\r\n\t- Traditionally accepted topics related to global health security, \r\n\t- The impact of human activities and climate change on “planetary health”, \r\n\t- The impact of global demographic changes and the emergence chronic health conditions as international health security threats. \r\n\t- A theme dedicated to the COVID-19 Pandemic, \r\n\t- Novel considerations, including the impact of social media and more recent technological developments on international health security.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe goal of this book cycle is to provide a comprehensive compendium that will be able to stand on its own as an authoritative source of information on international health security.
",isbn:"978-1-78985-940-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-939-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-154-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"edbc267908c2f140f991de15d99276df",bookSignature:"Dr. Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. S Firstenberg, Dr. Sagar C. Galwankar and Dr. Andrew C. Miller",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10624.jpg",keywords:"Threats, Monitoring, Food Security, Emerging Infections, Transmission, Geopolitics, Climate Change, Cyber Health Security, COVID-19, Novel Coronavirus, Pandemic, Coronavirus",numberOfDownloads:167,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 20th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 5th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 4th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 25th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 24th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"An Associate Professor of Surgery at Temple University School of Medicine and a Chair of the Department of Research and Innovation, St. Luke's University Health Network. A member of multiple editorial boards and co-author of over 550 publications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"An Associate Professor of Surgery & Integrative Medicine at Northeast Ohio Medical University and Cardiothoracic Surgeon at the Summa Health Care System. A prolific writer and presenter, with multiple books, hundreds of peer-reviewed articles, and innumerable presentations around the world.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"A CEO of the INDUSEM Health and Medicine Collaborative, Global Executive Director. of the American College of Academic International Medicine (ACAIM) and head of the World Academic Council of Emergency Medicine.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:"A Director of Research in the Department of Emergency Medicine at Nazareth Hospital in Philadelphia, USA, and co-chief editor of the International Journal of Critical Illness and Injury Science. A recipient of numerous local, regional, and national awards.",coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181694/images/system/181694.jpeg",biography:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, MD, MBA, FACS, FAIM, is Chair of the Department of Research of Innovation, St. Luke\\'s University Health Network, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and Professor of Surgery at Temple University School of Medicine. Dr. Stawicki has edited numerous books and book series on the topics of clinical research, medical education, medical leadership, patient safety, health security, and various other subjects. He is a member of multiple editorial boards and has co-authored more than 650 publications. He served as the inaugural president of the American College of Academic International Medicine (ACAIM) and directed its Taskforce on International Health Security. He has given a multitude of scientific presentations around the globe and is board certified in general surgery, surgical critical care, and neurocritical care.",institutionString:"St. Luke's University Health Network",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"29",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"St. Luke's University Health Network",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. 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His academic experience over the last two decades includes consistent achievements and innovative strategies that have led to the creation of organizations, publication of landmark papers, and commendation with prestigious citations and honors for his works that have impacted academic medicine globally. He has played a defining role in founding and building internationally recognized interdisciplinary indexed journals. He is the CEO of the INDUSEM Health and Medicine Collaborative and heads the World Academic Council of Emergency Medicine (WACEM). Additionally, he serves as the Global Executive Director for the American College of Academic International Medicine (ACAIM). 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He completed residencies in Emergency Medicine and Internal Medicine at the State University of New York (SUNY) Downstate Medical Center (2010) where he served as Chief Resident for Research. He completed fellowships in Pulmonary Medicine at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (2013) and Critical Care Medicine at the National Institutes of Health (2014). He is active in the American College of Academic International Medicine, and is co-chief editor of the International Journal of Critical Illness and Injury Science. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
Soybeans are very versatile, both as a food product and an ingredient in many industrial products. The oil produced by soybeans is contained within many foods we eat every day. Natural soybean oil contains several essential fatty acids that our body needs to work properly, including linoleic and linolenic acids. However, much of the soybean oil consumed in many parts of the world has been partially hydrogenated; that is, it\'s chemical composition has been changed. This hydrogenation removes the necessary essential fatty acids contained within the original oil. Some of the partially hydrogenated soybean oil has been converted to trans fatty acids.
\n\t\t\t
Trans fatty acids have been shown to increase the risk of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease due to their in vivo effects in two ways. They effect the levels of prostacyclin and thromboxane, which increases the risk of thrombosis, and they increase sphingomyelin production by the body, which then causes calcium influx into the arterial cells to increase, leading to atherosclerosis. Consumption of partially hydrogenated soybean oil can be harmful to the body.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Soybeans
\n\t\t\t
Soybeans have many uses. When processed, a 60-pound bushel will yield around 11 pounds of crude soybean oil and 47 pounds of meal. Soybeans are about 18% oil and 38% protein. Because soybeans are high in protein, they are a major ingredient in livestock feed. Most soybeans are processed for their oil and protein for the animal feed industry. A smaller percentage is processed for human consumption and made into products including soy milk, soy protein, tofu and many retail food products. Soybeans are also used in many non-food (industrial) products [1].
\n\t\t\t
Biodiesel fuel for diesel engines can be produced from soybean oil by a process called transesterification. Soy biodiesel is cleaner burning than petroleum-based diesel oil. Its use reduces particle emissions, and it is non-toxic, renewable and environmentally friendly. Soy crayons are made by replacing the petroleum used in regular crayons with soy oil, making them non-toxic and safer for children. Candles made with soybean oil burn longer but with less smoke and soot. Soy ink is superior to petroleum-based inks because soy ink is not toxic, renewable and environmentally friendly, and it cleans up easily. Soy-based lubricants are as good as petroleum-based lubricants, but can withstand higher heat. More importantly, they are non-toxic, renewable and environmentally friendly [1]. Soy can also be used in paint and plasticizers, and used in bread, candy, doughnut mix, frozen desserts, instant milk drinks, gruel, pancake flour, pan grease extender, pie crust, and sweet goods. Non-food items made with soybeans include anti-corrosives, anti-static agents, caulking compounds, core oils, diesel fuel, disinfectants, electrical insulation, epoxies, fungicides, herbicides, printing inks, insecticides, oiled fabrics, and waterproof cement [2].
