\r\n\tTopics covered include but are not limited to: Hydrologic Cycle (Precipitation, Runoff, Infiltration and their Measurement, Land surface interaction); Hydrologic Analysis (Hydrograph, Wave routing, Hydrologic statistics, Frequency Analysis); Applied Hydrology (Applications in Engineering, Sciences and Agriculture, Design storms, Risk analysis, Case studies); Computational Hydrology (Numerical modeling, Hydrologic modeling and forecasting, Flow visualization, Model validation, Parameter estimation); Interdisciplinary Hydrology (Hydrometeorology, Impact of Climate Change, Precipitation data analysis, Mathematical concepts, Natural hazards); Radar Hydrology (Precipitation estimation techniques, Promise and Challenges in Radar technology, Uncertainty in radar precipitation estimates).
\r\n
\r\n\tThe contents covered in this book will serve as a valuable reference guide to students, researchers, government agencies and practicing engineers who work in hydrology and related areas. We hope that this book will open new directions in basic and applied research in hydrological science.
Recently, it has been shown that both the responses to placebo and antidepressant increased [1]. Kirsch has claimed that pharmaceutical companies did not include mildly and moderately depressed patients in trials of efficacy after finding that these patients did not benefit beyond placebo [2]. He consistently insists that antidepressants are not more effective than placebos in moderately depressed patients [3]. Drug-placebo differences are considered to be small in efficacy trials, and most of the response to antidepressants seems due to expectancy [3].
Major depressive disorder is one of the most common psychiatric disorders which is burdensome and costly worldwide in adults. Although pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments are available, because of inadequate resources, antidepressants are used more frequently than psychological interventions.
By using a meta-analysis, all antidepressants were shown more efficacious than placebo in adults with major depressive disorder. Smaller differences between active drugs were found when placebo-controlled trials were included in the analysis [4].
Serotonin (5-HT) has been indicated to be involved in etiology of depression [5].
The roles of various metabolites of kynurenine (KYN) pathway are reviewed [6], so we do not discuss these roles in detail.
As to relationships between serotonin levels and depression, we analyzed plasma levels of TRP metabolites in patients of depression.
Although the concentration of 5-HT has been considered to be low in depressive patients [7], 5-HT concentration in the brains of suicide victims were not low [8]. Therefore, it is not known if 5-HT concentration is decreased in the brains of depressive patients.
We have recently succeeded in simultaneous measurements of TRP metabolites in plasma using an ultrahigh-speed liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) [9, 10, 11, 12].
We now report age and gender differences of various TRP metabolites in patients of major monopolar depression and healthy volunteers.
2. Results
2.1 Comparison of plasma levels of TRP metabolites between healthy people and patients of major depression
2.1.1 Healthy volunteers
The sample sizes and ages of participants are as follows. Old men (n = 25; age, 60.8 ± 9.9) and old women (n = 39; age, 67.4 ± 7.5) and young men (n = 49; age, 20.7 ± 1.5) and young women (n = 47; age, 21.2 ± 0.7). Characteristics of these people are described in Table 1.
Table 1.
Background of healthy participants.
2.1.2 Patients
Outpatients of depression were recruited in this study. Fasting blood samples were taken early in the morning. Their severity of depression was checked by clinical global impression—severity scale (CGI-S), SRS, and Hamilton depression rating scale (HDRS). The history of prescriptions of drugs such as antidepressants, anxiolytics, mood stabilizers, and other drugs were asked.
Sample numbers are 55 (male, 15; female, 40; average age, 45.4 ± 11.9). The number of MDD is 38 and BD is 17. Further characteristics of patients are described below.
Plasma factors were measured after plasma was separated from blood (3000 rpm/min at 4°C). Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) was used as an anticoagulant.
2.1.3 The simultaneous measurements of TRP metabolites in plasma
An ultrahigh-speed liquid chromatography/spectrometry was used for the assay. Although detailed methodology was described elsewhere [5, 6, 7, 8, 9], the important improvement of the assay method is described here.
2.1.3.1 Reagents and instrumentation
The simultaneous analytical method developed can be adapted to major metabolites of TRP including melatonin in clinical sample.
