the air (OTA)” software updates for their increasingly connected and autonomous cars the risk of a hacker hijacking and stealing the car will also increase. In a worse-case scenario, a car can be forced to cause accidents or create traffic jams while the worst possibility would be to hijack and program the car to accomplish simultaneous terrorist attacks in many cities. Similarly, if IoT devices can be hacked, a home’s security will be compromised, or its equipment can malfunction. Therefore, the safety provided by blockchain is indispensable for the smooth utilization of AVs and IoTs. On the other hand, consider a smart contract application that depends on some environmental assumptions for its correct execution. Such a contract would be outdated once some of these assumptions do not hold, making AI monitoring imperative in order to allow learning and determining on its own when the environment has changed. Although at present the blockchain and AI technologies may not be at the point of being successfully combined, the prospects for doing so in the near future are encouraging, motivated by the substantial expected benefits. The remainder of this section describes such advantages, clearly recognized in China where the first alliance for integrating artificial intelligence and blockchain is being established to harness these benefits [33].
Governments, apart from some pioneering ones already mentioned, are slow in adopting new technologies and blockchain and AI are no exceptions, particularly when AI as a technology is still in a developmental stage, apart from some applications in games and those involving language and image recognition [34]. This does not mean that there will not be significant progress in the future, as the steepest progress in AI only occurred a few years ago. At present, however, the majority of AI applications are centered on digital assistants, answering questions in natural language and in image, including face recognition techniques [35]. The future prospects however are huge, with estimated benefits running into the billions. AI applications could range from fighting tax evasion to establishing monetary and fiscal policies. The catchword of “cognitive AI”, if it becomes a reality, can have profound implications in not only saving billions but also providing higher quality services to the public and increasing the level of democratization. Some governments such as those of Dubai are planning to introduce Blockchain into their entire operations reducing bureaucracy, improving their efficiency, reducing waste and pollution and saving billions in the process.
It is not obvious how AI can be combined with the blockchain technology used in bitcoins and other cryptocurrencies, although this could be achieved in the future when DAOs and robots will be introduced, owning property and holding assets. In such a case, they will have to use AI to make the necessary M2M transactions or using bitcoins for making and receiving payments.
While blockchain can assure safety and reliability, adding AI capabilities can greatly benefit the health sector. At present AI is mainly used for detecting abnormalities in X-rays and CT scans, a task performed at least as accurately as humans can, and for assuring a greater level of personalized medicine. According to experts, the future holds significant inventions given the momentous benefits that can be achieved by reducing medical costs and improving the quality of medical care. For this reason, all big players (Google, Microsoft, Apple and Amazon), as well as a host of startups are actively exploring AI for medical applications, aimed at improving the more effective utilization of patients’ data, the accuracy of diagnosis, providing better recommendations, based on evidence-based research findings, and several other possibilities. These applications are on top of improvements in robotic surgery and digital advice provided though smartphone applications. According to Accenture [36], key clinical health AI applications can potentially create $150 billion in annual savings for the United States healthcare economy by 2026.
The benefits of AI for the back office of banks and financial firms are widespread, as large histories of data are available. For a long time before AI was introduced, risk and fraud detection was predictive with great success using statistical decision rules. AI has improved such rules to a new level by allowing learning through the analysis of a huge amount (big) of data to identify patterns and improve decision-making. Klarna, a Swedish e-commerce company, provides instant evaluation of customers’ credit worthiness for buying goods without a credit card. The same task is done by the Chinese Yongqianbao and several other firms. In addition,
Clearly, present AI applications in banking and finance are just the tip of the iceberg and soon the power of AI to deliver better experiences, lower costs, reduce risks and increase revenues will become a reality and they may even progress to more accurate forecasting.
A prime example of successful AI applications is Numerai [40], a San Francisco hedge fund that makes trades using machine-learning models built by thousands of anonymous data scientists paid in bitcoin. Another is Polychain, a fund that buys bitcoin and other digital currencies and invests in a radically new breed of businesses owned, funded, and operated entirely by decentralized networks of anonymous online investors.
Blockchain technology is already utilized in supply chains while its integrations with AI is still in its infancy apart from its logistic part (what used to be the old scheduling/planning tasks) which is used extensively by some firms [41]. The challenge is in the future to extend AI to the remaining parts of the supply chain. Amazon, a pioneer in AI, has moved beyond just responding to customer demands by developing a whole profile for each customer and using such data in its AI applications. Manish Chandra and Anand Darvbhe of Accenture [42] point out,
Employing AI to AVs can go beyond just following a set course for taking its passengers from point A to B by continuously analyzing traffic information from connected AVs and learning to determine the route depending on the time, the day, the weather conditions and a host of other factors. Moreover, it can even modify the course of a journey, if necessary, when the AI determines that traffic patterns are changing. Similarly, IoTs devices can go beyond setting temperatures and ordering food by using AI to predict what the owners want and modify the settings to satisfy their evolving desires.
IBM is experimenting with turning smart contracts into “cognitive contracts” that can learn and adapt using AI [43]. This can be done by identifying pattern changes in the data, recognizing interesting interactions, detecting suspect activities, etc., in order to make recommendations for updating the smart contracts and taking specific actions based on insights gained from AI. Clearly, such cognitive contracts can be applied to DAOs to improve their effectiveness and value.
Lately, efforts are being made to integrate AI and blockchain technologies into a single application. At the technical level this has been attempted by a new type of blockchain called the “MATRIX Chain” [44] whose aim is to merge blockchain and AI and set the path toward blockchain 3.0. The benefits that such technology will bring to distributed ledger technology comes down to making blockchain smarter and adding its ability to evolve through self-learning without the need to introduce AI as a separate technology.
A summary of the major applications integrating blockchain and AI is presented in Table 1, also showing an estimate of the extent of usage of each of the two technologies and the direction of what would need to be done to improve their future integration.
Major applications | Application uses mostly | Future requirements | |
---|---|---|---|
More AI | More BC | ||
Government operations | Neither BC/AI* | Yes | Yes |
Digital currencies | BC | Yes | |
eHealth | BC | Yes | Yes |
Banking | BC | Yes | |
FinTech | AI | Yes | |
Supply chain | Little BC | Yes | Yes |
Autonomous vehicles (AV) | All AI | Yes | |
Internet of Things (IoT) | All BC | Yes | |
Smart contracts | All BC | Yes | |
DAOs | BC | Yes |
Major applications, their current utilization of BC/AI and their future requirement.
Apart from exceptions as Estonia and a few other countries.
Blockchain technology, according to Muneeb Ali, Blockstack Co-Founder,
In addition to startups, established companies also seek to exploit the advantages of blockchain technology and diminish the monopolistic advantages of Internet giants. The CEO of TUI, the largest tourist firm in the world, believes that blockchain technology will break the almost “monopolistic” hold that Priceline, Expedia, Booking.com and Airbnb have today in the lodging and distribution ecosystem [45]. He believes that these firms create superior margins because they take advantage of their monopolistic power and that blockchain will destroy that. TUI, he explained, has already moved all of its contracts into its private blockchain. “We are using it today predominantly to have mechanisms to swap bedstock between different PMSs [Property Management Systems],” he said. “The next step is that the whole inventory will be on the blockchain.” Then using smart contracts, which are simply code snippets that execute automatically on the blockchain, Joussen argues it can easily manage and automate a large part of bedstock and hotel capacity between all the markets TUI operates.
Clearly, TUI is not the only company developing blockchain applications. So, the critical question is how all these applications will affect the competitive landscape and how innovative startups will utilize blockchain technologies to disrupt established players and create the corresponding success stories of Amazon, Google and Facebook, among others, in the emerging Internet of value. In answering this question, we should have in mind Amara’s law that states,
For us, the most interesting question is “who and in what areas are going to emerge the new Googles, Baidus, Facebooks, Amazons and Alibabas and how will they successfully exploit blockchain and AI, although such a marriage may still be several years away?”
Free radicals occur when an atom or molecule contains one or more unpaired electrons in its outermost orbitals [1]. Basically, three main factors play a role in the formation of free radicals. i) The atoms or molecules can become radical as a result of the fragmentation of covalently bonded molecules exposed to high-energy electromagnetic waves or high temperatures. ii) A molecule that does not have a radical feature experience an electron loss and radicals are formed by leaving unpaired electrons in its outer orbital. iii) A radical is formed when a molecule that does not have a radical property receives an electron from outside and has an unpaired electron in its outer orbital [1, 2]. These unshared electrons as known radicals are highly unstable, transforming them into high-energy and very efficient chemical species. The most active free radicals in biological systems are those based on oxygen and are commonly referred to as reactive oxygen species (ROS) with pathological [3]. This family group includes superoxide radical (O2˙), singlet oxygen, nitroxide (NO), hydroxyl radical (OH˙), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) which is not itself radical but causes the formation of radical [1]. Besides, we can classify the causes of free radicals in two groups as endogenous or exogenous [1, 2]. Cigarettes, air pollution, alcohol, radiation, heavy organic solvents and pesticides are among exogenous sources, while enzymes, proteins, oxidative stressors, and heavy metals are endogenous sources [1, 4].
Free radicals cause the greatest damage to human health on basic cellular components such as lipids, proteins and nucleic acids [1, 5]. Therefore, these radicals lead to immune deficiency, hypertension and even important diseases such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, heart disease, and atherosclerosis [1, 2]. Also, studies are revealing that radicals disturb the homeostatic balance [6]. To scavenge these drawbacks effects of radicals, which are extremely important for human health, the human body needs antioxidants obtained from the body or nutrition to fulfill biological activities such as survival and healthy life. Antioxidants can be defined as molecules that usually contain phenolic functional groups in their structure and prevent the formation of free radicals that damage the cell or by scavenging existing radicals [3]. The functional task of antioxidants is that they act as shields in the body and neutralize them by donating their electrons with the s-free radicals. Thus, radicals found in a rather unstable structure do not become a threat to human health by transforming into a more stable structure reacted with antioxidants. Moreover, many different equivalent antioxidant expressions are used in antioxidant quantification in food samples. The leading ones are the expressions of “total antioxidant capacity (TAC)”, “antioxidant activity (AA)”, and “antioxidant capacity (AC)”. The total amount of antioxidants is expressed by measurement units such as equivalent trolox, rutin, ascorbic acid, and quercetin, etc.