\n\t\t\t
Soybean oil is normally produced by extraction with hexane. The production consists of the following steps. The soybeans are first cleaned, dried and de-hulled prior to extraction. The soybean hulls need to be removed because they absorb oil and give a lower yield. This de-hulling is done by cracking the soybeans and a mechanical separation of the hulls and cracked soybeans. Magnets are used to separate any iron from the soybeans. The soybeans are also heated to about 75o C to coagulate the soy proteins to make the oil extraction easier. To extract the oil, first the soybeans are cut into flakes, which are put in percolation extractors and emerged in hexane. Counter flow is used as extraction system because it gives the highest yield. After removing the hexane, the extracted flakes only contain about 1% of soybean oil and are used as livestock feed, or to produce food products such as soy protein. The hexane is recovered and returned to the extraction process. The hexane free crude soybean oil is then further purified [3].
\n\t\t\t
World production of soybean oil in 2010-2011 rose 8.0% to a new record high of 41.874 million metric tons. The U.S. accounts for 20.6% of world soybean oil production, while Brazil produces 15.8% and the European Union accounts for 5.8%. The consumption of soybean oil rose 9.2% worldwide in 2010-2011, with the U.S. accounting for 18.6%, Brazil accounting for 12.4%, India accounting for 6.9%, and the European Union accounting for 6.4% of demand [4].
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Uses for soybean oil
\n\t\t\t
Of the total of 18 million pounds of soybean oil consumed in 2011, approximately 9 million pounds was used for cooking and salad oil. 3.75 million pounds was used for baking, and 3.6 million pounds on industrial products. The remaining 900,000 pounds is used in various other edible products. The high smoke point of soybean oil makes it often used as a frying oil. If overused, however, it causes the formation of free radicals.
\n\t\t\t
Soybean oil contains 52.5% linoleic (18:2 Δ9,12) acid, which is also known as 18:2n6 or omega–6. It also contains 7.5% linolenic (18:3 Δ9,12,15) acid also known as 18:3n3 or omega-3. The designation 18:2 Δ9,12, and 18:3 Δ9,12,15 means that these two fatty acids have double bonds (points of unsaturation) at position 9 and 12 or 9,12 and 15 at which hydrogen can be added. In the late 1800s, a French chemist discovered that an unsaturated fatty acid can be converted to a saturated fatty acid by bubbling hydrogen through a heated vegetable oil in a closed vessel. If completely hydrogenated, they become stearic acid. The commercial use of partially hydrogenation of soybean oil began in the early 1900s. The exact fatty acid composition of the partially hydrogenated soybean oil was essentially unknown until the development of gas chromatography (GC) by James and Martin in 1952. The Food and Drug Administration, using the American Oil Chemists Society method, labeled the isomers in partially hydrogenated fat as only one peak (elaidic acid). It is only with a GC equipped with a 200 meter column that it is possible to further separate the fatty acid isomers of partially hydrogenated fat into at least 14 separate isomeric fatty acids [5].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
During hydrogenation, the double bond at any of these 9,12 or 9, 12, 15 positions can be shifted to form new cis and trans unsaturated fatty acid isomers not present in soybean oil. The double bond of the cis-natural linoleic and linolenic fatty acids can also change the configuration from cis to trans, creating a geometric isomer like trans Δ11-18:1 vaccenic acid in butter fat. Oleic acid, the largest percentage of the natural fatty acid in the human body, is cis Δ9-18:1 (the number after delta indicates the position of the double bond at the 18 carbon atom chain counting from the carboxyl group).
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
Oleic acid goes through geometrical isomerisation during hydrogenation to trans Δ9-18:1 acid known as elaidic acid; thus the “natural” oleic acid is turned into elaidic acid during the hydrogenation process, and becomes an “unnatural” fatty acid. It twists into a new form and can be both a cis and/or a trans fatty acid. In addition to geometrical isomerisation, the double bond of either cis or trans fatty acids can theoretically migrate along the 18 carbon chain of either oleic, linolenic, and linoleic acid, changing their position from Δ9, Δ9,12,15, or Δ9,12, creating five monoene cis positional isomers, 6 trans monoene isomers and 3 trans diene positional isomers. Thus hydrogenated soybean oil contains 24.1% trans monoenes, 6.2% trans dienes and 9.4% cis monoene isomers or a total of 39.7% isomeric fatty acids. They were identified as cis and trans octadecenoic and octadecadienoic isomers on a GC equipped with a 200 meter column and by their mixed melting points with authentic octadecenoic and octadecadienoic acids. None of these fatty acids are present in natural soybean oil. The 14 isomers in hydrogenated fat can be used as a source of energy but they cannot substitute for EFA because they do not have the required double bond structure [5].
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4. Nutrition
\n\t\t\t
It was unknown until 1930 that linoleic (18:2 n6) and linolenic (18:3 n3) acids were essential fatty acids (EFA), and like the nine essential amino acids and the vitamins, cannot be synthesized in the human body; they must come from a diet that includes natural fats and oils. In one study, pregnant rats were fed linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acids by dropper. This was a sufficient amount for the mother rats to wean their young, but those pups from mothers fed only linolenic acid died before weaning. Although linolenic acid is considered an essential fatty acid, these data indicate that it may not be an essential fatty acid [6].
\n\t\t\t
An increase in the sales of soy food is largely credited to the Food and Drug Administration\'s approval of soy as a cholesterol-lowering food [7]. A 2001 literature review argued that these health benefits were poorly supported by available evidence, and noted that data on soy\'s effect on cognitive function of the elderly existed [8].
