\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3703",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"New Developments in Biomedical Engineering",title:"New Developments in Biomedical Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Biomedical Engineering is a highly interdisciplinary and well established discipline spanning across engineering, medicine and biology. A single definition of Biomedical Engineering is hardly unanimously accepted but it is often easier to identify what activities are included in it. This volume collects works on recent advances in Biomedical Engineering and provides a bird-view on a very broad field, ranging from purely theoretical frameworks to clinical applications and from diagnosis to treatment.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-7619-57-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6413-5",doi:"10.5772/154",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"new-developments-in-biomedical-engineering",numberOfPages:724,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:null,bookSignature:"Domenico Campolo",publishedDate:"January 1st 2010",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3703.jpg",numberOfDownloads:133136,numberOfWosCitations:229,numberOfCrossrefCitations:119,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:7,numberOfDimensionsCitations:275,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:7,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:623,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:null,dateEndSecondStepPublish:null,dateEndThirdStepPublish:null,dateEndFourthStepPublish:null,dateEndFifthStepPublish:null,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"1909",title:"Dr.",name:"Domenico",middleName:null,surname:"Campolo",slug:"domenico-campolo",fullName:"Domenico Campolo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1909/images/system/1909.jpg",biography:"Domenico CAMPOLO is currently Assistant Professor at the School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. \nHe received his Laurea Degree from the University of Pisa in 1998 and the Diploma Degree in Engineering from Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna in 1999. In 2002, he earned his PhD in Micro-Engineering from Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, Pisa, while working at MiTech Lab (currently, the CRIM Lab).\nDuring the Fall 1998 he was working at the EECS Dept. of ZheJiang University, HangZhou, P.R. China as a visiting graduate student. In the period 2000-2003, he was at UC-Berkeley (USA) as a Visiting Scholar and, after 2002, as a post-doc working on the MFI (Micromechanical Flying Insect) project.\nHe is co-author of more than 35 peer-reviewed papers on international journals and conference proceedings. He has served as reviewer of top international journals and conferences in the general fields of Robotics and Mechatronics. He is Member of the IEEE Robotics and Automation Society (RAS), the IEEE Engineering\nin Medicine and Biology Society (EMBS), of the Society for Neuroscience (SfN) and of the Italian National Group of Bioengineering (GNB).NULL",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Nanyang Technological University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Singapore"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"685",title:"Bioinformatics",slug:"engineering-biomedical-engineering-bioinformatics"}],chapters:[{id:"9073",title:"Nonparametric Modeling and Model-Based Control of the Insulin-Glucose System",doi:"10.5772/7629",slug:"nonparametric-modeling-and-model-based-control-of-the-insulin-glucose-system",totalDownloads:2559,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Mihalis G. 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The synchronous firing of auditory neurons, which always results in tinnitus, has been clinically observed to have a significant relationship with hypertension—the age-related blood pressure (Bp) elevations as a consequence of changes in the arterial structure and physiological functions accompanying ageing. Although the rise in blood pressure (Bp) is not a normal part of ageing, it often occurs as a result of some underlying conditions such as lifestyle factors, diseases and abnormalities that can aggravate (high) blood pressure, leading to severe complications and increased risk of heart disease, stroke and death. Due to multifactorial relationship between hypertension and tinnitus, the incidence of the comorbid conditions in the elderly population is increasing across the globe, even with increased blood pressure level as a consequence of damage to inner ear microcirculation, ototoxic effects of antihypertensive drugs and increased/constant perception of noise generated by the blood vessels. Hypertension is the major risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the elderly population [1]. Hypertension alters cognitive functions of motor and visual acuity as well as auditory performance in the elderly population. It also leads to vascular remoulding by narrowing the lumen and wall thickening. This may affect cerebral blood flow and also disturbs cerebral metabolism and structure. The negative effect of high Bp levels on intellectual performance can also be linked to alterations in the cerebral white matter [2].