The analytical targets of developed method are major metabolites, such as tryptophan (TRP), L-5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), serotonin (5-HT), kynurenine (KYN), 5-hydroxy-tryptophol, tryptophol, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), indole-3-acetic acid, anthranilic acid (AA), kynurenic acid (KYNA), quinaldic acid, indole-3-butyric acid, 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HKYN), 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid (3-HAA), xanthurenic acid (XA), melatonin, and quinolinic acid (QA). Each compound was purchased from major chemical regent manufacturers, such as FUJIFILM Wako chemical (Osaka, Japan) and Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA).
Metabolite analysis was performed by a liquid chromatograph tandem mass spectrometer, the LCMS-8060 quadrupole mass spectrometer combined with Nexera X2 liquid chromatograph system (Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto, Japan).
The targets are separated by reversed-phase chromatography using C18 analytical column, L-Columns ODS2 (2.1 mm × 150 mm, CERI, Tokyo, Japan) with a gradient elution. Mobile phases were 0.1% formic acid solution and acetonitrile with the gradient elution by 5% concentration of acetonitrile in 3 min and then 5–95% in 6 min, followed by 5% in 3 min at a total flow rate of 0.4 mL/min. The temperature of the column was 40°C. Electrospray ionization (ESI) was used as mostly positive ionization with multi-reaction monitoring (MRM) detection.
Flow rate of the neutralizer and the drying gas were 2 L/min and 10 mL/min, respectively. Temperature of desolvation line (heated capitally tube) was 250°C. ESI interface was used at 400°C with 10 L/min of heating gas flow. Each MRM transition was optimized using each standard solution. Optimized results were shown in Table 1.
All mother solutions of 1 mg/mL had been stocked under −80°C, and standard samples for calibration curve were prepared prior to use as mixture solution by consideration of each range of measurement concentration.
2.1.3.2 Analysis of human plasma
Aliquot of 50 μL human plasma was used for each sample analysis. The procedure including deproteinization is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Metabolic pathways of tryptophan.
Figure 2.
Diurnal variation of blood serotonin levels of healthy men and patients of major depression. Ordinate, blood levels of 5-HT; abscissa, time when blood was taken. **p < 0.01 control vs. depression, *0.05, levels at 8:30 vs. 10.30 of depressive patients.
Figure 1 shows metabolic pathways of TRP. Metabolites were measured by an ultrahigh-speed liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry.
One-way ANOVA was used for evaluating statistical significance. A, b, c, and d indicate values of young and old men and women. Tukey’s test was used for post hoc test.
Table 2 shows that there are significant gender and age differences in plasma levels of TRP of healthy volunteers.
Table 2.
Measurements of plasma levels of TRP metabolites in healthy volunteers.
Generally speaking, plasma levels of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), KYN, and AA are higher in young women and old men than in young men and old women. Plasma levels of XA and 3HK are higher in young men and old women than in young women and old men.
One-way ANOVA was used for evaluating statistical significance. A, b, c, and d indicate values of young and old men and women. Tukey’s test was used for post hoc test.
Table 3 shows that in contrast to cases in healthy people, age and gender differences disappeared in MMD except for KYN.
Table 3.
TRP metabolite levels of patients of MMD.
3. Discussion of part 1
The availability of endogenous 5-HT as a neurotransmitter is crucial in many physiological processes. Serotonergic neurons in the central nervous system are involved in regular behavioral states and physiological processes including arousal, sleep, appetite, pain, releases of hormone, and mood. Dysfunction of 5-HT neurons may lead to depression and other mental disorders.
Many scientific research has been done to know roles of 5-HT in pathophysiology of depression.
Since pathological changes are investigated in the brain and cerebrospinal fluid of suicides, it is claimed that 5-HT neurotransmission is implicated in the causes of suicide [13, 14]. Low levels of 5-HIAA in cerebrospinal fluid were shown in suicide attempters of depression [15]. Although the brainstem of suicide attempters had less 5-HT and 5-HIAA, most postmortem studies report no differences in cortical 5-HT or 5-HIAA of suicides [16].
Furthermore [17] patients with MDD have been reported to have higher 5-HIAA in jugular venous blood and have been argued to reflect higher brain 5-HT neurotransmission and turnover [18].
So the roles of 5-HT in depression is still confusing.
We simultaneously analyzed plasma levels of TRP metabolites in healthy people and patients of MMD. As shown in Tables 2 and 3, significant age and gender differences disappear in patients of MMD.