\n\t\t\t
The FDA issued the following claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease." [9]. Solae also submitted a petition on the grounds that soy can help prevent cancer. On February 18, 2008, Weston A. Price Foundation submitted a petition for the removal of this health claim. 25 g/day soy protein was established as the threshold intake because most trials used at least this much protein and not because less than this amount is inefficacious [10]. An American Heart Association review of a study of the benefits of soy protein casts doubt on the FDA claim for soy protein. However, AHA concludes "many soy products should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health because of their high content of polyunsaturated fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals and low content of saturated fat" [11].
\n\t\t\t
EFA are required to synthesize the eicosanoids that are needed to regulate blood flow in the arteries and veins. Linoleic acid (n-6) is synthesized into arachidonic acid, and linolenic acid (n-3) is synthesized into eicosapentaenoic acid. Both in turn are made into prostacyclin or thromboxane. Prostacyclins are synthesized in the endothelial cells that line the blood vessel wall. Thromboxanes are synthesized in the platelets in the blood. The balance between prostacyclin for flow and thromboxane for clotting is a very delicate one and can be changed by different diets and different drug prescriptions. Fish have already converted the linolenic acid they get from seaweed into eicosapentaenoic acid. Hence, fish oil is often recommended as a dietary supplement. Prostacyclin and thromboxane can be made from linoleic acid as well. The least expensive source of omega-3 and omega-6 is soybean oil, which is sold as vegetable oil in a supermarket [12].
\n\t\t\t
However, this vegetable oil is stripped of Vitamin E, which is then sold in capsules. The removal of Vitamin E leaves the oil more susceptible to oxidation, which harms the natural fatty acids that are needed for good health.
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How soybean oil is used in modern humans was developed in prehistoric humans to assure their survival. There must have been long periods of time between meals, that is fasting periods, and there were times in which they had food available, the "fed" period. During this fed period, carbohydrates were used within two hours as a quick source of energy. Extra carbohydrates were stored first as glycogen in the muscles and liver and then any excess converted to fat and stored in the adipose tissues (the fat around your middle and elsewhere). This stored fat was then available for energy during the long fasting periods. Modern humans have inherited this way of handling these fed and fasting periods. This process assured the survival of prehistoric humans but has now become one way that obesity is developing in humans today. Too much food is available all hours of the day and night, and eating it is a pleasure.
\n\t\t\t
To avoid adding fat to your body, any carbohydrates you eat should be used up as a calorie source before the next meal. Any carbohydrates that have already turned into fat and any fat in your diet itself should be used for energy within the cell during the fasting period. Eating a snack between meals means adding additional carbohydrates into the system before any of the fat from the previous meal has been used for energy. It ends up adding to your adipose tissue. If you weighed yourself before a hearty meal and again the next day, you may find you have gained a pound or two, the amount depending on how much food you ate and the fat you stored. As such a meal may also contain excess salt, some of the weight gain can be due to excess water you stored. Millions of dollars are spent to try to get rid of this stored fat, and the government is planning to spend millions more dollars to solve the obesity problem. Prehistoric humans had no choice in controlling the time between fasting and fed periods because they had no refrigerators, fast food outlets, or supermarkets to run to. Modern humans do have this choice. More time between the fed periods, that is between meals, may help with the obesity problem [12].
\n\t\t\t
The fat in the intestinal tract is first converted into tiny droplets of fat (chylomicrons) by the intestinal cells. The intestinal tract is not just a through highway, but is actively involved in the process of metabolizing fat so that the body can use it. The chylomicrons diffuse from the intestinal tract into the lymph system and into the veins through the thoracic duct and end up in the blood. The blood, during the fed period, carries these chylomicrons for deposit where they are resynthesized into adipose tissue and stored fat around the stomach, hips, and other locations. The fat (triglycerides) in adipose tissue is "mobilized" when the glycogen in the muscle and liver has been reduced.
\n\t\t\t
The glycerin portion goes to the liver. The free fatty acids take a different route and are combined with a protein named albumin. Therefore, there must be enough albumin in the blood to carry the free fatty acids in the blood. This fatty acid albumin complex is water-soluble enough in the blood to be carried to cells of all kinds that use the fatty acid portion as an energy source. Any excess fatty acid goes to the liver and is remade into triglycerides. The cellular organelle (the endoplasmic reticulum) in the liver cells participates in coating the very small triglyceride droplets with protein and adds phospholipid and cholesterol to produce very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), which furnishes the fatty acid for the approximately 50 thousand trillion cells in the body [12].
\n\t\t\t
Correction of the inhibition of lipoprotein lipase by protein binding of free fatty acids permits normal protein transport of FFA into the cellular mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylative cycle with the resultant production of high-energy phosphate which is the cellular fuel. Without this fuel, in addition to oxygen, the life process comes to a halt. Bacteria have used this method of providing energy for at least two billion years (Ratz).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5. Fried foods
\n\t\t\t
Another issue with fats is the preparation of foods by frying them in fat. There are problems with deep fat fried food that affect our nutrition. These problems occur because of chemical alterations in the fat that happen as a consequence of deep fat frying food. This frying process is as follows:
\n\t\t\t
Food picks up oxygen from the air during frying that negatively alters the fat composition.
The foods fried in these fats pick up those altered fats.
These altered foods have a direct, negative influence on the nutritional value of the fat.
\n\t\t\t
The changes in the fat are dependent on at least four factors:
\n\t\t\t
The length of time it was exposed to heat—in commercial operations, the length of time a food is fried leads to how much fat is absorbed on the cooked food item;
The temperature of the fat;
The exact composition of the fat used, such as corn oil, cottonseed oil, soybean oil, beef tallow, or hydrogenated fat, and
What is being fried, e.g., chicken or fish.
\n\t\t\t
Feeding the fats fried at varying lengths of time led to very different outcomes in the nutrition of animals. Those fed the fats fried the shortest period of time were healthier than those fed the fats fried for the longest times. Those fed fats heated at higher temperatures were not as healthy as those fed on fat heated to lower temperatures. It was interesting also that animals fed on heated margarine did not grow as well as those on fresh margarine and that their plasma cholesterol level increased. Those fed on heated butter oil grew as well as those on fresh butter oil.