Hypertension which is one of the most common clinical conditions affecting older people in this contemporary time accounts for the majority of health-related cases with evidence of increased systolic blood pressure due to advancing age. Thus, a positive association has been observed as regards to the relationship between hypertension and tinnitus. This promotes vascular changes, inner ear microcirculation and tinnitus as noticed. It in turn brings about cochlear microcirculation, resulting in hair cell damage and consequently tinnitus, a common pathophysiological scenario to many conditions such as arterial hypertension, dyslipidaemia, diabetes mellitus, smoking and caffeine abuse [3]. The association between hypertension (especially arterial type) and tinnitus is stronger in older patients and cannot be disassociated from the hearing loss, which is endemic among attendant tinnitus patients [4]. Also, the clinical and psychoacoustic characteristics of tinnitus in hypertensive and normotensive patients seem similar, as well as tinnitus-related distress [4]. The comorbidity and characteristics of the conditions in addition to advancing age can be attributed to the increased complications and attendant effects of the conditions on the elderly patients. This is evident in the galloping increase in the prevalence of elderly patients with comorbidity of hypertension and tinnitus attending neurology and audiology clinics in this contemporary time. Tinnitus has also been reported to be associated with the use of diuretics with low systolic blood pressure. Although the prevalence of tinnitus is observed higher in patients with uncontrolled Bp (≥140 ≥ 90 mmHg) than patients with adequate Bp control (<140/<90 mmHg) [5], the increased prevalence of tinnitus in elderly patients can be as a result of some factors such as hypertension, vascular disease, diabetes and autoimmune and degenerative disorders.
Age-dependent hypertension, with the prolongation of life expectancy, remains one of the major factors causing cardiovascular morbidity, mortality and pulsatile tinnitus. This always affects older people, with the prevalence of 60% among the elderly [5]. Therefore, blood pressure has been observed as an important risk factor in the development of cerebrovascular disease, congestive heart failure and coronary heart disease [6] which is the major cause of continuous ringing in the ear/head of the elderly population. Often, the associated tinnitus, which is not generated by external stimulus, can be classified as auditory and para-auditory tinnitus. The former represents the majority of cases, and the latter is subdivided into muscular tinnitus somatosounds [3]. With the impact of high Bp and the immense amount of blood flowing in and out of the head, tinnitus becomes evident in the humans, causing hearing loss of different degrees and severity, depending on the severity of the blood pressure. This comorbid conditions always make the elderly to experience vascular abnormality, blurred vision, chest pain, reduced anxiety, irritability, reduced cognitive functions, reduced quality of life, depression, poor communication, fatigue, reduced social functions, mood swing, withdrawal syndrome, poor emotional state or health, regular hospital visit and continued use of anti-depressants [7]. Therefore, comprehensive management strategy, involving audiological rehabilitation and blood pressure control mechanisms, might be holistically employed, for it will aid the reduction of hearing-loss-induced deficits of function, activity, participation, quality of life through a combination of sensory management, perceptual training, counselling [8], as well as drug management, psychotherapy and physical exercises to regulate the blood pressure and its flow in and out of the brain.
Tinnitus is an observed condition in which people experience different kinds of auditory sensation without any external stimulation. Tinnitus, as a health-related condition, can be described as an evidence of perception of noise or ringing in the ear/head without external influence or generation (propagation) of sound signal(s). Tinnitus is regarded as the sensation of hearing kind(s) such as ringing, buzzing, hissing, chirping, whistling or other sounds without external sound signal; it is rather a symptom of underlying condition(s) such as age-related hearing loss, drug-related conditions, high blood pressure, ear injury, evidence of accumulated ear wax, cardiovascular disorders or metabolic disorder and/or a circulatory system disorder [7].
Tinnitus is derived from the Latin word
Scientifically, tinnitus is regarded as a kind of sensation of sound in the absence of overt acoustic stimulation, and it can be classified according to whether the perceived noise has an identifiable source, for example myoclonic contractions of tensor tympani muscle [10]. Tinnitus is a deafferentation-induced phantom phenomenon characterised by abnormal cerebral synchrony and connectivity, as the reduced or absent afferent cochlear input causes a reorganisation of tonotopic cortical maps, where representations of those frequency regions neighbouring the deafferented part become expanded [11]. Also, tinnitus can be described as a constant ringing, buzzing noise or a high-frequency whistling sound affecting all age groups. Tinnitus may be present all the time, or it may be an occasional phenomenon. This deafferentation-induced phantom phenomenon may vary in pitch from low sound to a very high sequel, with attendant capacity towards interfering in one’s ability to concentrate or perceive the actual (intended) sounds or messages.