Antioxidants are mainly obtained via natural and synthetic [7]. The first of these, natural antioxidants, are molecules synthesized by the organism or obtained from food sources. Natural antioxidants produced by the organism are the most important source for human health. Many factors affect the production process of this natural antioxidant. The most important of these is the age of the person. As a person gets older, the amount of natural antioxidants produced by his organism decreases day by day. For this reason, there is a greater need for the natural antioxidants found in foods for older people. The importance of healthy food sources, especially organic-based foods, is increasing day by day. Also, such nutrients should be accessible to all segments of society.
Important dietary flavonoid sources are fruits especially citrus fruits such as oranges, apples, grapes, mandarins, berries lemons, limes and their derived products as well as juices [8]. In general, citrus fruits contain pectin, sugar, carotenoid pigments, vitamins (A, B1, and C), and; organic acids such as ascorbic acid and citric acid, minerals and a number of active phytochemicals such as flavonoids and coumarins, as naringenin, naringin, hesperidin, neohesperidin, hesperetin, rutin, narirutin and tangeretin [9]. For example; polyphenol antioxidants such as flavanols (epicatechin, catechin), phenolic acids (caffeic acid and gallic acid), anthocyanins (e.g., malvidin-3-glucoside), oligomeric and polymeric proanthocyanidins, flavonols (myricetin, quercetin, and their glycosides), and many others polyphenols exist in wine, especially in red wine [10]. Flavonoids have an important role in scavenging reactive oxygen species, which can counteract lipid oxidation, decrease peroxide formation in vivo, and improve activity of the body’s antioxidant enzyme. Citrus flavonoids such as naringin, naringenin, and hesperidin have antioxidant activity [11]. Naringenin is a flavonoid, particularly a flavanone, found in citrus fruits especially oranges and grape fruits and in vegetable’s such as tomatoes and their preparations. The pharmacological and biological properties of phytoestrogen naringenin and its derivatives include, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, antifibrotic, diastolic, antioxidant and skin protective effects [8]. Also, citrus species are a rich source of flavanone glycosides such as hesperidin and narirutin, which have anticancer, antioxidant, antiobesity and anti-inflammatory activities [12].
Secondly, the antioxidant group is synthetic, that is a molecule that is obtained as a result of chemical reactions and is generally used as food preservatives [13]. Synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), and tertiary butylhydroxyquinone (TBHQ) also extend the shelf life of foods [14]. However, natural antioxidants that can be taken from foods are less risky in terms of human health since synthetic antioxidants can have toxicity even if they are very little, they require high costs and have less capacity than natural antioxidants. Due to this reason, the investigations of foods types that can contain high levels of antioxidants in different types of endemic, organic and traditional food samples have been remarkably increased recently.
For antioxidant content and amount analyzes, oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and radical-arrest antioxidant parameter (TRAP), ferric thiocyanate (FTC), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (ABTS/TEAC), cupric ion (Cu2+) reduction antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC), iron ion reducing antioxidant capacity (FRAP), DPPH radical scavenging activity determination and Folin–Ciocalteu methods are the most widely preferred as analytical methods [15, 16, 17]. Furthermore, to evaluate and characterize the antioxidant substances in food samples, various analytical methods such as high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) combined with different detection, gas chromatography, micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography, capillary electrophoresis includes different detection systems and UV–visible spectrophotometry have been used [18, 19, 20]. However, these classical methods have great shortcomings for fully validated analyzes such as long pre-treatment, need for too much solvent, expensive equipment, long analysis time. They do not provide the necessary procedures for green chemistry, especially due to the use of too much solvent and too much waste in antioxidant analyses. For these reasons, scientists have turned to alternative methods for antioxidant quantification in food samples. Especially in recent years, they have focused on electrochemical techniques which are fast, inexpensive, reliable, non-pre-treatment, and environmentally friendly in the analysis of drugs, pesticides, metal ions and organic molecules such as antioxidants, vitamins and nucleic acid [21, 22, 23].
In this chapter, the applicability, sensitivity and reliable maintenance of electrochemical methods, which have attracted great attention in food and food samples, have been examined for the analysis of antioxidants. Moreover, which types of electrochemical methods are used and what advantages they provide have been investigated for the antioxidant sensing in food samples. It also describes the classification of each used in electrochemical methods by working electrode type, dynamic operating range, the limit of detection (LOD), measurement limit (LOQ), sample type, and standard analyte, etc. While many articles referenced for determining antioxidants by electrochemistry have gained momentum in the literature in the last two decades, we focused our study on the studies conducted in the last 4 years.
Electrochemistry is the branch of science which is investigating the physical and chemical changes coming from the interaction of the material with electrical factors such as current, potential, and electron charge. Electroanalytical chemistry is based on measuring the electrical properties of solutions containing analytes and switching to quantification using measured electrical signals a collection of electrochemical methods. Moreover, electroanalytical measurement methods are based on two basic points: potentiometric (static methods) and potentiostatic (dynamic methods). Electrode systems in both methods are immersed in the solution containing the analyte, called the electrochemical cell. Potentiostatic methods are widely used for routine analysis because they are less costly, high sensitive, and selective and have wider potential application areas than other electroanalytical methods. The basic principle of these methods is to measure the current that occurs during the oxidation or reduction of the analyte in the chemical reaction.
Electrochemical methods began with the Czech chemist Jaroslav Heyrovsky, discovering the basis of polarography in 1922 and took an important place among the analytical methods. Especially, since the 1980s, it has been possible to develop electrodes that have been modified mechanically or chemically with improved technology. In modification processes, polymers, organic ligands, inorganic clays, phthalocyanines and nanoparticles have been commonly used for the detection of electroactive substances in very small volume complex samples such as biological, environmental and human bodies. In the last twenty years, even very small quantities of substances that are electroactive have been additionally analyzed at high precision, selective by electrochemical methods by carbon-based or modified electrodes have wonderful properties. Electroanalytical methods have also an important place in quantification as well as in obtaining details such as determination, adsorption, reaction rate and equilibrium constants of the number of electrons transferred in the reduction or oxidation electrode reactions. In short, electroanalytical methods provide details on direct or indirect quantitative and qualitative analysis of electroactive species such as antioxidants, drugs, pesticides, etc.
Voltammetry is a potentiostatic assay based on the recording of the peak current at controlled potential variation by the oxidation or reduction which enables qualitative and quantitative analysis by means in electrochemical reactions. Over the last two decades compared to other electroanalytical techniques, voltammetry has been intensely curious in all the electroanalytical methods due to their are used to analyze numerous compounds by anodic or cathodic scanning and to investigate their conceptual basis of electro-mechanism. There are four voltammetric techniques including cyclic (CV), linear (LSV), differential (DPV), and square (SWV) are commonly used to determination of antioxidant-type compounds.
Voltammetric techniques are an alternative analytical method, proved to have an excellent correlation compare with another conventional analytical process, for a while to study the AC in various food and beverage samples. They can be a benefit to characterize which species compounds have a greater contribution to the antioxidant capacity present for the real samples in terms of quantitative and qualitative by controlled the half-wave peak potential, peak current and the electron transfer number in reaction. The antioxidant capacity is related to the peak currents of oxidation species caused by hydroxyl groups (–OH) and antioxidant species contains many hydroxyl groups. They commonly give an electro-oxidation broad peak at a range of 400 mV- 600 mV depend on pH. So that, almost all antioxidant substances have electro-activity compounds and their peak current and peak potential provide quantitative and qualitative details, respectively. Further, the voltammetric techniques allow investigating the electrochemical behavior of antioxidant agents and interaction with oxygenated species.
Voltammetric methods have gained an important place among determinations of the antioxidant capacity in the last decade. Moreover, due to their great superiority, the use of complex samples such as food and beverages they have become widespread and widely found in the literature. Among these electroanalytical methods, square wave stripping, different pulse stripping, and cyclic voltammetric techniques are the most commonly preferred for the analysis of antioxidants by accuracy and precision. From past to these days, the compounds used as standard agents for the evolution of the AC by studies electrochemical methods are apigenin, ascorbic acid, caffeine, catechin, chlorogenic chrysin, p-coumarin acid, eugenol, fisetin, gallic acid, kaempferol, luteolin, morin, quercetin, rutin, t-resveratrol, Trolox and Malvidin-3-glucoside. As far as we have examined the literature, scientists have however preferred ascorbic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, catechin, rutin and quercetin which are often used as antioxidant standard substances due to excessive availability of these substances in food and drink. The chemical structures of some antioxidant molecules are given in Figure 1.
Molecular formulas of commonly used antioxidants.
Cyclic voltammetry (CV) is usually the first experiment in the electrochemical operation of a compound in biological materials as nature samples to get in details about the electro-behaviors. In particular, to study the thermodynamics, kinetic, electron transfer, substance transfer type, and as well as quantitative determinations of oxidation or reduction processes can be carried out by cyclic voltammetric technique. In addition to taking a single measurement with CV, sequential multiple measurements can be taken. The most common applications of cyclic voltammetry are additionally electro-polymerization, electrochemical characterization, and the design of modified electroanalytical systems. Two types of cyclic voltammograms can be obtained as irreversible or reversible, depending on the chemical components of the target molecules. In reversible voltammetry, there is a difference of about 59 mV between the reduction and oxidation peak potentials (Figure 2).
Potential-excitation signal and voltammograms for the cyclic voltammetry in details.