\n\t\t\t
Oil from commercial fat fryers was used in a set of experiments that clearly showed that poor nutrition resulted. This is important because used fat from commercial operations is typically collected and fed to animals, such as pigs, to provide energy for rapid growth. When we conducted experiments feeding the commercially used fat for frying to rats, they did not do well. When we added protein to their diets, the effect of the "bad" heated fat was countered because the added protein provided more adequate nutrition. We tried to fortify the diets with adequate vitamins, but that could not counter the growth-depressing effect of the heated oil. A few vitamins, such as riboflavin, helped a bit.
\n\t\t\t
Fish contain high amounts of polyunsaturated fat that are not present in the fat of chicken or beef. Thus, when fish are fried, the polyunsaturated fat in them can leak into the frying fat, causing the fat to be changed more radically into a less healthy version. Chicken and hamburger have less of this polyunsaturated fat and thus are healthier choices to fry.
\n\t\t\t
Eating excessive amounts of fried food also slows down digestion. People may get stomachaches as a result. As early as 1946, a link that heated fats may lead to cancer was shown. What we don\'t know yet is whether heated fats by themselves lead to cancer or whether the heated fat combined with specific foods cause cancer. Animals fed heated fat combined with a known carcinogen developed cancer, whereas those fed fresh fat combined with a known carcinogen did not. Thus the heated fat was a co-carcinogen.
\n\t\t\t
Commercial frying of food has increased worldwide since our studies on heated fats. In Germany, fat fryers are required by law to test their frying fat for its freshness by a method approved by the German government. In the U.S. a test is also available, but its use is not mandatory [12].
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6. Free radicals
\n\t\t\t
Free radicals are produced from oxidized linoleic (n-6) and linolenic acid (n-3); they are fragments of unsaturated fatty acids. This is especially likely to happen when the essential fatty acids are heated, especially the n-3 variety. All oils change structures when they are heated, but hose high in n-3 fatty acids have more problems than those high in n-6. Free radicals provide another reason to avoid fried food. The first sign of fats becoming free radicals is that they are rancid, and they begin to smell "off" and their taste becomes bitter. Roasted peanuts, for example, can become rancid and then shouldn\'t be eaten.
\n\t\t\t
Free radicals are "bad" since they destroy vitamins A, D, C, and E, thus preventing these vitamins from doing positive things in the body. Free radicals also destroy both the essential fatty acids and the essential amino acids. They oxidize the LDL into something called oxidized low density lipoproteins (oxLDL). These oxLDL are very powerful components in the blood that have been considered since about 1990 as involved in the development of heart disease [12].
\n\t\t\t
Essential fatty acids do more than regulate the blood; they are also a key to reproduction. Since the 1930\'s, we\'ve known that reproduction always fails on fat-free diets. In studies on rats, reproduction continues under low fat conditions because the rats have enough linoleic acid stored in their bodies. They manufacture arachidonic acid from the linoleic acid in their own fat, so they can reproduce healthy young even after a fat-free diet. If the rats did not have enough linoleic acid stored in their bodies (such as rats born to mothers on fat-free diets), we found they could not make enough of the arachidonic acid needed for healthy reproduction, and their young die. Women need the essential fatty acids for reproduction. The easiest way to supply them is from plant oils [5].
\n\t\t\t
Data from ADM shows the composition of three different hydrogenated fats, based on a serving size of 14 grams. The first two were made of enzymatically interesterified soybean oil, and contained 0 grams of trans fat per serving. The third was made of partially hydrogenated soybean and/or cottonseed oil, and contained 4.5 grams of trans fat per serving. The take away message is that due to effective food industry lobbying, food labeling rules allow foods with up to half a gram of trans fat per serving to be labeled "0 trans fat". So look for "partially hydrogenated vegetable oil" on the label.
\n\t\t\t
Several researchers have documented the effects of foods without trans fat and their positive effects on lowering CHD. Mozaffarian et al. showed that n-3 PUFAs from both seafood and plant sources may reduce CHD risk, with little apparent influence from background n-6 PUFA intake. They found lower death rates among those with high seafood and plant-based diets. Plant-based n-3 PUFAs may particularly reduce CHD risk when seafood-based n-3 PUFA intake was low, which has implications for populations with low consumption or availability of fatty fish. Kris-Etherton et al. found that nuts and peanuts routinely incorporated in a healthy diet with a composite of numerous cardioprotective nutrients reduced the risk of CHD. They also suggested that higher intake of trans fat could adversely affect endothelial function, which might partially explain why the positive relationship between trans fat and cardiovascular risk is greater than one would predict based solely on its adverse effects of plasma lipids [12].
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
7. Two mechanisms involved in coronary heart disease
\n\t\t\t
Two mechanisms may be involved in CHD: One, the oxidation of the fatty acids and cholesterol in LDL leading to a change in sphingomyelin concentration in the arteries, which is a process that occurs over a life time; two, the deposition of trans fat in the cardiovascular system. Trans fat calcifies both the arteries and veins and causes blood clots. Trans fat leads to the reduction of prostacyclin that is needed to prevent blood clots in the coronary arteries. A blood clot in any of the coronary arteries can result in sudden death.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
8. Mechanism one
\n\t\t\t
When sufficient biological antioxidants are not present in the plasma, the LDL is oxidized to oxLDL and cholesterol is oxidized to oxysterol. Oxysterols incorporated into the endothelial layer of the arteries and veins can change the phospholipid cell membrane composition so that more sphingomyelin incorporates into the membrane which becomes “leaky” to calcium infiltration. Oxysterols were present at higher concentrations in the plasma of patients who had coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) surgery. These patients had 40 times more calcium in their bypassed veins than normal veins in the same patient. When purchased oxysterols were added to plasma from patients who did not need CABG surgery, endothelial cells cultured in their blood and tested with radioactive calcium the incorporation of radioactive calcium did not differ from that of plasma from CABG patients. This indicates that oxysterols stimulated calcification. When endothelial cells were cultured with oxysterols in a standard culture media, the cells became calcified in a similar way to those of the CABG patient. The oxidation of cholesterol and deposition of calcium is the primary cause for the development of atherosclerosis in the arteries and veins.