Tinnitus has been identified as a common symptom associated with ageing health-related conditions. Tinnitus is a continuous ringing in the ear or head without any external corresponding sound signal, which features noise in one ear or both ears or in the middle of the head. At times, it is difficult to pinpoint the site of lesion, but it is a manifestation of malfunction in the processing of auditory signals involving perceptual and psychological components. It is the sensation of any sound perceived in the head or in the ears without an evident of external stimulus. Currently, there is no universal agreeable definition of tinnitus; but some definitions state that it is a phantom auditory sensation [12, 13, 14].
Tinnitus ranges from high pitch to low pitch with multiple tones or sounds without tonal quality, but it may be perceived as pulsed, intermittent or continuous noise. This debilitating condition may begin suddenly or gradually, as well as being sensed in one ear (or both ears) or in the head. This health-related condition has been observed to affect 10–33% of the aged population, and it is mostly associated with some psychosocial and health conditions such as anxiety, irritation, annoyance, concentration and insomnia, stroke, rhinosinusitis, diabetes, head injury, hypertension [15] and reduced quality of life [16]. Also, it has been observed that a number of health conditions are capable of causing or worsening tinnitus. The causes include inner ear cell damage, which always affect the random electrical impulses to the brain loading to tinnitus, chronic health conditions/injuries affecting the auditory nerves, exposure to loud noise, age-related hearing loss, head/neck injuries, auditory canal blockage, Meniere’s disease, atherosclerosis, malfunction of capillaries (a kind of abnormal connections between arteries and veins) and hypertension as well as other related conditions that can increase blood pressure [7].
Tinnitus noise may be low pitched, mid pitched or high pitched; it may also be one or more components perceived by the patient. Therefore, diagnosis and treatment are majorly based on self-report. It is important to note that tinnitus is neither a disease nor an illness but a symptom to many treatable health conditions. At one time or the other, people may experience ringing in the ears as a result of the usage of certain drugs (antibiotics or aspirin) and/or being exposed to loud noise of 85 dB and above for 8 hours daily and without adequate ear protection and traumatic brain injury, as part of normal ageing process (presbycusis). It can also coexist with some ear problems such as impacted wax, inner ear abnormality, etc. Tinnitus is a prevalent problem and common in all groups, although in the past, it had been considered as a problem of youths, but now it has been discovered that it is more common among the aged [17]. It is estimated that tinnitus affects approximately 50 million people in the United States of America. A similar ratio has been reported in the United Kingdom [18]. In Nigeria, it is mostly associated with treatable health conditions such as otitis media, stroke, rhinosinusitis, diabetes, head injury and hypertension, which affect 10–33% of the population. The association between tinnitus with functional impairment and reduced quality of life highlights the need for its inclusion in any comprehensive medical programme for the elderly, but it cannot be overemphasised [15]. Therefore, people have to be educated on how to take care of their health to prevent any health hazard which can lead to tinnitus and to avoid suffering from ringing in the ear in their old age. People suffering from tinnitus go through tough time as a result of associated psychosocial [emotional and behavioural] problems which include severe headache, negative thoughts, dizziness, hearing problem, anxiety, irritation, annoyance, concentration problem, sleep difficulties, depression and poor attention focus [7]. Studies have shown that the quality of life is reduced in patients suffering from the aforementioned problems [16, 19]. Meanwhile, it is noteworthy that psychoacoustical characterisation of tinnitus cannot fully determine the level of discomfort evoked by this condition. Thus, it has been observed that a person suffering from tinnitus may not be aware of it and may not feel any discomfort occasioned by the affliction, while another person suffering from tinnitus is constantly aware of the difficulty in attention focus, falling asleep, and enjoying life; this is because tinnitus is perceived differently and allows the individual to react to it differently [20].
Tinnitus can be classified into four different groups based on its nature and characteristics. Each of these classifications has different characteristics but with similar nature and symptoms. The four classifications would be discussed as follows:
Subjective tinnitus: This is a kind of tinnitus that can only be perceived or heard by the affected person. Scientifically, subjective tinnitus can be defined as an acoustic phantom phenomenon of a perception of sound in the absence of external-physical generated sound signal(s) [7], which is typically initiated by damage to the peripheral hearing system leading to a sequence of structural and functional changes in the central hearing system [21, 22].