During the past years, cyclic voltammetry has been used as an alternative to existing methods to evaluate the antioxidant sensing in natural samples such as teas, biological fluids, beverage juices plants, foods and beverage juices on different working electrodes. The most using parameter is peak current because of its proportional to the concentration of the antioxidants. Peak current heights also provide quantitative information about the amount of antioxidant capacity in food samples. The carbon-based working electrodes such as glassy carbon electrode (GCE), carbon paste electrode (CPE), screen printed carbon electrode (SPCE), and modified electrodes (Nanoparticle/GCE, Nanoparticle/CPE, Fe3O4/GCE) have been widely preferred in electrochemical measurements for the analysis of total antioxidant capacity (TAC). Peak current and peak potential values of standard substances such as ascorbic acid, caffeic acid, catechin, coumarin, gallic acid, morin, quercetin and rutin were commonly taken care of for the evaluation of TAC. The amount of antioxidants in food samples is generally given as equivalent gallic acid, equivalent value quercetin, etc.
Even though the CV method raises doubts about sensitivity, it also has great advantages. Quick, simple, low detection limit, cheaper and easier application are summarized as great advantages. Interferences effect on antioxidant capacity by a non-antioxidant agent to reducing TAC and non-selective to a family of molecules between carotenoids and polyphenols unless the electrode is modified are drawbacks properties. Despite all of these disadvantages, CV attracts a great deal of attention among analytical methods, and a large number of studies deal with CV are also being undertaken. A large part of the work done up to day time to determine the antioxidant capacity by the CV method is summarized in Table 1. Table 1 includes the type of working electrode, working range, the limit of determination (LOD), the limit of quantification (LOQ), measurement parameter, standard compound and food sample.
Method | Electrode | Analyte | Linear range | LOD | LOQ | Samples | Optimum pH | Peak Potentials | Interferences | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CV | Pt electrode | juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4,-naphthoquinone) | — | — | — | walnut | — | 2.1 V | — | [24] |
CV | GCE | polyphenols | — | — | — | Black Tea Samples | pH 7.0 (PBS) | + 0.5 V | Catechin, gallic acid | [25] |
CV | Graphite Paste Electrode | Rutin (RT) | 200–1000 μM | 89,4 μM | pharmaceutical sample (Captopril) | pH 4.0 (PBS) | + 0.44 V | — | [26] | |
CV | Nanotuned Gold Nanoparticles and Solvothermally Reduced Graphene modified GCE (GCE/EAuNPs4 /rGO/Naf.) | sinapic acid (SA) | 20 μM - 200 μM | 33.43 (±0.21) nM | Human urine samples | pH 7.6 (PBS) | 0.47 V | L-cystine, glycine, alanine, serum albumin, uric acid, citric acid, ascorbic acid, and urea | [27] | |
CV | glassy carbon electrode | caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, quercetin, gallic acid, (+)-catechin, ascorbic acid | — | — | — | Apricot pomace extracts | pH 4 acetate buffer | 0.51 V | — | [28] |
black currant pomace extracts | 0.54 V | |||||||||
Grape pomace extracts. | 0.48 V | |||||||||
CV | glassy carbon disc electrode | Tannins | — | — | — | wine solution | — | — | — | [29] |
CV | glassy carbon electrode | polyphenols and flavonoids | — | — | — | Venezuelan propolis | pH 7.00 (PBS) | −0.90 V (cathodic) −0.75 V (anodic) | — | [30] |
CV | carbon paste electrode | Trolox | — | 1.9 μM | 0.6 μM | red wine, coffee and green tea | pH 7.0 (PBS) | — | — | [31] |
CV | Carbon Paste Electrode (CPE) | Quinizarin (H2Qz) | 0–36 μM | 3.129 ± 1.200 μM | 10.429 ± 1.133 μM | — | pH 7.00 (Aqueous) | — | Anthrarufin (H2Arf), Chrysazine (H2Cz), Anthraflavin (H2Afv) | [32] |
CV | glassy carbon electrode (GCE) | polyphenols | — | — | — | Malaysian honey | pH 7 (PBS) | — | glucose and fructose | [33] |
CV | ZnO nanoflowers modified carbon paste electrode | p-nitrophenol (p-NP) | 0.1–1 μM | 0.08 μM | — | Astragalus membranaceus | pH 7.0 (PBS) | — | — | [34] |
CV | carbon nanotube (CNT)-carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) electrode MWCNT-CMC/Au | Curcumin | 1.0–48 μM | 0.21 μM | — | Real samples | pH 6.0 citric acid | 0.30 V | — | [35] |
CV | GCE | polyphenols, tannins, flavonoids, and sterols/triterpènes. | — | — | — | pH 7 (PBS) | — | — | [36] | |
CV | carbon screen printed electrode (cSPE) | Ethoxyquin (EQ) | 20–100 mM | 7.5 mM | 20.0 mM | Salmon Samples | pH 3.5 ammonium formate buffer | +0.45 V | BHA, BHT, diphenylamine, and ascorbic acid (AA) | [37] |
CV | carbon nanotube (CNT)-carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) electrode | monohydroxycinnamic acid | 1.0–194 μM | 0.071 μM | — | real food samples | pH 6.0 citric acid | — | — | [38] |
CV | CPE | catechol, (CAT) | 30.0–540 μM | 2.47 μM | 8.24 μM | wine and food samples | pH 7.4 (PBS) | 0.24 and 0.46 V | — | [39] |
4-ethylcatechol (4-EC) | 10.0–350 μM | 0.282 μM | 0.339 μM | |||||||
4-ethylguaiacol (4-EG) | 1.00–210 μM | 0.111 μM | 0.371 μM | |||||||
CPME-CNT | CAT | 30.0–540 μM | 1.37 μM | 4.58 μM | ||||||
4-EC | 10.0–350 μM | 0.184 μM | 0.613 μM | |||||||
4-EG | 1.00–120 μM | 0.106 μM | 0.353 μM | |||||||
CPME-AB | CAT | 30.0–540 μM | 1.85 μM | 6.16 μM | ||||||
4-EC | 0.20–350 μM | 0.0863 μM | 0.288 μM | |||||||
4-EG | 1.00–120 μM | 0.0937 μM | 0.312 μM | |||||||
CV | HP-ZnO/GCE | Gallic Acid (GA) | 0.1–130 μM | 0.02 μM | — | Wine sample | pH 3.0 (PBS) | +0.59 V | catechol (CT), dopamine (DA), caffeic acid (CA), morin (MR), hydroquinone (HQ), uric acid (UA), ascorbic acid (AA), ferulic acid (FA) | [40] |
CV | glassy carbon electrode/poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-gold nanoparticles-sinusoidal voltage (GC/PEDOT-AuNPs-SV) | caffeic acid (CA) | 10 μM - 1 mM | 4.24 (±0.12) μM | — | juice samples (like peaches and apple juices) | pH 7 (PBS) | — | [41] | |
CV | carbon electrodes | piperine | 5 mM | — | — | pH 1.2 HClO4 | [42] | |||
CV | Poly(3,4- ethylenedioxythiophene)- tyrosinase PEDOT-Tyr | Caffeic acid (CA) | 10–300 μM | 4.33 μM | 14.43 μM | Wines and beers | 0.1 M H2SO4 | 0.22 V | — | [43] |
CV | glassy carbon electrode (GCE) | Catechin | 0.1 mM | — | — | grape skin and seed | pH 3.6 tartaric acid buffer | 483 mV | — | [44] |
Caffeic acid | 445 mV | |||||||||
Gallic acid | 472 mV | |||||||||
Oenin chloride | 652 mV | |||||||||
Rutin | 260 mV | |||||||||
CV | Single Walled Carbon Nanotubes modified Screen Printed Carbon Electrodes (SWCNT-SPCE) | Catechin | 0.1 mM | — | — | grape skin and seed | pH 3.6 tartaric acid buffer | 132 mV | — | [44] |
Caffeic acid | 139 mV | |||||||||
Gallic acid | 122 mV | |||||||||
Oenin chloride | 377 mV | |||||||||
Rutin | 201 mV | |||||||||
CV | Carbon nanofibers CNF | Caffeic acid (CA) | 0.1–40 μM | 3,23 nM | 10,77 nM | Active Detox, DVR-Stem Glycemo, and green tea | pH 3.6 (PBS) | — | uric acid, ferulic acid, vanillic acid, gallic acid, and catechol | [45] |
CV | Graphene/Neutral Red -GCE | UA | 0.5–50 μM | 0.076 μM | — | human urine and blood serum sample | — | — | urine and blood serum samples | [46] |
CV | PEDOT(poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) /GCE | UA | 6–100 μM | 7 μM | 23 μM | milk sample | pH 6.6 (PBS) | — | A-lactose, L-aspartic acid, L-glutamic acid, L-histidine | [47] |
AA | 30–500 μM | 45 μM | 149 μM | — | ||||||
CV | ZnO-graphene/ ITO | UA | 5-80 μM | 5.0 μM | — | — | 1 M H2SO4 | — | AA | [48] |
CV | GOx-chitosan /Co3O4/Au- graphene transistors (GOx-CHIT/Co3O4 modified SGGT) | UA | 0,3-3 μM | 0.1 μM | — | real tear samples | PBS | — | AA, Fructose, Xylose, Mannose | [49] |
Evaluation of antioxidant capacity by CV technique.
Square wave voltammetry (SWV) can be used to perform a faster experiment than other voltammetric techniques. Commonly when the scanning speeds of other techniques are of 1–10 mV/second or more, in the square wave voltammetry a scanning speed is used at 1 V/second. Thus, the target molecule can be analyzed more quickly by SWS. The square wave voltammetry can combine with the stripping technique. Thus, a stripping voltammetric technique was developed to determine electroactive substances at high sensitive enables in ultra-trace concentration levels. Especially, ultra-trace target substances in complex samples can be analyzed by combining the technique with the enrichment stripping process. The working principle of the stripping technique is the same as square wave voltammetry and only two new parameters are more applied as the accumulation time and the accumulation potential (Figure 3).