It is difficult to speculate reasons of such changes in MMD. Probably, hormonal changes may be implicated.
These results suggest that much attention has to be paid to age and gender if we want to analyze TRP metabolites, especially 5-HT and 5-HIAA.
Statistical differences of TRP metabolites between MMD or BD and healthy people will be reported elsewhere.
3.1 The diurnal variation of 5-HT in the blood of patients of depression
As stated above, serotonin (5-HT) plays roles in a state of depression since selective inhibitors of the uptake of 5-HT and the blockers of 5-HT 1A receptors are effective in its treatment [19, 20].
There is some evidence indicating that in patients of affective disorders, the regulation of circadian rhythms is disturbed [21].
We have shown that plasma levels of 5-HT were very low in patients of depression, but the levels of 5-HIAA or KYN were not different from the levels of control persons suggesting that 5-HT was immediately converted to 5-HIAA in patients of depression [9]. Due to the presence of 5-HT transporter in platelet membranes, most of 5-HT are believed to be stored in platelets in the blood [22].
We have shown that whole blood 5-HT concentration showed marked changes throughout daytime, with maximum values in the evening and lowest values in the morning, whereas its metabolite 5-HIAA followed contrary [23].
So we wanted to measure 5-HT levels in the blood of patients of depression and controls.
We examined at five timepoints whole blood 5-HT levels in depressive patients of Hamamatsu University Hospital and control volunteers. The number of depressive patients was 18 and 30 volunteers.
Patients were in depressive states as confirmed by a mean score of 18.7 (range 12–24) on the 24-item scale of Hamilton depression rating scale [24]. None of them were administered with any drug except for small doses of benzodiazepines, for at least 10 days before blood was taken.
Blood levels of 5-HT were measured using HPLC as described by Anderson et al [25]. Analytical recoveries were 85% (SD 4.5%, CV 5.6%). Amount and response were nearly related.
As shown in Figure 2, whole blood 5-HT levels were significantly lower in depressed patients at 8:30 10:30, 12:30, and 14:30. The blood concentration of 5-HT showed a circadian variation.
In the group of depression, the lowest value was shown at 8:30 and the level progressively increased to 14:30.
4. Discussion of part 2
Platelet 5-HT content is most likely regulated by the platelet transport activity.
Variations of 5-HT uptake in depressed patients have been reported by several groups [26, 27, 28].
Seasonal changes of serotonin (5-HT) uptake in blood platelets from depressed patients and normal controls were studied over a 2-year period to know if seasonal variations were present [26]. A measure of the number of 5-HT uptake sites in normal controls and depressed patients was significantly higher in fall and winter than in spring and summer. The number of 5-HT uptake in the depressed patients was lower than in normal controls throughout the year. Normal controls showed lower number in April and June. A similar trend was present in the depressed patients but the lowest values were found in the month of December.
Blood levels of melatonin, 5-HT, cortisol, prolactin, and serotonin uptake by platelets were measured at 08:00 to 08:00 hours of the following day in healthy men in age from 27 to 35 years [27]. The active transport of 5-HT by platelets was shown to be significantly correlated with melatonin blood levels. This finding suggests either a direct effect of melatonin on 5-HT active transport or the influence of the suprachiasmatic nucleus on serotonin uptake by platelets.
So far depressive disorders are considered to be associated with various neurobiological alterations like hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, altered neuroplasticity, and altered circadian rhythms. Unfortunately, the causal connections between depressive disorders and disturbed circadian rhythms have not been completely clarified. Chronobiological therapy is based on these disturbed processes. For the treatment of the circadian symptoms, various scientifically tested chronotherapeutics are available with different effectiveness and evidence like light therapy or sleep deprivation. The successful treatment of depression also frequently leads to an improvement in altered circadian rhythm.
Further studies of circadian variation of 5-HT system may help to understand the control of serotonergic nervous system and the treatment of depression.