Subjective tinnitus is the most common type of tinnitus, and it always occurs as a result of exposure to excessive noise. Most of the times, this type of tinnitus appears and disappears suddenly and may last for a period of time before it disappears. There are two types of subjective tinnitus, which are:
Non-pulsatile subjective tinnitus: This can be considered as the most common type of tinnitus and is typically caused by damage to the peripheral hearing system due to undetectable sounds within the central nervous system.
Pulsatile subjective tinnitus: This type of subjective tinnitus can also be referred to as vascular or pulse-synchronous tinnitus due to its relationship with disturbances in the blood flow. Pulsatile subjective tinnitus can be explained as a kind of ringing in the ear/head which is perceived as a rhythmic pulsing experience of thumping or whooshing sound due to increased blood flow or narrowing of the opening of the blood vessel.
This rhythmic tinnitus can be caused by several health conditions such as anaemia or an overactive thyroid gland making the blood to flow rapidly and loudly, hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis), high blood pressure or irregular blood flow in the brain and around the ear leading to pressure or internal noise generation within the central nervous system. Apart from the common signs and symptoms of tinnitus, inflicted individuals with this type of tinnitus will manifest a health condition referred to as idiopathic intracranial hypertension.
Objective tinnitus: This is a kind of tinnitus that can be heard by another person, apart from the sufferers. Objective tinnitus is an uncommon type of tinnitus caused by inner ear structural defects such as hair cell damage, vascular anomalies or repetitive middle ear muscle contractions and presence of chronic recurrent rhinosinusitis leading to Eustachian tube dysfunction. This kind of tinnitus can be easily treated through the treatment of the cause(s) or by avoiding the risk factors.
Neurological tinnitus: Tinnitus can also manifest as a result of neurological disorder(s) which affect the brain auditory functions. This type of tinnitus is rare and can be caused by some neurological diseases such as Meniere’s disease.
Somatic tinnitus: This type of tinnitus is classified in line with the manifestation of ringing in the ear/head due to dysfunction along the sensory system. It is purely the ringing in the ear/head as a result of underlying dysfunction of the sensory system.
Hypertension is a condition characterised as an abnormality of high blood pressure (HBp), with an evidence of exerted force by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels. Thus, hypertension as a health-related condition is referred to as high blood pressure that can lead to severe-to-profound complications and increased risk of coronary artery diseases, cardiovascular diseases, atherosclerosis and dementia [23]. This high blood pressure (Bp) has been observed affecting 25% of the world’s population, and it is the largest single contributor to global mortality [24]. It has also been found to be a significant economic burden to public healthcare providers in most countries of the world, even with improved pharmacological and counselling treatment.
Hypertension is an age-dependent health-related condition, as it is common in people aged 65 and older, and a clinical diagnosis is established by demonstrating a systolic Bp of greater than or equal to 140 mmHg and/or diastolic Bp of greater than or equal to 90 mmHg on at least three different Bp measurements [24, 25]. Hypertension can be confirmed with a repeated blood pressure checkups, based on the manifestation of consistently high blood pressure with a force of the blood flowing against the walls of the blood vessels. At this junction, it is medically defined as a blood pressure higher than 130 over 80 millimetres of mercury (mmHg) [26]. Also, it has been determined by the volume of the blood the heart pumps and the amount of resistance to blood flow in the arteries. For instance, the more blood the heart pumps, the narrower the arteries, and then, the higher the blood pressure will be experienced. Therefore, the long the force of the blood exerted on the arteries, this will automatically lead to high blood pressure, which will eventually cause some health problems if the condition is not controlled early. Once the condition is not adequately controlled, it will lead to serious health challenges including heart attacks, stroke and a state of psychological stress. In determining blood pressure, two (2) numbers have been recorded which are the upper and lower numbers. The upper number is referred to as the systolic pressure that is the pressure exerted during the heartbeat, while the lower number is the diastolic pressure—a kind of pressure evident when the heart is relaxing after the heartbeats. This reading is important and encouraged to be taken repeatedly for appropriate decision and management. Hypertension is the major risk factor for some health-related conditions. Most of the times, it allows cognitive functions, motor and visual sensitivity and auditory performance of the elderly populations who experience the condition.