Potential-excitation signal and voltammogram for the square wave stripping voltammetry in details.
Nowadays SWV and square wave stripping voltammetry (SWSV) are frequently applied to deduce compounds such as drugs, heavy metals, pesticides and antioxidants, etc. in numerous specimen types because they have excellent analytical sensitivity and selectivity. Furthermore, SWV and its derivate combined technique can be applied for simultaneous determination of compounds which are close oxidation or reduction peak potentials like paracetamol, ascorbic acid, uric acid and dopamine. In the last decade, SWV and SWSV have been more effective in determining antioxidant substances in the complex matrix samples and are superior compared with analytical methods especially spectrophotometric to evaluate quantification and qualification. It is one of the most important electroanalytical methods for the determination of antioxidants since it is a wide working range, low detection limits, easy to apply, cheap and non-pretreatment. Furthermore, they have been successfully analyzed the phenols in food samples which is called a type of important antioxidant such as o-phenylenediamine, p-chlorophenol, p-aminophenol hydroquinone, pyrocatechol and phenol, etc. At the same time, various antioxidant substances such as gallate, gallic acid, quercetin and caffeine were easily studied in food or beverage samples at high precision, accuracy and selective on the carbon-based electrode. Besides, at nM concentration of antioxidant substances comparable to chromatographic techniques have been determined by modified electrodes which are increasing conductivity accurately and selectively in tea samples. Evaluation of antioxidant capacity by SWV or SWSV techniques in the last 4 years are summarized in Table 2 according to the type of working electrode, working range, the limit of detection (LOD), quantity limit (LOQ), measurement parameter, standard composition and food sample.
Method | Electrode | Analyte | Linear range | LOD | LOQ | Samples | Optimum pH | Peak Potentials | Interferences | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SWV | glassy carbon electrode modified with graphite/bismuth (III) oxide (Gr/Bi2O3/GCE) | Ellagic acid (EA) | — | 0.07 nM | 0.21 nM | walnut and pomegranate | pH 3.0 (BRB) | 0.6 V | inorganic ions (Na+,K+,Ca2+, Cl−, SO42−, CO32−), Glucose, Fructose, Eugenol, Capscasin | [50] |
SWV | CPE/PAG | quercetin (QRT) | 0.099–1.090 μM | 0.029 μM | — | crude natural fruits (orange, apple and onion) | pH 6.0 (PBS) | 0.18–0.22 V (ox and red) | Aspartic acid (ASP), Gallic acid (GAL), Sucrose (SUC) and Tartaric acid (TAC) | [51] |
rutin (RT) | 0.058 μM | 0.31–0.30 V (ox and red) | ||||||||
SWV | TPCo3O4&SWCNT@CPE | α-lipoic Acid | 2–100 μM | 0.37 μM | — | dietary supplements | pH 6 (BRB) | — | Vitamins (vitamin C, B2, and B6), possible ingredients in LA pharmaceutical formulations | [52] |
SWV | pencil graphite electrode | naringenin (NGN) | 75 nM-0,1 mM | 44 nM | 0,111 μM | Citrus juice, fruits and peel | pH 4.00 (KHPT) | — | — | [8] |
SWV | Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (SWCNT/GCE) | Quercetin (QCT) | 0.01–100 μM | 0.007 μM | — | tea samples (tea:green, basil and black) | pH 5.0 (PBS) | — | — | [53] |
SWV | Untreated boron doped diamond electrode (BDDE) | Sesamol | 0.2 mM–1.0 mM | 85 nM | — | tahini halva samples | pH 2.0 H2SO4 | — | Cu2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+, Cl−,and ascorbic acid and catechol, glucose, and fructose | [54] |
SWV | immobilization (in solution) of laccase onto the activated carboxylic groups of carboxymethyl- botryosphaeran (CMB).(CBPE-CMB/LCE) biosensor | Quercetin (QCT) | 0.0498–0.794 μM | 0.026 μM | — | Red wine Green tea Apple juice Lemon juice | pH 6.0 (PBS) | 0.23 V | epinephrine, dopamine, paracetamol, guaiacol and catechol, uric acid and inorganic ions (Ca2+,Mn2+,Fe2+, Zn2+,SO42− and NO3−) | [55] |
SWV | CNF-ZnO modified glassy carbon electrode (CNF-ZnO-GCE) | Silymarin | 2–123 nM | 1 nM | — | Human serum samples and urine samples were | pH 7.0 (PBS) | +0.20 V | NO3−,Na+, Cu2+, K+, 4-nitrophenol, rutin, dopamine, caffeic acid, luteolin, tetracycline, hydrogen peroxide, glucose, ascorbic acid, epinephrine, uric acid, and quercetin | [56] |
SWV | gold nanoparticle/graphene quantum dots (AuNP/GQD) nanozyme–modified screen-printed carbon electrode (AuNP/GQDs/SPCE) | Quercetin | 0,1 nM - 1 mM | 0,033 nM | 0,1 nM | Human plasma | pH 5 (BRB) | — | glucose, sucrose, ascorbic acid, riboflavin, phenylalanine, L-tryptophan, L-tyrosine, bisphenol A, lysine, uric acid, and two metal ions such as Na + and Co2+ | [57] |
SWV | SWCNTs-SPCE | Polyphenols (caffeic acid, gallic acid, catechin and malvidin-3-glucoside | — | — | — | Wine samples | pH 3.6 | — | — | [10] |
SWV and AdSV | boron-doped diamond electrode (CPT-BDDE) | 5-O-Caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA) | 2.8 μM - 0,17 mM | 0.4 μM | — | Food&beverage samples (vanilla-enriched instant coffee, vanilla sugar, cola soft drink) | 0.1 M HNO3 | 0.68 V | caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, gallic acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, and syringic acid, K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Zn2+, Cu2+, Fe3+, NO3−, Cl− and SO42− | [58] |
vanillin (VAN) | 3.3 μM - 0,33 mM | 0.38 μM | 1.15 V | |||||||
caffeine (CAF) | 0.52 μM - 0,21 mM | 0.15 μM | 1.50 V | |||||||
SWASV | Gold disk | Cu(II) and TBHQ | 5.66–113.37 μg/kg 4.76–92.40 mg/kg | 0.351 μg/kg 1.13 mg/kg | — | — | pH 2 (BRB) | — | — | [59] |
Evaluation of antioxidant capacity by SWV or SWSV.
Differential pulse voltammetric technique (DPV) is one of the most widely used for the analysis of both organic and inorganic species. Pulse voltammetry techniques were proposed by Baker and Jenkin in 1952 as a more sensitive measurement electroanalytical method. Differential pulse voltammetry techniques can be used to determine up to 10−8 M concentration of the target agents. The peak current (Ip) is a function of the concentration for the electroactive species and is linear as I
Potential-excitation signal and voltammogram for the differential pulse stripping voltammetry in details.
Nowadays, quite a lot of DPV studies can be found in the literature for the very sensitive detection of heavy metal, drug, pesticide, antioxidant agent and inorganic/organic species on numerous bare and modified working electrodes. Besides, DPV is one of the most important candidates to determine the trace amount of target agents in analytical methods due to its high sensitivity and selective. Also, it can be applied to complex samples as biological and food samples such as blood and serum, beverages. Especially, DPV has an important place among antioxidant determination methods because of these advantages and the availability of low concentration.
In recent years, DPV has been used frequently in determining the total antioxidant capacity without any pretreatment of solid and liquid food samples. The complex matrix such as biological and food samples contain very dense different types of substances. For this reason, despite it is indeed very difficult to selectively and precisely determine the antioxidant capacity in some complex matrixes; DPV is the most applicable method for such species. There are also plenty of studies were published which deal with chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, quercetin, gallic acid and ferulic acid, etc. as illustrating the antioxidant properties were determined by DPV on bare or modified electrodes based on carbon nanomaterials. Several applications, based commonly on the used as a determination of antioxidant capacity are given in Table 3.