Abbreviations
TRP
tryptophan
5-HT
serotonin
5-HIAA
5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid
IAA
indole-3-acetic acid
KYN
kynurenine
XA
xanthurenic acid
AA
anthranilic acid
KNA
kynurenic acid
3-HKN
3-hydroxykynurenine
IDO
indoleamine dioxygenase
TDO
tryptophan dioxygenase
SSRI
selective serotonin uptake inhibitor
SNRI
serotonin epinephrine reuptake inhibitor
CGI-S
clinical global impression—severity scale
SDS
self-rating depression scale
HDRS
Hamilton depression rating scale
\n',keywords:"depression, monopolar depression, bipolar depression, tryptophan, serotonin, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, kynurenine, 3-hydroxykynurenine, kynurenic acid, anthranilic acid, xanthurenic acid, indole-3-acetic acid, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI), anxiolytic, antipsychotic, and circadian variation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71664.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71664.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71664",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71664",totalDownloads:199,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 5th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 3rd 2020",datePrePublished:"May 4th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites were compared between healthy volunteers and patients of major monopolar depression at various ages and genders. An ultrahigh-speed liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry has been used for analysis. There are significant gender and age differences in TRP metabolites of healthy volunteers. At the upper stream of metabolism, metabolites of young women and old men are higher, but at the lower stream of metabolism, their levels are higher in young men and old women. Such differences disappear in plasma of patients of major monopolar depression except for kynurenine (KYN). Daily variation of blood serotonin (5-HT) levels showed that 5-HT levels were low in the morning and increased toward evening, but blood levels of 5-HT were higher in healthy people than depressive people in the morning and decreased to ward evening. Significant age and gender differences of plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites in healthy volunteers disappear in patients of major monopolar depression. Blood levels of 5-HT were higher in healthy people than depressive patients.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71664",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71664",signatures:"Hiroi Tomioka, Junichi Masuda, Akikazu Takada and Akira Iwanami",book:{id:"8762",title:"Melatonin",subtitle:"The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",fullTitle:"Melatonin - The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",slug:"melatonin-the-hormone-of-darkness-and-its-therapeutic-potential-and-perspectives",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",bookSignature:"Marilena Vlachou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8762.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"246279",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marilena",middleName:null,surname:"Vlachou",slug:"marilena-vlachou",fullName:"Marilena Vlachou"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",email:"takada-1a@kmd.biglobe.ne.jp",position:null,institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Comparison of plasma levels of TRP metabolites between healthy people and patients of major depression",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Patients",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"2.1.3.1 Reagents and instrumentation",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"Table 2.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Discussion of part 1",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.1 The diurnal variation of 5-HT in the blood of patients of depression",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Discussion of part 2",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Walsh BT, Seidman SN, Sysko R, et al. Placebo response in studies of major depression: Variable, substantial, and growing. JAMA. 2002;287:1840-1847'},{id:"B2",body:'Kirsch I, Deacon BJ, Huedo-Medina TB, et al. Initial severity and antidepressant benefits: A meta-analysis of data submitted to the Food and Drug Administration. PLoS Medicine. 2008;5:e45'},{id:"B3",body:'Kirsch I. Clinical trial methodology and drug-placebo differences. World Psychiatry. 2015;14(3):301-302. DOI: 10.1002/wps.20242'},{id:"B4",body:'Cipriani A, Furukawa TA, Salanti G, Chaimani A, Atkinson LZ, Ogawa Y, et al. Comparative efficacy and acceptability of 21 antidepressant drugs for the acute treatment of adults with major depressive disorder: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018;391(10128):1357-1366'},{id:"B5",body:'Takada A, Curzon G. Serotonin in the central nervous system and periphery. In: International Congress Series 1088. Amsterdam, The Netherland: Excerpta Medica; 1995'},{id:"B6",body:'Chen Y, Guillemin GJ. Kynurenine pathway metabolites in humans: Disease and healthy states. International Journal of Tryptophan Research. 