Hypertension has been observed to always aggravate pre-existent tinnitus through two principal mechanisms: damage to the cochlear microcirculation and to ototoxicity caused by diverse antihypertensive drugs, such as furosemide and beta-blockers, as an electron microscope study revealed that the primary site of cochlear involvements in patients with hypertensive is the stria vascularis, followed by the Corti organ [27]. It has also been observed that there is an increase of extracellular volume generally associated with high sodium retention in hypertension [28, 29]. The prevalence of hypertension and its related condition(s) is increasing. Thus, patients who experience tinnitus often report significant associated morbidities, hypertension, lifestyle detriment, emotional difficulties, sleep deprivation, work hindrance, interference with social interaction, depression, anxiety, insomnia and decreased overall health have been attributed to tinnitus, although causative relations are yet unknown. Patients with tinnitus can have risk of depression, anxiety, and insomnia [30].
There are two major types of hypertension. These types will be discussed based on the observable symptoms and causes:
Primary hypertension: Primary hypertension is a kind of high blood pressure characterised by a pressure that is not associated with any identifiable pathological cause. It is the most common type of hypertension, as it accounts for about 95% of the hypertensive cases, and it is more common among the elderly [31]. This primary type of hypertension has non-universally established or agreed known cause(s) but is observed to occur as a result of various factors including obesity, stress, negative lifestyle and other negative psychosocial-related factors and heredity. The observable symptoms include frequent experience and feeling of headaches, tiredness, dizziness and/or nose bleeds and insomnia.
Secondary hypertension: This is a kind of high blood pressure that is less common among the aged population. It accounts for about 5% of the hypertensive cases. Secondary hypertension is an abnormality in the arteries supplying blood to the kidney due to an elevation of blood pressure resulting from the underlying cause(s) such as cardiovascular disorder, uncontrolled primary hypertension, loss of elasticity in the arteries, airway obstruction during sleep, hormone abnormalities, tumour of the adrenal glands and drug-related factors [31]. The symptoms of this secondary type of hypertension include very high blood pressure, systolic blood pressure that is over 180 millimetres of mercury (mmHg) or diastolic blood pressure over 120 mmHg, resistant hypertension, central obesity and palpitation.
Other minor types of hypertension are:
Isolated systolic hypertension: This is a type of hypertension mostly common in elderly as a result of loss of elasticity in the arteries.
Malignant hypertension: This is a type of hypertension common among the younger adults due to prompt and continuous high blood pressure. This comes with evidence of chest pain, regular headache, psychological stress and trauma, blurred vision and numbness in the arms and legs.
Resistant hypertension: This is a type of hypertension as a result of a reaction occasioned by the usage of different types of antihypertensive medications. Resistant hypertension is more common in obese and female gender, with an evidence of diabetes and kidney disease.
Idiopathic intracranial hypertension promotes the scourge of tinnitus, especially pulse-synchronous tinnitus among the elderly.
The comorbidity of tinnitus and hypertension can promote the complaints of continued whistling, humming or marching noise heard in one ear or both ears that is in synch with a kind of intermittent pulse and clear indication or manifestation of high intracranial pressure compressing the blood vessels. This is always associated with continuous and severe headache and elevated intracranial pressure.
Comorbidity of hypertension and tinnitus brings about the increase in perilymphatic pressure in the elderly due to the increase of extracellular volume associated with high sodium retention in hypertensive health-related condition(s) [3].
Unresolved hypertension and the attendant effect on the general well-being of the elderly can influence negative personality conducts, even with the evidence of increased negative psychological condition or mood swing, sleep deprivation, frustration, anger, feelings of hostility, aggressive depositions, depression, irritation and reduced quality of life.
Significant impact on hearing mechanism leading to reduced hearing sensitivity.
Comorbidity of hypertension and tinnitus significantly impairs the quality of life (health, psychosocial, recreational and work-related) of the affected elderly population.
The influence of hypertension induces or aggravates the severity of tinnitus and other related psychosocial and other distressing symptoms and conditions in the elderly.
Hypertension is a major risk factor of tinnitus in the elderly with systemic diseases.
Comorbidity of hypertension and tinnitus promotes continual and spontaneous firing rate of neurons within the central auditory system leading to increased neural synchrony in the firing pattern across neurons in primary auditory cortex and map reorganisation in the auditory modality. This in turn, due to advanced age, brings about increased systolic blood pressure and cochlear microcirculation, resulting in hair cell damage, cardiovascular morbidity, mortality and pulsatile tinnitus and tinnitus-related distress [3, 4]. Consequently, it has been observed that the prevalence of hypertension and tinnitus-related distress is increasing across the globe, as patients who experience tinnitus often report significant associated morbidities, hypertension, lifestyle detriment, emotional difficult, sleep deprivation, depression, anxiety and decreased in overall health, generally associated with high sodium retention in hypertensive condition [28, 30].