Method | Electrode | Analyte | Linear range | LOD | LOQ | Samples | Optimum pH | Peak Potentials | Interferences | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DPV | GCE/PoPD/Pt | Rosmarinic acid (RA) | 3 μM – 7 μM | 0.9 μM | — | Melissa officinallis, Rosmarinus officinals | pH 2 H2SO4 | 0,63 V | phenolic compounds-caffeic acid, ascorbic acid, coumaric acid, 2,5 dihydroxybenzoic acid, chlorogenic acid, rutin, and gallic acid | [60] |
protoca- techuic acid (PCA) | 2 μM – 70 μM | 0.8 μM | — | 0,53 V | ||||||
DPV | ZrO2NPs-AuNPs- DES/CPE | Caffeic acid (CA) | 0.22–55 μM | 25 nM | — | green tea and fruit juices | pH 3 (BRB) | — | — | [61] |
DPV | Fluorine doped graphene oxide/GCE | Caffeic acid (CA) | 0.5–100.0 μM | 0.018 μM | wine | pH 2.65 (BRB) | — | p-coumaric acid, hydroquinone, trans-ferulic acid, gallic acid, glucose, and ascorbic acid | [11] | |
DPV | CuO nano-rice/ GCE | UA | 1–160 μM | 1.2 μM | — | real samples of dopamine injection, human serum, and urine samples | pH 7 (PBS) | — | Glucose, Fructose, Galactose | [62] |
DA | 1–150 μM | 0.42 μM | — | — | ||||||
DPV | Poly(DPA)/SiO2@ Fe3O4/CPE | UA | 1.2–8.2 μM | 0.4 μM | 1.2 μM | Fresh human serum samples | pH 7.0 (PBS) | 0.3 V | Sucrose, DA, AA, Glucose, Folic acid | [63] |
DPV | Carbon paste modified with Bi decorated multiwalled carbon nanotubes and cetrimonium bromide (CTAB) | Caffeic acid (CA) | 0.06–500 μM | 0.157 nM | 1.910 nM | Coconut water, coffee, tea | pH 7.0 (PBS) | AA, UA, FA, Trp, Mor, GA, Glucose and FoA | [64] | |
DPV | Bimetallic CoFeSe2 nanosphere in functionalized carbon nanofibers CoFeSe2/f-CNF | Caffeic acid (CA) | 0.01–263.96 μM | 0.002 μM | — | Red wine samples by | pH 7.0 (PBS) | 0.21 V | catechol (CC), hydroquinone (HQ), epinephrine (EP), dopamine (DA), uric acid (UA), and ascorbic acid (AA) | [65] |
DPV | Carbon/iron-based active catalyst f-MWCNTs/a-NaFeO2 | Caffeic acid (CA) | 0.1–17.2 μM | 0.002 μM | 0.0068 μM | coffee, green tea, red wine | pH 7.0 (PBS) | — | catechol (CT), gallic acid (GA), ascorbic acid (AA), hydroquinone (HQ), and uric acid (UA) | [66] |
DPV | N-doped carbon quantum dots/hexagonal porous copper oxide decorated multiwall carbon nanotubes N-CQD/HP-Cu2O/ MWCNT/GCE | Caffeic acid (CA) | 0.05–43 μM | 0.004 μM | — | red wine samples | pH 7.0 (PBS) | — | dopamine (DA), catechol (CC), ascorbic acid (AA), uric acid (UA) and epinephrine (EP) | [67] |
DPV | Ce-TiO2/carbon nanotube composite Ce-TiO2/CNTs | Caffeic acid (CA) | 0.001 -10 μM | 0.0003 μM | caffeic acid tablets samples | pH 6.0 (PBS) | — | Cl−, Br−, SO42−, NO3−, H2PO4−, Na+, K+, Mg2+ and Al3+, glucose, L-serine, uric acid, urea, oxalic acid, glycine, alanine, L-cysteine, L-tyrosine, L-glutamic acid, and guanidine acid | [68] | |
DPV | MOF-818 metal–organic framework-reduced graphene oxide/multiwalled carbon nanotubes composite MOF-818/ RGO/MWCNTs/GCE | caffeic acid (CA), chlorogenic acid (CGA), and gallic acid (GA) | 0.2–7 μM 7–50 μM | 5,2 nM | — | human serum and urine samples | pH 3.0 (PBS) | — | Na+, K+, SO42−, Cl−, 40-fold glutamic acid, glycine, glucose, sucrose, urea, ascorbic acid, uric acid, and equal concentration of baicalein, luteolin, and vanillic acid | [69] |
DPV | Fe3O4 @ZIF-4 nano- hybrid on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) (Fe3O4 /GCE, ZIF- 4/GCE) | p-coumaric acid (CA) | 0.50–12.00 μM | 0.18 μM | 0.60 μM | orange juices samples | pH 4 (BRB) | 0.71 V | anions, cations and other polyphenols such as SO42−, NO3−, Cl−, Fe3+, Fe2+, Zn2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+, Na+, Li+ ions, citric acid, glucose, catechin and quercetin | [70] |
DPV | graphene modified screen-printed electrode | Melatonin | — | 0.03 mg/L | — | food supplements | pH 7.4 | 0.268 (±0.014) V | — | [71] |
DPV | multi-walled carbon nanotubes modified carbon paste electrode (MWCNTs/CPE). | quercetin (QU) | — | 1.96 nM | — | Orange juice | pH 2.0 (BRB) | — | tannic acid (TA) | [72] |
DPV | — | polyphenols | — | — | — | Black Tea Samples Camellia sinensis | pH 5.5 (PBS) | + 0.5 V | Catechin, gallic acid | [25] |
DPV | screen printed carbon electrode | gallic acid | 0.1–2 mM | 23–103 μM | 70–310 μM | White wine Green tea Apple juice | pH 5.8; 7; 8 (PBS) | — | caffeic and ascorbic acid | [73] |
DPV | alumina-modified glassy carbon electrode GCE | Caffeic Acid (CA) | 0.1–5 μM | 0.004 μM | 0.01 μM | Tea (Green, Black, Mint, Hibiscus, Rosemary), wine and phytotherapics | 0.1 M HClO4 | 0.519 ± 0.002 V (Green tea) 0.528 ± 0.002 V (Black tea) 0.526 ± 0.001 V (Mint tea) 0.533 ± 0.002 V (Hibiscus tea) 0.508 ± 0.001 V (Rosemary tea) 0.571 ± 0.005 V (Phytotherapic) 0.532 ± 0.001 V (Wine 1) 0.525 ± 0.002 V (Wine 2) | — | [74] |
Gallic Acid (GA) | 0.1–5 μM | 0.005 μM | 0.02 μM | |||||||
Catechin | 0.1–5 μM | 0.001 μM | 0.003 μM | |||||||
Quercetin (QCT) | 0.1–15 μM | 0.005 μM | 0.02 μM | |||||||
DPV | nanoporous gold electrodes (NPG) | ascorbic acid (AA) | 0.32 to 3.4 mM | 63 μM | — | mimic human serum sample of fetal bovine serum | pH 7.4 (PBS) | 0.05 V | — | [75] |
uric acid (UA) | 0.065 to 1.5 mM | 9.0 μM | 0.35 V | |||||||
DPV | glassy carbon electrode (GCE) | Gallic Acid (GA) | 19.92–98.04 ppm | — | — | mango (pulp, peel, and seed) | pH 5 (BRB) | 0.445 and 0.550 V (oxidation peaks) | 0.05 V | [76] |
Trolox | 2.34–472.18 μM | |||||||||
DPV | CoSe2@rGO modified SPCE | propyl gallate | 0.075–460.15 μM | 16.35 (±0.46) nM | — | spiked meat samples (Chicken, Beef) | pH 7.0 (PBS) | 0.34 V | uric acid (UA), ascorbic acid (AA), dopamine (DA), hydroquinone (HQ), catechol (CT), epinephrine (EP), and norepinephrine (NEP) | [77] |
DPV | Nano-Graphene-platelets (nGp)- Brilliant green (Bg)/Modified carbon paste electrode (nGp- Bg/MCPE) | Hesperidin (HES) | 0.1–7.0 μM 7.0–100.0 μM | 50.0 nM | — | Fortified Fruit Juice Samples (lemon juice, orange rind, and peppermint extract that contain HES) | pH 7.5 (PBS) | — | AA, Bioflavonoids (such as quercetin, rutin, naringenin, morin), Inorganic ions (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Zn+, Cu2+, Cl−, SO42−) | [78] |
DPV | 5-amino-2-mercapto-1,3,4-thiadiazole (p-AMT) on nitrogen-doped carbon sphere (N-CS) modified glassy carbon (GC) electrode p-AMT@N-CS/GC (1) p-AMT@N-CS/GC (simultaneous addition) (2) | Gallic Acid (GA) | 5–1187 μM (1) 5–128 μM (2) | 0.58 μM (1) 0.82 μM (2) | — | Grape juice samples | pH 7.0 (PBS) | +0.06 V (GA) | ascorbic acid (AA), uric acid (UA), catechol (CC), and hydroquinone (HQ), K+, Na+, Mg2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, NO3−, Cl−, sulfate ion (SO42−, and glucose | [79] |
Caffeic Acid (CA) | 5–2082 μM (1) 5–128 μM (2) | 0.143 μM (1) 0.30 μM (2) | +0.14 V (CA) | |||||||
DPV | SWCNT-Subphthalocyanine (CS) Hybrid Material modified GCE electrode (CS/GCE) | catechin | 0.1–1.5 μM | 13 nM | 43 nM | real tea samples (such as green, rosehip fruit, Turkish and Indian black tea) | pH 3 (BRB) | — | metal ions (such as K+, Na+, Li+, Cu2+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Zn2+, Cd2+, Fe3+), rutin, 6-methoxy flavone, gallic acid, caffeic acid, biomolecules (viz. caffeine, ascorbic acid, citric acid and glucose) | [80] |
DPV | Cobalt oxide nanoparticles-modified carbon-paste electrodes (CoO-NPs-CPE) | Gallic Acid (GA) | 0,1–1 μM | 1.52 μM | — | Red and White Wine | pH 2.0 (PBS) | 0.61 V | Metals ions (K+, Cl−, Na+, Fe3+), ascorbic acid and quercetin | [81] |
DPV | graphite/chemically modified silica ceramic electrode (SMICl/C) | Quercetin (QRT) | 9–102 μM | 3.2 μM | — | pharmaceutical “Quercetin” | Ethanol | 0.102–0.155 V | — | [82] |
10–100 μM | 3 μM | 3:2 ethanol/water | 0.561–0.571 V | |||||||
13–95 μM | 4.4 μM | 4:1 ethanol/water | 0.561–0.592 V | |||||||
0.15–60 μM | 0.46 μM | Water | 0.134–0.155 V | |||||||
DPV | glassy carbon electrode modified with polyaminobenzene sulfonic acid functionalized single-walled carbon nanotubes (f-SWNT) and poly(pyrocatechol violet) (polyPCV/f-SWNT/GCE) | Gallic acid (GA) | 0.75–10 10–100 μM | 0.12 μM | 0.41 μM | Cognac XO Brandy VS Brandy 5-Star | pH 2.0 (BRB) | 0.48 V | K+, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, NO3−, Cl−, and SO42− and glucose, rhamnose, sucrose as well as ascorbic acid, phenolic aldehydes (vanillin, syringaldehyde) | [83] |
Ellagic Acids (EA) | 0.75–7.5 7.5–100 μM | 0.11 μM | 0.37 μM | 0.63 V | ||||||
DPV | Sodium dodecyl sulfate modified carbon composite paste electrode | Curcumin | 0,2 - 1 μM 1.5 - 4.5 μM | 27 nM | 92 nM | Natural food supplement | pH 6.0 (PBS) | — | Na+,K+, Mg2+, Zn2+, ascorbic acid, glucose, starch, tyrosine and tartazine | [84] |
DPV | implemented functionalized-MWCNT/Nileblue- composite on carbon paste electrode (fMWNCT/NB/ MCPE) | Naringenin (NR) | 10.0–50.0 μM 0.9–10.0 μM | 0.30 μM | 0.93 μM | fruit juices(Grape juice, Tomato juice, Orange juice) | pH 7.0 (PBS) | — | AA, GLU, Na+, Mg2+, K+, Ca2−, Cl−, SO4− | [85] |