\n\t\t\t
In a review article entitled "The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: Perspectives for the 1990s" Ross stated "Atherosclerosis of the extremities is most apparent at branching points of the arterial tree where blood flow is irregular with current and back currents. The cellular events that occur during the progression of lesions in hypercholesterolemic animals are almost exactly mirrored by those observed in human atherosclerotic coronary arteries in hearts removed in transplant operations" [13]. De Bakey et al. have noted similar atherosclerosis (thickening) at branching and bifurcation during coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) surgery [14].
\n\t\t\t
Keaney stated that the gene expression pattern in the arterial wall is subject to influence by modified forms of LDL [15], which altered both scavenger reception (CD36) expression and the expression of pro-inflammatory genes [16]. The disturbed laminar flow pattern of fluids occurs near branch points [17], bifurcations, at major curves and at arterial geometries [18] that are typically associated with the earliest appearance (and subsequent progression) of atherosclerotic lesions [19]. An endothelial receptor for oxLDL, a designated lectin-like oxLDL receptor (LOX-1) [20], was identified [21]. The transient application of shear stress showed that the initial stimulation of shear stress was sufficient for induced expression of LOX-1 and that sustained application of shear stress was not required [22]. The over-expression of LOX-1 receptors at the bifurcation and the higher level of modified LDL and oxysterols in the plasma of persons needing CABG surgery could lead to a higher uptake of modified LDL, resulting in a greater delivery of oxysterols to the endothelial cells at the bifurcations. The levels of sphingomyelin in plasma have been shown to be higher in patients with coronary heart disease and those with left ventricular dysfunction [23]. Furthermore, it was found that sphingomyelin levels in the blood correlate with and can be used to accurately predict coronary artery disease [24]. Sphingomyelin has long been known to accumulate in atheromas of both humans and animals, and contributes to the formation of atherosclerosis [25].
\n\t\t\t
Thickening [26] was noted in the branching arteries in aging porcine on a non-cholesterol diet. It did not differ significantly in sphingomyelin composition from that of the non branching adjacent tissue of porcine at 6 months of age. By 18 and 48 months of age, however, the sphingomyelin content was significantly higher at the thickened branching areas than at the non thickened segment of the arteries. This indicated that during aging of the arteries, there was a striking increase in the amount of sphingomyelin in the membrane of the cells at the branching points of arteries [26]. Lipid extracted from both porcine and human arteries indicated that aging is a factor that increased sphingomyelin. There was more sphingomyelin in the aging arteries of both porcine and human arteries.
\n\t\t\t
The non branching segment of the aorta obtained, on autopsy, from six men 21-27 years of age contained four times more sphingomyelin than in arteries isolated from human umbilical cords, indicating that the sphingomyelin content of arteries increases with age. Aging is not the only factor that increased the sphingomyelin composition of arterial cells. Women and men under 40 years of age who had been subjected to CABG surgery contained the same high percentage of sphingomyelin in their non atheromatous arterial cells as those over 40 years of age. Therefore, heart disease itself seemed to have caused an increase in non atheromatous arterial cells in sphingomyelin composition prematurely in CABG patients, pointing to a fundamental disturbance in phospholipid metabolism in their arterial cells.
\n\t\t\t
The phospholipid composition of a normal arterial cell has less sphingomyelin, and this amount increases until half the artery is sphingomyelin. That is, the more sphingomyelin was in the arterial cells, the more Ca2+ was identified. This is because the hydroxyl group and amide group of sphingomyelin act as both donors and acceptors of hydrogen bonds [27]. Furthermore, Lehninger found that sphingomyelin\'s long, 18-to-26 carbon atoms chain fatty acids altered the positioning of other phospholipids. Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine has no amide bond [28]. As both sphingomyelin and dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine are largely on the extracellular side of the membrane [29,30], such bilayer asymmetry would enhance binding. These in vitro results showed that sphingomyelin-Ca2+ binding goes beyond an isolated individual membrane binding Ca2+, to lattice type matrix binding among adjacent membranes [31]. These results in vitro were simulated in vivo Ca2+ deposition (calcification) in arteries and veins.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
9. The in vivo effect of sphingomyelin on the composition of the vascular membrane
\n\t\t\t
Patients who had CABG surgery sometimes needed a second CABG surgery because the vein used in the first surgery had been occluded. During this second surgery, an unoccluded vein from the same patient was used to replace the occluded vein. The occluded veins contained, on average, significantly more sphingomyelin and Ca2+ than the unoccluded veins [32]. The unoccluded veins contained 24% sphingomyelin and 182 ppm of Ca2+ as compared to 48% of sphingomyelin and 6,345 ppm of Ca2+ in the occluded veins that had been used in the first CABG surgery. The increased sphingomyelin and Ca2+ concentrations in the occluded veins were responsible for the initial formation of atherosclerosis in these patients.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
10. Oxysterols increased sphingomyelin and Ca2+ deposition in patients with CABG surgery
\n\t\t\t
Ridgway found that 25-hydroxycholesterol stimulated sphingomyelin synthesis in Chinese hamster ovary cells [33]. Similarly in humans, an oxysterol increased sphingomyelin synthesis during the development of atherosclerosis. A significant increase in the concentrations of oxysterols, phospholipids, and Ca2+ were noted in patients who had CABG surgery [26, 32]. Patients who had cardiovascular disease had increased oxysterol levels in their plasma compared with the controls; that is, by comparison to cardiac catheterized patients with no stenosis [32]. The plasma from CABG patients had a higher concentration of oxysterols than was present in the controls. Human endothelial cells were cultured for 72 hours in a medium containing plasma obtained from CABG patients, or from controls patients with addition of 5 types of oxysterols (7-keto-cholesterol, cholestane-3β, 5α, 6β-triol, 7β-hydroxycholesterol, β-epoxy cholesterol, and 7α-hydroxycholesterol). These added oxysterols increased the total oxysterol level in the controls equivalent to that in the CABG plasma.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tPhospholipid
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Human
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Porcine
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
(%)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
younger
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
older
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3 weeks
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2 years
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Phosphatidylcholine
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
34.1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
19.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
44.74
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
33.91
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Phosphatidylethanolamine
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
8.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
25.18
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
24.76
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Sphingomyelin
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
44.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
68.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
16.06
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
23.72
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Phosphatidylinositol
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
+
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Phosphatidylserine
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
11.35
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
14.55
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Phosphatidic acid
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lysolecithin
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
8.0
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
trace
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.28
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Data from Kummerow F.A.. 1987. Factors which may alter the assembly of biomembranes so as to influence their structure or function In Membrane Biogenesis. Op den Kamp J. A. F., editor. Springer-Verlag. 95.