Elevation of blood pressure level and regular population of phantom noise (such as ringing, buzzing, hissing, clicking and roaring) in the ear(s)/head. This sound may be constant or intermittent in nature.
Evidence of hearing loss or complaint of reduced auditory sensitivity and high blood pressure.
Regular feeling of dull or severe headache.
Constant pounding in chest, neck and ears.
Irregular heartbeat and difficulty in breathing activity.
Regular or continual chest pain.
Vision and visual-related difficulties.
Constant feeling of depression, insomnia, aggressive dispositions and hostility.
Evidence of pulse-synchronous tinnitus and negative personality conducts.
Reduced quality of life and feeling of fatigue as well as concentration difficulties.
There are several audiological tinnitus management options available towards the rehabilitation of the elderly patients with comorbidity of hypertension and tinnitus. The different ATM options are discussed as follows:
i. Tinnitus retraining therapy (TRT)
Tinnitus retraining therapy is a form of habitual therapy designed to help people who are suffering from tinnitus. TRT is a kind of therapeutic mechanism which is used as a noise generator towards rehabilitating individuals with tinnitus by exposing them to a kind of background noise level towards reducing the negative effect of unwanted sound perception and to also overshadow the perception of the ringing in the ear/head.
Tinnitus retraining therapy is designed to alter the mechanism that transfers the signal from the auditory mechanisms to the limbic and autonomous nervous systems, thereby removing tinnitus-induced reactions [14, 32]. This TRT is a therapeutic mechanism, which always helps an individual with tinnitus to gradually ignore the sound and the associative effects of the tinnitus condition. TRT is used as habitual therapy to give hope to individuals with tinnitus as well as a mechanism of relief to those who are willing to be rehabilitated or adjusted with the condition [33]. Structurally, TRT is designed to help individuals with tinnitus to understand and learn how to stop thinking about the perceived ear/head noise. This therapy makes use of white noise or environmental sounds to block out the tinnitus noise, thereby training the brain to ignore the perception of the negative sound. It is a training or a process of learning how to cope with the perception of the negative sound consciously or subconsciously. As well, TRT is designed to achieve complete habituation of the noise (ringing) perceived in the ear/head practically done through:
Monitoring of the patient’s daily living habits.
The use of a device, normally worn behind the ear, with the capacity to generate broadband noise to divert attention of the patient away from the perception of the negative sound (tinnitus).
Introduction of some psychological therapeutic measures for educating the patient to appropriately ignore the tinnitus noise. This is done in addition to some relaxation exercises and giving of stress management counsels, towards eliminating the patient’s anxiety and feeling of frustration.
ii. Tinnitus masking therapy (TMT)
Tinnitus masking therapy (TMT) is designed to promote the reduction of audibility of tinnitus by introducing another sound signal through an instrument known as tinnitus masker. The tinnitus masker is used to generate masking noise which can either be applied to the ipsilateral or contralateral ear. The tinnitus masker can also be placed on a bed side for a patient with tinnitus who is experiencing sleeping difficulty [34]. TMT is referred to as sound therapies designed to minimise the contrast between the tinnitus and the surrounding sound, thereby promoting a shift of the patient’s focus away from the tinnitus, and to reduce the fatigue and stress occasioned by the tinnitus. TMT involves the use of several devices to produce masking sounds that will interfere with the ringing in the ear. It also means to offer an expected relief to the individuals with severe tinnitus and associated psychosocial reactions.
iii. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
Cognitive behavioural therapy is another type of audiological rehabilitative mechanism designed to minimise the negative thoughts flowing in the mind of an individual with tinnitus while at the same time changing the person’s behaviour towards the tinnitus. CBT is a therapeutic measure to rehabilitate and reduce the effect of tinnitus and its attendant psychosocial reactions by reducing the distress caused by tinnitus. This audiological tinnitus management mechanism makes use of relaxation strategies, cognitive restructuring mechanism of thoughts, reasoning and modified situations to repattern the thoughts and feelings of an individual with tinnitus to acquire essential skills to respond positively to tinnitus and live well-adjusted life, even with the tinnitus condition.
iv. Tinnitus desensitisation therapy (TDT)
Tinnitus desensitisation therapy is a kind of tinnitus therapeutic strategy to desensitise the abnormal processing of negative sound perceived. This is achieved by redirecting the attention (cognitive processing) of the individuals with tinnitus away from the tinnitus-induced signal and enabling the brain to naturally habituate the perceived tinnitus signal.