DPV | vitreous carbon electrode | Trolox | 50 μM to 600 μM | 43.8 μM | 120 μM | Greigia sphacelata fruit (Chupón or Quiscal) | pH 7.4 (PBS) | — | — | [86] |
DPV | Screen Printed Carbon Electrodes | Polyphenols | — | — | — | Wine | pH 3.20 Tartaric Acid Solutions | — | — | [87] |
DPV | Poly(L-Methionine)/Carbon Nanotube Glassy Carbon Electrode (PLM/MWCNT/GCE) | Gallic acid (GA) | 0.004–1.1 μM 1.7–20 μM | 3.1 nM | — | green tea, black tea, and red wine samples | pH 2.2 (BRB) | — | Na+,K+,Ca2+ Mg2+, Zn2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, ascorbic acid, theophylline, caffeine, cysteine, glucose, fructose, sucrose, and glycine | [88] |
DPV | pencil graphite electrode | naringenin (NGN) | 78,6 nM - 0,182 mM | 30,6 nM | 102 nM | citrus juice | pH 4.00 (KHPT) | — | — | [8] |
DPSV | 3D SWCNTs-coumarin hybrid modified glassy carbon electrode (3DSWCNTs- coumarin/GCE) | Quercetin (QCT) | 0.25–3 μM | 20 nM | 66 nM | Tea samples | pH 2.0 (BRB) | ascorbic acid, caffeine, citric acid, l-cysteine, glycine, glucose, Na+, Mg2+ Ca2+, SO42−, NO3− and Cl−, gallic acid, 6-methoxyflavon | [89] | |
DPAdSV | unmodified screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) | Capsaicinoids | 0.16 - 16.37 μM | 0.05 μM | 0.15 μM | fresh chili pepper samples (Meiren chili pepper, Chaotian green chili pepper, Chaotian red chili pepper, Xiaomi green chili pepper, and Xiaomi red chili pepper) | 0.10 M HCl | 0.40 V | Fe3+,Cu2+,K+,Na+, Ga2+,Cl−,SO42− and glucose, and 100-fold of Mg2+ | [90] |
DpAdSV | screen-printed carbon electrode modified with single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs)) and Prussian blue (PB) coated with chitosan | Rutin | 0.03 to 0.24 μM 0.25 to 2.0 μM | 0.01 μM | — | black tea, coffee and synthetic drink of tea | pH 3.0 (PBS) | 0.25 V (ox) 0.096 V (red) | morin and quercetin | [91] |
DPCV | molecularly imprinted poly (p-aminobenzene sulphonic acid) on carbon nanodots coated pencil graphite electrode (FA-imp/CNDs/PGE) | folic acid (FA) | 2.2–30.8 ng/mL | 2.02 ng/mL | drug tablets and human urine samples | pH 6.2 (PBS) | — | Methotrexate (MTX), folinic acid (FCA), tetrahydrofolic acid (THF), pyridoxine (PYR), and 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5- THF) | [92] |
Evaluation of antioxidant capacity by DPV or DPSV.
In amperometric techniques, the current produced during the reduction or oxidation of an electroactive species at a constant potential value that is applied between a working electrode and reference electrode is measured, in this way providing specific quantitative electroanalytical knowledge for the target analyte. Especially, amperometric, which is based on electrical current analysis, is commonly utilized in microchip electrophoresis applications owing to its high sensitivity, it also lets for the determination of electroanalytical active species without derivatization, accomplishing adjustable versatility and selectivity (Table 4).
Method | Electrode | Analyte | Linear range | LOD | LOQ | Samples | Optimum pH | Peak Potentials | Interferences | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amperometry (AMP) | HP-ZnO/GCE | Gallic Acid (GA) | 0.1–130 μM | 0.02 μM | — | Wine sample | pH 3.0 (PBS) | +0.48 V | catechol (CT), dopamine (DA), caffeic acid (CA), morin (MR), hydroquinone (HQ), uric acid (UA), ascorbic acid (AA), ferulic acid (FA) | [40] |
Amperometry (AMP) | Nickel oxide nanoparticles modified glassy carbon electrode (NiO NPs/GCE) | Dopamine (DA) | — | 11 μM | — | pH 7.2 (PBS) | 0.41 V | — | [93] | |
amperometry (AMP) | Poly(L-Methionine)/Carbon Nanotube Glassy Carbon Electrode (PLM/MWCNT/GCE) | Gallic acid (GA) | 0.002–0.1 μM 0.2–12 μM | 0.5 nM | — | green tea, black tea and red wine samples | pH 2.2 (BRB) | 0.5 V | Na+,K+,Ca2+ Mg2+, Zn2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, ascorbic acid, theophylline, caffeine, cysteine, glucose, fructose, sucrose, and glycine | [88] |
Amperometry | GCE/PoPD/Pt | Rosmarinic acid (RA) | 1 μM – 55 μM | 0.5 μM | — | Melissa officinallis, Rosmarinus officinals | pH 2 H2SO4 | — | — | [60] |
protoca- techuic acid (PCA) | 1 μM – 60 μM | 0.6 μM | — | — | ||||||
Chronoamperometry (CA) | Graphite/Lacc–PDA | gallic acid | 1–150 μM | 0.29 μM | — | Chestnut shell waste extract/TPC | — | — | [94] | |
Caffeic acid | 1–50 μM | 0.14 μM | — | — | ||||||
Rosmarinic acid | 1–20 μM | 0.09 μM | — | — | ||||||
Chronoamperometry (CA) | CuO nano-rice/ GCE | UA | 0.83–253 μM | 0.83 μM | — | real samples of dopamine injection, human serum and urine samples | pH 7 (PBS) | — | Glucose, Fructose, Galactose | [62] |
DA | 0.083–428.8 μM | 0.083 μM | — | — |
Evaluation of antioxidant capacity by Amperometric technique.
Ganesh et al., synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles using mechanochemical synthesis technique. New ZnO nanoparticle as hexagonal prism was investigated by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, particle size distribution, ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopic methods. Electrochemical properties of the newly prepared electrode were characterized by using an amperometric method and cyclic voltammetry technique. The prepared electrode has a wide working linear range between 0.1–130 μM with a detection limit of 0.02 μM. Obtained results showed that the prepared electrode has numerous active surface sites, good electronic activity, and surface area. They applied the proposed electrode to the determination of gallic acid in samples as wine successfully [40].
Kumar and coworkers successfully synthesized NiO nanoparticles from natural fruit using an efficient, simple, and low-cost technique. The obtained NiO nanoparticles were investigated with various methods such as FTIR, XRD, TEM, SEM, UV, and PL. XRD studies showed that NiO nanoparticles have cubic geometry. The band of Ni-O bond was shown at 430 cm−1. Photocatalytic properties of the obtained NiO nanoparticles were applied to photodegrade the methylene blue dye. They used the prepared electrode to the determination of dopamine with the LOD of 11 μM [93].
Koçak et al. prepared a new composite electrode using carbon nanotube and poly-l-methionine onto the glassy carbon electrode. Electrochemical properties and surface structure of the prepared electrode were studied using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Electrochemical properties of gallic acid with the proposed electrode were investigated in various techniques such as differential pulse voltammetry, cyclic voltammetry and amperometry. The obtained results of electrochemical studies exhibited that the prepared electrode shows a suitable method of determination for gallic acid in pH 2.2 BR buffer solution. The prepared sensor has a wide working linear range with two linear segments between 4 nM-1.1 μM and 1.7–20.0 μM with LOD of 3.1 nM. They used the prepared new sensor for the detection of gallic acid in various samples as black tea, green tea and wine samples. The experimental results showed that the proposed sensor exhibit high selectivity, reproducibility, stability and catalytic effect [88].
Potentiometry is an electrochemical technique based on measuring the potential difference between two electrodes called working and reference electrodes. The working basis of the potentiometry technique is the potential difference based on the concentration of an analyte in the sample solution relative to a reference electrode (Table 5).
Method | Electrode | Analyte | Linear range | LOD | LOQ | Samples | Optimum pH | Peak Potentials | Interferences | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Potentiometry | — | Antioxidant | — | — | — | black and green tea microsuspensions | pH 7.2 (PBS) | — | — | [95] |
Potentiometry | GCE | chicoric acid | — | — | — | Echinacea flowers | pH 7.4 (PBS) | — | — | [96] |
Potentiometry | POM immobilization on the surface of a glassy carbon electrode | Polyoxometalates (POMs) | — | — | — | — | 0.1 M HClO4 | — | — | [97] |
Evaluation of antioxidant capacity by potentiometric technique.
Brainina and coworkers developed a new, simple, reliable and fast potentiometric method for the determination of plant total antioxidant activity. Plant micro suspension and extracts were analyzed by the proposed method. The experimental conditions for acquiring plant extracts were selected for the highest antioxidant activity as extraction time 20 min at +80°C. The characterization of plant micro suspensions reduces the duration of plant total antioxidant activity evaluation. Comparison of the obtained results of antioxidant activity of green tea and black tea micro suspensions samples with the results of the investigations of extracts prepared by a certified method showed no difference [95] (Tables 6 and 7).