2009;2:1-19'},{id:"B7",body:'Mann JJ, Arango V, Marzuk PM, Theccanat S, Reis DJ. Evidence for the 5-HT hypothesis of suicide. A review of postmortem studies. The British Journal of Psychiatry. Supplement. 1989;155(Suppl 8):7-14'},{id:"B8",body:'Oquendo MA, Sullivan GM, Sudol K, Baca-Garcia E, Stanley BH, et al. Toward a biosignature for suicide. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2014;171:1259-1277'},{id:"B9",body:'Takada A, Shimizu F, Masuda J. Measurement of plasma tryptophan metabolites: Clinical and experimental application for depression and stress states assessment. In: Melatonin—Molecular Biology, Clinical and Pharmaceutical Approaches. London, UK: Cristina Manuela Dragoi; 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78560'},{id:"B10",body:'Shimizu F, Ishii Y, Ogawa M, Takao T, Matsuoka K, Kato K, et al. Plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites in healthy young and old men and women, and patients of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Obesity: Open Access. 2018;4(2):1-4. DOI: 10.16966/2380-5528.138'},{id:"B11",body:'Takada A, Shimizu F, Masuda J. Plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites in patients of type 2 diabetes mellitus. In: Watson R, Preedy V, editors. Bioactive Food as Dietary Interventions for Diabetes. 2nd ed. MA, USA: Academic Press; 2019. pp. 265-276. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-813822-9.00017-5'},{id:"B12",body:'Takada A, Shimizu F, Takao T, Masuda J. Measurement of tryptophan metabolites in healthy old men and patients of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Food and Nutrition Sciences. 2018;9:1206-1220. DOI: 10.4236/fns.2018.910087'},{id:"B13",body:'Bach H, Arango V. In: Dwivedi Y, editor. Neuroanatomy of Serotonergic Abnormalities in Suicide. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2012'},{id:"B14",body:'Mann JJ. Neurobiology of suicidal behaviour. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 2003;4:819-828'},{id:"B15",body:'Lidberg L, Belfrage H, Bertilsson L, Evenden MM, Åsberg M. Suicide attempts and impulse control disorder are related to low cerebrospinal fluid 5-HIAA in mentally disordered violent offenders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2000;101:395-402'},{id:"B16",body:'Arango V, Mann JJ. Relevance of serotonergic postmortem studies to suicidal behavior. International Review of Psychiatry. 1992;4:131-140'},{id:"B17",body:'Andrews PW, Thomson JA Jr. The bright side of being blue: Depression as an adaptation for analyzing complex problems. Psychological Review. 2009;116:620-654'},{id:"B18",body:'Barton DA, Esler MD, Dawood T, Lambert EA, Haikerwal D, Brenchley C, et al. Elevated brain serotonin turnover in patients with depression: Effect of genotype and therapy. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2008;65:38-46. DOI: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2007.11'},{id:"B19",body:'Jacobs BL, Fornal CA, Wilkinson LO. Neurophysiological and neurochemical studies of brain serotonergic neurons in behaving animals. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1990;600:260-268. discussion 268-271'},{id:"B20",body:'Delgado PL, Charney DS, Price LH, Aghajanian GK, Landis H, Heninger GR. Serotonin function and the mechanism of antidepressant action. Reversal of antidepressant-induced remission by rapid depletion of plasma tryptophan. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1990;47:411-418'},{id:"B21",body:'Goodwin FK, Wirz-Justice A, Wehr TA. Evidence that the pathophysiology of depression and the mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs both involve alterations in circadian rhythms. Advances in Biochemical Psychopharmacology. 1982;32:1-11'},{id:"B22",body:'Pletscher A. The 5-hydroxytryptamine system of blood platelets: Physiology and pathophysiology. International Journal of Cardiology. 1987;14:177-188'},{id:"B23",body:'Pietraszek MH, Takahashi S, Takada Y, Ohara K, Inatomi H, Kondo N, et al. Diurnal patterns of serotonin, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, tryptophan and fibrinolytic activity in blood of depressive patients and healthy volunteers. Thrombosis Research. 1991;64:243-252'},{id:"B24",body:'Hamilton M. Some aspects of the long-term treatment of severe hypertension with methyldopa. Postgraduate Medical Journal. 1968;44:66-69'},{id:"B25",body:'Anderson GM, Young JG, Cohen DJ, Schlicht KR, Patel N. Liquid-chromatographic determination of serotonin and tryptophan in whole blood and plasma. Clinical Chemistry. 1981;27:775-776'},{id:"B26",body:'Humphries LL, Shirley P, Allen M, Codd EE, Walker RF. Daily patterns of serotonin uptake in platelets from psychiatric patients and control volunteers. Biological Psychiatry. 1985;20:1073-1081'},{id:"B27",body:'Rausch JL, Shah NS, Burch EA, Donald AG. Platelet serotonin uptake in depressed patients: Circadian effect. Biological Psychiatry. 1982;17:121-123'},{id:"B28",body:'Modai I, Malmgren R, Wetterberg L, Enervoth P, Valevski A, Asberg M. Blood levels of melatonin, serotonin, cortisol, and prolactin in relation to the circadian rhythm of platelet serotonin uptake. Psychiatry Research. 1992;43:161-166'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Hiroi Tomioka",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Showa University, Japan