TDT makes use of directional (specific) counselling signal therapy and relaxation exercises to enable the natural habituation processing of the tinnitus-induced signal.
v. Biofeedback therapy
This is a kind of therapeutic programme structurally designed to rehabilitate individuals with pulse-synchronous tinnitus. Biofeedback therapy is a nondrug-based treatment employed to rehabilitate individual with stress and pain health-related conditions towards alleviating the negative feelings and psychosocial effects of the condition on such individual. Biofeedback therapy is designed to rehabilitate stress-induced health conditions through relaxation methods. The therapy is structured to help individuals with tinnitus to control his/her breathing system, heart rate and involuntary functions so as to reduce the effect of hypertension-related conditions. With this therapy, the elderly with comorbidity of hypertension and tinnitus will be remediated towards the control of all the bodily processes, such as heart rate, breathing system and blood pressure. Also, it will help to aid the rehabilitation reduction of elevated blood pressure, increased body temperature and disruption of brain functions through the promotion of mental and physical-functional activity to even cope with any occasioned stress due to combined effect of hypertension and tinnitus.
vi. Acoustic coordinated reset neuromodulation
The acoustic CR neuromodulation is a well-structured rehabilitative programme based on noninvasive desynchronising stimulation aimed at counteracting a neural synchrony in the individual with pulsatile subjective tinnitus. Acoustic coordinated reset neuromodulation is a kind of rehabilitative mechanism to bring about significant relief of tinnitus symptoms along with a significant decrease of pathological oscillatory activity in a network comprising auditory and nonauditory brain areas which is often accompanied with a significant tinnitus pitch change [34]. The acoustic coordinated reset neuromodulation is used as a therapeutic mechanism towards the reduction in neural synchrony which is considered as a cause of the decrease in the connectivity across the brain areas involved in the larger salience network [35, 36, 37]. In essence, this acoustic CR neuromodulation is an essential rehabilitative mechanism for the elderly patients with comorbidity of hypertensive and tinnitus.
vii. Sleep therapy
This is a kind of therapeutic programme which is structured to rehabilitate individuals with sleep disorder. In most cases, tinnitus patients always experience sleep disorder as a result of attendant effect of the health condition on their physical, mental and emotional functioning. The condition may lead to persistent disturbances, depression, anxiety, trauma and sleeplessness.
Sleep disorder often leads to cognitive changes, mental health conditions and daytime distress. As well, tinnitus patient with high blood pressure often experiences poor quality of sleep due to the negative impact of the health condition. This is occasioned by the perception of tinnitus, especially in a quiet environment, and this always affects the sleep patterns and the development of physical discomfort and other related illness. Most of the times, the attendant difficulty often prevents the tinnitus patients from falling asleep. Thus, it is necessary to resolve the sleep difficulty through the development of skills towards the modification of unwanted sleep patterns.
Sleep therapy is a planned psychological treatment to help patients with tinnitus condition to reflect on their beliefs about sleep and negative feeling, as a result of tinnitus and comorbidity of hypertension. Sleep therapy is an effective strategy to resolve sleeping difficulty and attendant anxiety. It is also effective in modifying the emotional responses of patients with tinnitus and comorbidity of hypertension to the health challenges.
viii. Environmental sound enrichment
This is another type of therapeutic programme well structured to rehabilitate individual with tinnitus-related conditions. Environmental sound enrichment is based on the principle of distraction of one sound for the intended sound (message) to be heard or received. This tinnitus management strategy is commonly referred to as sound therapy in the audiology parlance. The sound therapy, which was introduced by Jastreboff and McKinney in 1993, has been an effective mechanism to habituate any disordered auditory system through the use of low-level sounds (sound enrichment) to regulate the auditory functions of any individual with experience of tinnitus. The most effective way for sound therapy is the usage of a kind of sound enrichment suitable (pleasant and well tolerated) to the patient(s) with tinnitus, although some natural background sounds such as recorded traffic noise or music playing functions (instrumental sounds) and sound generators are well encouraged or advised for effective and prompt result.
ix. Relaxation therapeutic exercise
Relaxation therapy is a kind of stress management mechanism to consciously relax the body and mind of any individual with health-related conditions and stress either directly or through guided assistance by initiating calmness into the lives of those who are exposed to it. This therapeutic exercise is aimed at reducing stress symptoms and enables the elderly patients with comorbidity of hypertension and tinnitus enjoy better quality of life and, at the same time, reduce the effect of tinnitus and hypertension.