Phospholipid composition of human and porcine arterial tissues
\n\t\t\t
Oxysterols stimulated sphingomyelin synthesis and inhibited sphingomyelin metabolism [34, 23, 24]. When radioactive Ca2+ (45Ca2+) influx was measured, significantly higher influx of 45Ca2+ was noted in the endothelial cells cultured with added oxysterols indicating that oxysterols increased Ca2+ influx into endothelial cells [34]. By using a radiolabeled choline, the time- and dose-dependent effects of 27-hydroxycholesterol on sphingomyelin synthesis could be observed. The increased radioactivity in sphingomyelin, which was accompanied by decreased radioactivity in phosphatidylcholine in 27-hydroxycholesterol-treated cells, was higher than that in control cells. This result indicated that 27-hydroxycholesterol increased the transfer of choline from phosphatidylcholine to sphingomyelin. An interesting finding was that the increased radioactivity in sphingomyelin by 27-hydroxycholesterol was detected first, followed by enhanced Ca2+ uptake and the accumulation of cytosolic free Ca2+. Moreover, decreased activities of neutral and acid sphingomyelinase, which hydrolyze sphingomyelin, were also detected in 27-hydroxycholesterol treated cells [35]. Therefore, the cause for calcification was related to the structure and location of sphingomyelin in the cell membrane.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
11. The concentration of cholesterol and lipid oxidation products in the plasma of cardiac catheterized patients was also determined [36]
\n\t\t\t
The concentration of cholesterol, lipid oxidation products and total antioxidant capacity in the plasma of 2000 cardiac catheterized patients with 0, 10–69 and 70–100% stenosis of their arteries were analyzed. The results showed that lipid oxidation products increased with the severity of stenosis, they were 2.92 mmol/L at 0% stenosis, 3.19 mmol/L at 10–69% stenosis and 3.48 mmol/l at 70–100% stenosis. The total antioxidant capacity decreased with the severity of stenosis. The plasma cholesterol concentration, however, was not significantly different between these groups of patients. It was 201.9 mg/dL at 0% stenosis, 203.2 mg/dL at 10–69% stenosis and 207.5 mg/dL at 70–100% stenosis. Therefore, the concentration of oxidation products, rather than the concentration of cholesterol in the plasma, increased with the severity of atherosclerosis [36]. In all age groups, all of the women and men with cardiovascular atherosclerosis also had increased individual and total oxysterol levels in their plasma as compared with the controls.
\n\t\t\t
The in vivo oxidation was enhanced by sphingomyelin. The oxidation could come from the consumption of too many polyunsaturated fatty acids in soybean oil [32, 36]. Polyunsaturated fats in vegetable oil could provide more oxidized LDL and more oxidized sterols into the plasma, which would increase the possibility of atherosclerosis. Sphingomyelin accumulates in the arterial system of humans and animals, and these increased levels mean an increased likelihood of atherosclerosis formation.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
12. Mechanism two
\n\t\t\t
Trans fatty acids are available on every continent. There are at least six hydrogenation plants in the United States alone; there is one in Texas, four in Illinois, and one in New Jersey. The FDA has estimated that daily intake of trans fatty acids in northern Europe to be at around 4.5g-17g/capita, and 1.34-4.9 in southern Europe. In India, 2.7-4.8g/capita/day was estimated, and only 2.7-4.8g/day in Australia and New Zealand. The least amount of trans fatty acids is consumed in Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, and China at 1.5-3g/capita/day. A large hydrogenation plant is located in a suburb of Tokyo that uses both fish and vegetable oils, as well as one in Beijing. These trans fatty acid-filled oils are liquid at room temperature, and similar to olive oil that has been used for centuries in southern Europe as an important source of fat in the diet. Butter, lard and beef tallow are saturated fats that have been used for centuries as a fat source in the diet in northern Europe [37].
\n\t\t\t
The second mechanism that may be involved in CHD is trans fat. Trans fat calcifies both the arteries and veins and causes blood clots. Trans fat inhibits COX-2, an enzyme that converts arachidonic acid to prostacyclin that is needed to prevent blood clots in the coronary arteries. A blood clot in any of the coronary arteries can result in sudden death. The American Heart Association has stated that 42% of victims of a sudden heart attack do not reach a hospital still alive.
\n\t\t\t
A study in 2004, with piglets from mothers fed hydrogenated soybean oil showed that their arteries contained less linoleic acid converted to arachidonic acid than the arteries of piglets from mothers fed butterfat or corn oil. This indicated that the trans fat in hydrogenated soybean oil inhibited the metabolic conversion of linoleic to arachidonic acid. Furthermore, an analysis of the fat embedded in the arteries of the piglets from mothers fed partially hydrogenated soybean oil showed that they contained 3% trans fat incorporated into their phospholipids by 48 days of age [38].