Department of Psychiatry, Northern Yokohama Hospital, Showa University, Japan
Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Showa University, Japan
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However, the issues and management of fluvial-disaster risks are poorly studied. Among the reasons for the lack of studies, the Amazon region has several gaps in information ranging from inadequate regional maps to spatially unsystematic local data. Flood patterns differ in urban and rural areas. Severe large-scale flooding took place during the previous and the current decades, such as those that occurred in 2009 and 2012. Between 1991 and 2010, official recorded data indicate about 3,292,888 people were affected in 6 regional states of the Amazon (Acre, Amapá, Amazonas, Pará, Rondônia, and Roraima) considering 7 different hazards. Because of the extensive damages, the national government started a mapping program for cities in Brazil that have a history of facing significant flood risks. The aim of this chapter is to analyse the flood-risk mapping conditions in the Amazon.",signatures:"Milena Marília Nogueira de Andrade, Iris Celeste Nascimento\nBandeira, Dianne Danielle Farias Fonseca, Paulo Eduardo Silva\nBezerra, Ádanna de Souza Andrade and Rodrigo Silva de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"203296",title:"Dr.",name:"Milena",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Milena Andrade",slug:"milena-andrade",email:"milenamarilia.andrade@gmail.com"},{id:"203302",title:"MSc.",name:"Iris Celeste Nascimento",surname:"Bandeira",fullName:"Iris Celeste Nascimento Bandeira",slug:"iris-celeste-nascimento-bandeira",email:"iris.bandeira@cprm.gov.br"},{id:"203352",title:"Mr.",name:"Paulo Eduardo Silva",surname:"Bezerra",fullName:"Paulo Eduardo Silva Bezerra",slug:"paulo-eduardo-silva-bezerra",email:"pauloeduardoea@gmail.com"},{id:"203353",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ádanna",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Ádanna Andrade",slug:"adanna-andrade",email:"adanna.eng.ambiental@gmail.com"},{id:"203354",title:"Mr.",name:"Rodrigo",surname:"Oliveira",fullName:"Rodrigo Oliveira",slug:"rodrigo-oliveira",email:"rodrigo.so77@gmail.com"},{id:"203421",title:"Mrs.",name:"Dianne",surname:"Fonseca",fullName:"Dianne Fonseca",slug:"dianne-fonseca",email:"dianne.fonseca@cprm.gov.br"}],book:{title:"Flood Risk Management",slug:"flood-risk-management",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"11196",title:"Dr.",name:"Khiruddin",surname:"Abdullah",slug:"khiruddin-abdullah",fullName:"Khiruddin Abdullah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"50312",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",surname:"Assani",slug:"ali-assani",fullName:"Ali Assani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"151303",title:"Prof.",name:"Nik Norulaini",surname:"Ab Rahman",slug:"nik-norulaini-ab-rahman",fullName:"Nik Norulaini Ab Rahman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"151344",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Omar",surname:"Ab Kadir",slug:"mohd-omar-ab-kadir",fullName:"Mohd Omar Ab Kadir",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202188",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",surname:"Goers",slug:"sebastian-goers",fullName:"Sebastian Goers",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Johannes Kepler University of Linz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"202772",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Elżbieta",surname:"Jarosińska",slug:"elzbieta-jarosinska",fullName:"Elżbieta Jarosińska",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Cracow University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"202833",title:"MSc.",name:"Katarzyna",surname:"Pierzga",slug:"katarzyna-pierzga",fullName:"Katarzyna Pierzga",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"206477",title:"Prof.",name:"Friedrich",surname:"Schneider",slug:"friedrich-schneider",fullName:"Friedrich Schneider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"206478",title:"Dr.",name:"Horst",surname:"Steinmüller",slug:"horst-steinmuller",fullName:"Horst Steinmüller",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"206479",title:"MSc.",name:"Andreas",surname:"Zauner",slug:"andreas-zauner",fullName:"Andreas Zauner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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