Relaxation therapy is a designed process to reduce the effects of noise in the ears/head and psychosocial reactions occasioned by the comorbidity of hypertension and tinnitus-related patient cope with everyday stress. For this therapy would help to boost the confidence level of the patients to handle the condition, maintaining normal blood sugar levels and increasing blood flow to the muscles, reducing tension and chronic pain, slowing down the heart rate and breathing rate and lowering the blood pressure, as well as reducing anger and frustration. Relaxation therapy can be achieved through regular deep breathing exercises, relaxing music, mediation and mindfulness exercises.
Due to the attendant effects of comorbidity of hypertension and tinnitus on the elderly population, it is noteworthy to make the following recommendations in order to holistically rehabilitate elderly patients with such comorbid health-related condition:
Proper screening and diagnosis of the elderly patients with high blood pressure, with the aim of identifying those with comorbid conditions.
Hypertensive condition should be properly managed, so as to prevent the development of pulse-synchronous tinnitus and its attendant effect on the general well-being of the elderly population.
Behavioural control mechanisms towards the reduction of body mass index and raised blood glucose, alcoholic consumption and poor diet (especially food with high sodium and low in fruit and grains). At the same time, the improvement in physical activity and better lifestyle changes can help to enhance the quality of life.
Reduction in the level of exposure to environmental noise and air pollution, as well as other related causative or risk factors of tinnitus and high blood pressure.
Combined audiological tinnitus management protocols should be adopted rather than a single therapeutic protocol in managing elderly patients with hypertension-induced tinnitus and other tinnitus severity reactions.
Concerted effort should be geared towards prompt and effective treatment as well as the management of tinnitus-induced conditions, high blood pressure, diabetes and noise-induced and ototoxic hearing loss.
Noninvasive acoustic coordinated reset (CR) stimulation (neuromodulation) should be employed as a means to replace electrical stimulation bursts, which might be occasioned due to high blood pressure.
Proper sound stimulation, counselling and stress reduction strategies should be adopted in supressing tinnitus and its attendant effect on the elderly who presents with comorbidity of hypertension and tinnitus.
The usage of combined devices which includes amplification and sound generator capable of producing relaxing fractal tones should be entrenched in the management profile of the elderly patients with comorbid conditions of hypertension and tinnitus.
10.Constant monitoring of the blood pressure level of the elderly population is advocated, and regular audiological assessment is also encouraged.
Audiological tinnitus management with the aim of providing appropriate treatment and adjustment for the individual with hearing loss and other conditions occasioned due to the attendant effects of such condition or associated health challenges remains the essential audiological management protocol for the elderly patients with comorbidity of hypertension and tinnitus. Also, it has been established that there is no single therapeutic programme capable of resolving attendant effects occasioned due to comorbidity of hypertension and tinnitus. Therefore, this chapter recommends combined audiological therapies, several psychological measures and regular physical activity in addition to behavioural modification and changes in life styles among the elderly patients with comorbidity of hypertension and tinnitus. Prompt attention must be paid to health conditions relating to unresolved hypertensive condition and its attendant effect on the general well-being of the elderly. Importantly, regular audiological cum and psychological checkups are well encouraged. The mechanism of aural rehabilitation must also be integrated into the audiological tinnitus management for the elderly patients with comorbidity of hypertension and tinnitus. This will promote sensory management towards enhancing auditory functions as well as increase the probability of positive outcomes, which will enable the elderly patients enjoy good quality of life even with the comorbid health-related conditions.
The author is grateful to God for the available wisdom and strength. At the same time, I gratefully acknowledge the influence of several audiological rehabilitative and management training programmes cum exposure over the years and the effort of Adenike E. Adesokan towards the arrangement of the manuscript.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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