Method | Electrode | Analyte | Linear range | LOD | LOQ | Samples | Optimum pH | Peak Potentials | Interferences | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LSV | Ionic liquid-rGO-titania-Nafion-GCE | capsaicin | 0.03–10 μM | 0.0032 μM | — | Korean hot pepper (Chungyang pepper) solution | pH 1.0 (BRB) | 0.75 V | — | [98] |
LSV) | gold disk electrode | 2-tert-butylphenol (2-TBF) | 9.12–80.83 μg cm−3 | 0.67 μg /L | 2.22 μg cm−3 | mineral and synthetic oils | 0,16 M H2SO4 | — | — | [99] |
Evaluation of antioxidant capacity by linear sweep voltammetry (LSV).
Method | Electrode | Analyte | Linear range | LOD | LOQ | Samples | Optimum pH | Peak Potentials | Interferences | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EI electrochemical index | CPEs (carbon paste electrodes) | TAC | 0.105–0.500 μM | 40,4 nM | 0,105 μM | olive oil samples | pH 7 (PBS) | — | — | [100] |
PC peak current | 8.02 x 10−2 – 0.500 μM | 30,5 nM | 80,2 nM | |||||||
Redox microsensor | Redox measurements | gallic acid | 0.2–2 mM | 49 μM | 148 μM | White wine Serum | pH 5.8 | — | — | [73] |
0.1–2 mM | 109 μM | 331 μM | pH 7 | |||||||
0.1–1.5 mM | 74 μM | 223 μM | pH 8 |
Evaluation of antioxidant capacity by other techniques.
Electrochemistry is a powerful and versatile analytical technique for the determination of numerous substances such as drugs, pesticides, inorganic, antioxidant-type compounds and electroactive compounds by rapidly possible applications in a lot of fields. Electroanalytical methods besides providing details on quantitative and qualitative of analyte that offer validation parameters such as sensitivity, accuracy and precision, selective and linear working range. Moreover, it is superior to determine the target analyte by electroanalytical methods lack of interferences effect especially in a complex matrix such as biological and food samples contain countless substances. The improvement of simultaneous determination of analytes considerably has been carried out to be applied in biological and environmental systems by the sensitive and selective electrochemistry methods. Because of this, the use of many areas of electrochemistry is widespread.
Nowadays, electrochemical methods, especially voltammetry from medicine to the determination of antioxidants, have made an important place especially in the world of science. Not only analytical chemists but also biology, food engineering and all people who are engaged in food have been used electrochemical methods to determine the antioxidant capacity in plants, tea, beverages, carbonated beverages and solid food samples, etc. Compounds such as ascorbic acid, caffeic, catechin, ascorbic acid, quercetin, gallic acid and coumarin have been widely used as reference standard agents to an evaluation of antioxidant capacity by electrochemical methods have been carried out until today. Due to advances in electronics and computer science have provided significant benefits in terms of electrochemical instrumentation such as accuracy, sensitivity and easy application, the electro-analysis of antioxidant compounds is successfully applied by stripping voltammetric techniques at nM concentration level. The purpose of this review is to show that electroanalytical methods for commonly used antioxidant types may be the best analytical method for the quantitative and qualitative analyte and that they can successfully compete with more conventional methods especially spectrometric methods. Consequently, voltammetric techniques supply that even at low concentrations, the antioxidant capacities of food samples can be determined to be very fast, simple, non-pretreatment and highly sensitive compared to conventional analytical methods. The review presented that the antioxidant capacity of various food samples can be carried out by voltammetric techniques in the estimation in real samples.
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Bandyopadhyay",authors:[{id:"27050",title:"Prof.",name:"Sri",middleName:null,surname:"Bandyopadhyay",slug:"sri-bandyopadhyay",fullName:"Sri Bandyopadhyay"},{id:"44992",title:"Prof.",name:"Anandhan",middleName:null,surname:"Srinivasan",slug:"anandhan-srinivasan",fullName:"Anandhan Srinivasan"}]},{id:"9725",doi:"10.5772/8508",title:"Biosynthesis and Application of Silver and Gold Nanoparticles",slug:"biosynthesis-and-application-of-silver-and-gold-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:27930,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:null,book:{id:"3621",slug:"silver-nanoparticles",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles"},signatures:"Zygmunt Sadowski",authors:null},{id:"17194",doi:"10.5772/21694",title:"Properties of Nanofillers in Polymer",slug:"properties-of-nanofillers-in-polymer",totalDownloads:20390,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:56,abstract:null,book:{id:"1045",slug:"nanocomposites-and-polymers-with-analytical-methods",title:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods"},signatures:"Damien M. Marquis, Éric Guillaume and Carine Chivas-Joly",authors:[{id:"44307",title:"Dr",name:"Damien",middleName:"Michel",surname:"Marquis",slug:"damien-marquis",fullName:"Damien Marquis"},{id:"44317",title:"Prof.",name:"Carine",middleName:null,surname:"Chivas-Joly",slug:"carine-chivas-joly",fullName:"Carine Chivas-Joly"}]},{id:"52860",doi:"10.5772/65937",title:"Cerium Oxide Nanostructures and their Applications",slug:"cerium-oxide-nanostructures-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:5377,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:"Due to excellent physical and chemical properties, cerium oxide (ceria, CeO2) has attracted much attention in recent years. This chapter aimed at providing some basic and fundamental properties of ceria, the importance of oxygen vacancies in this material, nano‐size effects and various synthesis strategies to form diverse structural morphologies. Finally, some key applications of ceria‐based nanostructures are reviewed. We conclude this chapter by expressing personal perspective on the probable challenges and developments of the controllable synthesis of CeO2 nanomaterials for various applications.",book:{id:"5510",slug:"functionalized-nanomaterials",title:"Functionalized Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Functionalized Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Adnan Younis, Dewei Chu and Sean Li",authors:[{id:"191574",title:"Dr.",name:"Adnan",middleName:null,surname:"Younis",slug:"adnan-younis",fullName:"Adnan Younis"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71103",title:"Preparation of Nanoparticles",slug:"preparation-of-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:3140,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Innovative developments of science and engineering have progressed very fast toward the synthesis of nanomaterials to achieve unique properties that are not the same as the properties of the bulk materials. The particle reveals interesting properties at the dimension below 100 nm, mostly from two physical effects. The two physical effects are the quantization of electronic states apparent leading to very sensitive size-dependent effects such as optical and magnetic properties and the high surface-to-volume ratio modifies the thermal, mechanical, and chemical properties of materials. The nanoparticles’ unique physical and chemical properties render them most appropriate for a number of specialist applications.",book:{id:"9109",slug:"engineered-nanomaterials-health-and-safety",title:"Engineered Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Engineered Nanomaterials - Health and Safety"},signatures:"Takalani Cele",authors:[{id:"305934",title:"Dr.",name:"Takalani",middleName:null,surname:"Cele",slug:"takalani-cele",fullName:"Takalani Cele"}]},{id:"72636",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",slug:"nanocomposite-materials",totalDownloads:2139,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Nanocomposites are the heterogeneous/hybrid materials that are produced by the mixtures of polymers with inorganic solids (clays to oxides) at the nanometric scale. Their structures are found to be more complicated than that of microcomposites. They are highly influenced by the structure, composition, interfacial interactions, and components of individual property. Most popularly, nanocomposites are prepared by the process within in situ growth and polymerization of biopolymer and inorganic matrix. With the rapid estimated demand of these striking potentially advanced materials, make them very much useful in various industries ranging from small scale to large to very large manufacturing units. With a great deal to mankind with environmental friendly, these offer advanced technologies in addition to the enhanced business opportunities to several industrial sectors like automobile, construction, electronics and electrical, food packaging, and technology transfer.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Mousumi Sen",authors:[{id:"310218",title:"Dr.",name:"Mousumi",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"mousumi-sen",fullName:"Mousumi Sen"}]},{id:"38951",title:"Carbon Nanotube Transparent Electrode",slug:"carbon-nanotube-transparent-electrode",totalDownloads:3985,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3077",slug:"syntheses-and-applications-of-carbon-nanotubes-and-their-composites",title:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites",fullTitle:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites"},signatures:"Jing Sun and Ranran Wang",authors:[{id:"153508",title:"Prof.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"jing-sun",fullName:"Jing Sun"},{id:"153596",title:"Ms.",name:"Ranran",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"ranran-wang",fullName:"Ranran Wang"}]},{id:"49413",title:"Electrodeposition of Nanostructure Materials",slug:"electrodeposition-of-nanostructure-materials",totalDownloads:3732,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"We are conducting a multi-disciplinary research work that involves development of nanostructured thin films of semiconductors for different applications. Nanotechnology is widely considered to constitute the basis of the next technological revolution, following on from the first Industrial Revolution, which began around 1750 with the introduction of the steam engine and steelmaking. Nanotechnology is defined as the design, characterization, production, and application of materials, devices and systems by controlling shape and size of the nanoscale. The nanoscale itself is at present considered to cover the range from 1 to 100 nm. All samples prepared in thin film forms and the characterization revealed their nanostructure. The major exploitation of thin films has been in microelectronics, there are numerous and growing applications in communications, optical electronics, coatings of all kinds, and in energy generation. A great many sophisticated analytical instruments and techniques, largely developed to characterize thin films, have already become indispensable in virtually every scientific endeavor irrespective of discipline. Among all these techniques, electrodeposition is the most suitable technique for nanostructured thin films from aqueous solution served as samples under investigation. The electrodeposition of metallic layers from aqueous solution is based on the discharge of metal ions present in the electrolyte at a cathodic surface (the substrate or component.) The metal ions accept an electron from the electrically conducting material at the solid- electrolyte interface and then deposit as metal atoms onto the surface. The electrons necessary for this to occur are either supplied from an externally applied potential source or are surrendered by a reducing agent present in solution (electroless reduction). The metal ions themselves derive either from metal salts added to solution, or by the anodic dissolution of the so-called sacrificial anodes, made of the same metal that is to be deposited at the cathode.",book:{id:"4718",slug:"electroplating-of-nanostructures",title:"Electroplating of Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Electroplating of Nanostructures"},signatures:"Souad A. M. Al-Bat’hi",authors:[{id:"174793",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Souad",slug:"mohamad-souad",fullName:"Mohamad Souad"}]},{id:"71346",title:"Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement",slug:"application-of-nanomaterials-in-environmental-improvement",totalDownloads:1691,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"In recent years, researchers used many scientific studies to improve modern technologies in the field of reducing the phenomenon of pollution resulting from them. In this chapter, methods to prepare nanomaterials are described, and the main properties such as mechanical, electrical, and optical properties and their relations are determined. The investigation of nanomaterials needed high technologies that depend on a range of nanomaterials from 1 to 100 nm; these are scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffractions (XRD). The applications of nanomaterials in environmental improvement are different from one another depending on the type of devices used, for example, solar cells for producing clean energy, nanotechnologies in coatings for building exterior surfaces, and sonochemical decolorization of dyes by the effect of nanocomposite.