\n\t\t\t
If a mother is breast-feeding her child and also eating foods containing trans fat, she would have a substantial amount of trans fat in her milk supply and pass those to her infant. Pregnant porcine fed hydrogenated fat contained 11.3% trans fat in their milk at the birth of their piglets, which decreased during lactation to 4% in 21 days. The plasma of the piglets increased from 5% trans fat three days after birth to 15.3% at six weeks of age. Transferring this result to humans, a human mother would also transfer the trans fat in her milk supply to her infant. The infant would incorporate the trans fat into his/her arterial cells inhibiting arachidonic acid synthesis and prostacyclin secretion [4].
\n\t\t\t
Furthermore, calcium deposition into the endothelial cells could be enhanced. To date, the FDA has not considered the daily intake of trans fat relevant to the health of small children since they do not exhibit overt heart disease. In cases where children have died of unknown causes and had been autopsied, 99% of them showed the beginning stages of hardening (calcifications) of the arteries, which ultimately can lead to heart disease [39].
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
13. The effects of trans fatty acids on calcium influx into human arterial epithelial cells
\n\t\t\t
The influence of trans fatty acids and magnesium on cell membrane composition and on calcium influx into arterial cells. The percentage of fatty acids incorporated into the endothelial cells was proportional to the amount added to the culture medium. Adequate magnesium was crucial in preventing calcium influx into endothelial cells. Without an adequate amount of magnesium in the culture medium, linoelaidic and elaidic acids, even at low concentrations, increased the incorporation of 45Ca2+ into the cells, whereas stearic acid and oleic acid did not. A diet inadequate in magnesium combines with trans fat may increase the risk of calcification of endothelial cells [40].
\n\t\t\t
Vaccenic acid in butter did not inhibit the metabolic conversion of linoleic to arachidonic acid. Epidemiological studies of intake of ruminant trans fat and risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) indicated that the intake of ruminant trans fatty acid was innocuous or even protective against CHD. Thus a study with an animal model has shown that trans-fat decreased synthesis of arachidonic acid from linoleic acid. This study was carried a step further with endothelial cells in the first layer of the artery. They were cultured in a medium that contained the fatty acids of soybean oil or in a medium that contained the fatty acids of hydrogenated soybean oil. The latter cells contained trans-fat in their membrane phospholipid and significantly less arachidonic acid and secreted less prostacyclin than endothelial cells that had been cultured with the fatty acids from unhydrogenated soybean oil [5].
\n\t\t\t
We found that in the cells cultured with trans fat, the free arachidonic acid released by phospholipase action was shunted to metabolism by another pathway leaving less free arachidonic acid available as substrate for prostacyclin synthesis. Cyclooxygenase (COX) is the enzyme that is necessary to make prostacyclin to keep the blood flowing, thus lowering the potential for a heart attack. Vane et al. have shown that COX is the enzyme that converts arachidonic acid to prostaglandin H2, is further metabolized to prostanoids. Vane et. al. stated two isoforms of COX existed, a constitutive (COX-1) and an inducible (COX-2) enzyme. COX-2 may be the enzyme that recognizes the isomers produced during hydrogenation as a foreign substrate and reacts to them by causing inflammation and reduction of prostacyclin. COX-2 is the inducible isoform of COX. COX-1 is present constitutively while COX-2 is expressed primarily after the inflammatory insult [41].
\n\t\t\t
The ability to form prostacyclin from arachidonic acid was assayed using a radioimmunoassay kit. Trans-fat depressed the synthesis of prostacyclin. The addition of an excess amount of linoleic acid to this hydrogenated soybean oil fatty acids did not increase the secretion of prostacyclin in endothelial cells. The concentration of trans fatty acid rather than the concentration of linoleic acid was therefore responsible for regulating the synthesis and secretion of prostacyclin in endothelial cells. The trans fat in hydrogenated fat not only depressed the synthesis of prostacyclin that regulated the clotting of blood but also, could not serve as precursors for prostacyclin synthesis. The trans fat “incorporated” into the membrane lipids of blood vessels and muscle tissues and displaced the essential linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids.
\n\t\t\t
In another study, rats were fed either corn oil, butter, hydrogenated vegetable oil, or coating fat for 10 weeks at 10g/100g diet. In the group fed coating fat, arachidonic acid was found to be significantly lower in the phospholipid fatty acid content of the platelets, aorta, and heart. The ratio of 20:3(n-9)/20:4(n-6) was greater than in the groups fed corn oil, butter, or hydrogenated vegetable oil, indicating that the group fed coating fat was essential fatty acid deficient. The composition of coating fat was 33% trans fat and only 0.3% linoleic acid, whereas hydrogenated oil was made up of 18% trans fat and 32.8% linoleic acid. It was then concluded that the consumption of hydrogenated fats high in trans 18:1 acids with adequate amount of linoleic acid had no effect on the amount of thromboxane or prostacyclin by platelet or aorta in vitro. The coating fat is dangerous because of its lack of linoleic acid [42].
\n\t\t\t
To demonstrate the process of calcification, endothelial cells cultured with/without trans fat showed that trans fatty acid calcify arterial cells. One with a trans fatty acid added as the “unnatural” elaidic acid (t18:1 n9) and the other with a cis fatty acid added as the “natural” oleic acid (cis 18:1 n9) and testing with radioactive calcium. More radioactive calcium infiltration occurred into the endothelial cells cultured with elaidic acid than with oleic acid. An autopsy of 24 human specimens showed that human subjects that had died of heart disease contained up to 12.2% trans fat in their adipose tissue, 14.4% in liver, 9.3% in heart tissue, and 8.8% in aortic tissue and in atheroma.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
14. The trans fatty acids in partially hydrogenated fat can cause blood clots
\n\t\t\t
Partially hydrogenated soybean oil contained 14 cis and trans isomers that were formed during hydrogenation [4, 5]. They inhibited cyclooxygenase, an enzyme required for the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostacyclin, a molecule which prevents blood clots [43]. Moreover, oxidized fat enhanced thromboxane synthesis [44, 45], which caused the formation of a blood clot. Trans fatty acids in partially hydrogenated vegetable oil decreased prostacyclin synthesis by inhibiting cyclooxygenase. Oxysterols enhanced thromboxane synthesis [44, 45]. Both prostacyclin and thromboxane are involved in sudden cardiac death.