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Ali Salman Ali",authors:[{id:"313275",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"ali-salman",fullName:"Ali Salman"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"208",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81438",title:"Research Progress of Ionic Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting",slug:"research-progress-of-ionic-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101771",abstract:"Thermoelectric material is a kind of functional material that can mutually convert heat energy and electric energy. It can convert low-grade heat energy (less than 130°C) into electric energy. Compared with traditional electronic thermoelectric materials, ionic thermoelectric materials have higher performance. The Seebeck coefficient can generate 2–3 orders of magnitude higher ionic thermoelectric potential than electronic thermoelectric materials, so it has good application prospects in small thermoelectric generators and solar power generation. According to the thermoelectric conversion mechanism, ionic thermoelectric materials can be divided into ionic thermoelectric materials based on the Soret effect and thermocouple effect. They are widely used in pyrogen batteries and ionic thermoelectric capacitors. The latest two types of ionic thermoelectric materials are in this article. The research progress is explained, and the problems and challenges of ionic thermoelectric materials and the future development direction are also put forward.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jianwei Zhang, Ying Xiao, Bowei Lei, Gengyuan Liang and Wenshu Zhao"},{id:"77670",title:"Thermoelectric Elements with Negative Temperature Factor of Resistance",slug:"thermoelectric-elements-with-negative-temperature-factor-of-resistance",totalDownloads:72,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98860",abstract:"The method of manufacturing of ceramic materials on the basis of ferrites of nickel and cobalt by synthesis and sintering in controllable regenerative atmosphere is presented. As the generator of regenerative atmosphere the method of conversion of carbonic gas is offered. Calculation of regenerative atmosphere for simultaneous sintering of ceramic ferrites of nickel and cobalt is carried out. It is offered, methods of the dilated nonequilibrium thermodynamics to view process of distribution of a charge and heat along a thermoelement branch. The model of a thermoelement taking into account various relaxation times of a charge and warmth is constructed.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Yuri Bokhan"},{id:"79236",title:"Processing Techniques with Heating Conditions for Multiferroic Systems of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3, CaTiO3 Thin Films",slug:"processing-techniques-with-heating-conditions-for-multiferroic-systems-of-bifeo3-batio3-pbtio3-catio",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101122",abstract:"In this chapter, we have report a list of synthesis methods (including both synthesis steps & heating conditions) used for thin film fabrication of perovskite ABO3 (BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3) based multiferroics (in both single-phase and composite materials). The processing of high quality multiferroic thin film have some features like epitaxial strain, physical phenomenon at atomic-level, interfacial coupling parameters to enhance device performance. Since these multiferroic thin films have ME properties such as electrical (dielectric, magnetoelectric coefficient & MC) and magnetic (ferromagnetic, magnetic susceptibility etc.) are heat sensitive, i.e. ME response at low as well as higher temperature might to enhance the device performance respect with long range ordering. The magnetoelectric coupling between ferromagnetism and ferroelectricity in multiferroic becomes suitable in the application of spintronics, memory and logic devices, and microelectronic memory or piezoelectric devices. In comparison with bulk multiferroic, the fabrication of multiferroic thin film with different structural geometries on substrate has reducible clamping effect. A brief procedure for multiferroic thin film fabrication in terms of their thermal conditions (temperature for film processing and annealing for crystallization) are described. Each synthesis methods have its own characteristic phenomenon in terms of film thickness, defects formation, crack free film, density, chip size, easier steps and availability etc. been described. A brief study towards phase structure and ME coupling for each multiferroic system of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3 is shown.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Kuldeep Chand Verma and Manpreet Singh"},{id:"78034",title:"Quantum Physical Interpretation of Thermoelectric Properties of Ruthenate Pyrochlores",slug:"quantum-physical-interpretation-of-thermoelectric-properties-of-ruthenate-pyrochlores",totalDownloads:78,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99260",abstract:"Lead- and lead-yttrium ruthenate pyrochlores were synthesized and investigated for Seebeck coefficients, electrical- and thermal conductivity. Compounds A2B2O6.5+z with 0 ≤ z < 0.5 were defect pyrochlores and p-type conductors. The thermoelectric data were analyzed using quantum physical models to identify scattering mechanisms underlying electrical (σ) and thermal conductivity (κ) and to understand the temperature dependence of the Seebeck effect (S). In the metal-like lead ruthenates with different Pb:Ru ratios, σ (T) and the electronic thermal conductivity κe (T) were governed by ‘electron impurity scattering’, the lattice thermal conductivity κL (T) by the 3-phonon resistive process (Umklapp scattering). In the lead-yttrium ruthenate solid solutions (Pb(2-x)YxRu2O(6.5±z)), a metal–insulator transition occurred at 0.2 moles of yttrium. On the metallic side (<0.2 moles Y) ‘electron impurity scattering’ prevailed. On the semiconductor/insulator side between x = 0.2 and x = 1.0 several mechanisms were equally likely. At x > 1.5 the Mott Variable Range Hopping mechanism was active. S (T) was discussed for Pb-Y-Ru pyrochlores in terms of the effect of minority carrier excitation at lower- and a broadening of the Fermi distribution at higher temperatures. The figures of merit of all of these pyrochlores were still small (≤7.3 × 10−3).",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Sepideh Akhbarifar"},{id:"77635",title:"Optimization of Thermoelectric Properties Based on Rashba Spin Splitting",slug:"optimization-of-thermoelectric-properties-based-on-rashba-spin-splitting",totalDownloads:124,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98788",abstract:"In recent years, the application of thermoelectricity has become more and more widespread. Thermoelectric materials provide a simple and environmentally friendly solution for the direct conversion of heat to electricity. The development of higher performance thermoelectric materials and their performance optimization have become more important. Generally, to improve the ZT value, electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity must be globally optimized as a whole object. However, due to the strong coupling among ZT parameters in many cases, it is very challenging to break the bottleneck of ZT optimization currently. Beyond the traditional optimization methods (such as inducing defects, varying temperature), the Rashba effect is expected to effectively increase the S2σ and decrease the κ, thus enhancing thermoelectric performance, which provides a new strategy to develop new-generation thermoelectric materials. Although the Rashba effect has great potential in enhancing thermoelectric performance, the underlying mechanism of Rashba-type thermoelectric materials needs further research. In addition, how to introduce Rashba spin splitting into current thermoelectric materials is also of great significance to the optimization of thermoelectricity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Zhenzhen Qin"},{id:"75364",title:"Challenges in Improving Performance of Oxide Thermoelectrics Using Defect Engineering",slug:"challenges-in-improving-performance-of-oxide-thermoelectrics-using-defect-engineering",totalDownloads:214,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96278",abstract:"Oxide thermoelectric materials are considered promising for high-temperature thermoelectric applications in terms of low cost, temperature stability, reversible reaction, and so on. Oxide materials have been intensively studied to suppress the defects and electronic charge carriers for many electronic device applications, but the studies with a high concentration of defects are limited. It desires to improve thermoelectric performance by enhancing its charge transport and lowering its lattice thermal conductivity. For this purpose, here, we modified the stoichiometry of cation and anion vacancies in two different systems to regulate the carrier concentration and explored their thermoelectric properties. Both cation and anion vacancies act as a donor of charge carriers and act as phonon scattering centers, decoupling the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jamil Ur Rahman, Gul Rahman and Soonil Lee"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. 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His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. 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He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11675",title:"Advances in Skeletal Muscle Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11675.jpg",hash:"e1d9662c334dd78ab35bfb57c3bf106e",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"April 19th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"281317",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Iannotti",slug:"fabio-iannotti",fullName:"Fabio Iannotti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11677",title:"New Insights in Mammalian Endocrinology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11677.jpg",hash:"c59dd0f87bbf829ca091c485f4cc4e68",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 5th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"321396",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Subhan",surname:"Qureshi",slug:"muhammad-subhan-qureshi",fullName:"Muhammad Subhan Qureshi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11676",title:"Recent Advances in Homeostasis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11676.jpg",hash:"63eb775115bf2d6d88530b234a1cc4c2",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"203015",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaffar",surname:"Zaman",slug:"gaffar-zaman",fullName:"Gaffar Zaman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"81821",title:"Pneumococcal Carriage in Jordanian Children and the Importance of Vaccination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104999",signatures:"Adnan Al-Lahham",slug:"pneumococcal-carriage-in-jordanian-children-and-the-importance-of-vaccination",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81813",title:"Schistosomiasis: Discovery of New Molecules for Disease Treatment and Vaccine Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104738",signatures:"Andressa Barban do Patrocinio",slug:"schistosomiasis-discovery-of-new-molecules-for-disease-treatment-and-vaccine-development",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{paginationCount:249,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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