\n\t\t\t
According to WebMD, "sudden cardiac death (SCD) is a sudden, unexpected death caused by loss of heart function (sudden cardiac death). It is the largest cause of natural death in the U.S., causing about 325,000 adult deaths in the United States each year. SCD is responsible for half of all heart disease deaths. SCD occurs most frequently in adults in their mid-30s to mid-40s, and affects men twice as often as it does women." [46]
\n\t\t\t
Under the current Food and Drug Administration mandate [47], food items with any amount of trans fatty acids are allowed, as long as they are labeled. Products containing less than 0.5g/serving can be labeled as "trans free" or 0%. This is misleading, because it is easy to circumvent this rule by making the serving size listed on a label small enough to meet the 0.5g threshold. The food industry has taken advantage of this rule by making the serving sizes small enough to contain less than 0.5g/serving of trans fat. Fifteen foods labeled "trans fat free" were analyzed for fat content. Two contained 0% trans fatty acid, two contained higher than 0.5g/serving and the rest contained between 0.014 to 0.25g/serving. If the serving size is increased, foods would contain more than 0.5g of trans fatty acids. In 2003, the daily intake of trans fatty acids for men was estimated by the Food and Drug Administration to be nearly 7 grams per day, and almost 5 grams per day for women [47]. It is possible for people to eat the same amount of trans fatty acids today as in earlier periods, even though they have supposedly been removed from the food supply. A recent article in JAMA, "Levels of Plasma trans-fatty acids in Non-Hispanic White Adults in the United States in 2000 and 2009" listed levels in the year 2000 at 38.0, and in 2009 as 14.0µ/ml, which was considered significant [48].
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15. Environmental impact of soybean use
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Epidemiological data collected by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) further illustrate the potential harmful effects of trans fat. These data showed that, death from CHD in the USA increased from 265.4/100,000 in 1900 to 581/100,000 population by 1950. During this time period, both margarine and shortening had a high percentage of trans fat (ranging from 39-50%) and a low percentage of linoleic acid (ranging from 6-11%) according to the technical director of the Institute of Shortening and Edible Oils. In 1968 Dr. Campbell Moses, medical director of the AHA, appointed a five member subcommittee on fats of the AHA nutrition committee to revise the 1961 version of “Diet and Heart Disease.” At the time it was known that an increase in EFA composition of a dietary fat would lower plasma cholesterol levels and there was strong evidence that trans fatty acids increased plasma cholesterol levels. The first revised version by the AHA committee stated:
\n\t\t\t
“Partial hydrogenation of polyunsaturated fats results in the formation of trans forms which are less effective than cis, cis forms in lowering cholesterol concentrations. It should be noted that many currently available shortenings and margarines are partially hydrogenated and many contain little polyunsaturated fat of the natural cis, cis form.” The members of the Institute of Shortening and Edible Oils Inc objected to this version. The second revised and distributed version, omitted references to hydrogenated fat and cis fatty acids stated: “Margarines that are high in polyunsaturates usually can be identified by the listings of a liquid oil first among the ingredients. Margarines and shortenings that are heavily hydrogenated or contain coconut oil, which is quite saturated, are ineffective in lowering the serum cholesterol.” The industry agreed to lower the trans fatty acids and increase the level of EFA in shortenings and margarine. Dr. R.I. Levy, director of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute at the time, believed 1968 a watershed, as the incidence of CHD has steadily declined in the US since 1968. Why it decreased remained unknown in 1968.
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On October 24th, 1978, ten years after the reformulation of hydrogenated fat, the National Institute of Health (NIH) held a conference in Bethesda, Maryland, on the Decline in CHD Mortality. A recent editorial in Circulation cited this symposium. Three major conclusions reached were;
\n\t\t\t
The decrease in CHD mortality was real and not a result of artifacts or changes in death certificate coding,
Both primary prevention through changes in risk factor fundamentals and clinical research leading to better medical care probably have contributed to but did not fully explain the decline, and
A precise quantification of the causes requires further studies.
\n\t\t\t
” In hindsight, the reformulation of hydrogenated fat with its lowering of the trans fatty acids and raising of linoleic acid could have also been responsible for the decline. The per capita consumption of hydrogenated fat continued to increase after 1950. However, the increase in the linoleic acid content in the reformatted 1968 fat and the increasing use of soybean oil in salad dressing and other food items could have helped to keep a decreasing death rate from CHD. The death rate from heart disease dropped substantially during the next decades even though the consumption of hydrogenated fat kept increasing and animal fat was decreasing. Lower trans fat and increased linoleic acid are possible explanations for this change.
\n\t\t\t
The death rate from CHD declined after 1968 from 588.8/100,000 to 217/100,000 in 2004 in the USA. According to AHA data, 451,300 Americans died of CHD in 2004. Heart disease is still the number one cause of death. However, in a population of approximately 300 million, today the deaths would have been 1,480,000 at the 1950 rate according to the National Institute of Health (NIH). A recent study based on the autopsy of young men showed the CHD rate has been increasing since 2004. The recent reformulation of hydrogenated fat raises the trans fatty acid levels from 20% to almost 40%.
\n\t\t\t
In 2003, the metabolism of the trans fat in hydrogenated oil was assumed to follow the same pathway as the natural ruminant trans fat in butterfat. The Food and Drug Administration has stated that the main reason for the trans fat in partially hydrogenated oil to remain in the diet in the USA rested on the generally held belief that trans fat is metabolized the same way as the natural trans (vaccenic acid) in butterfat. The FDA allowed the isomeric fatty acids in hydrogenated vegetable oils to remain in food products because they assumed that some of that trans fat may be from the natural vaccenic acid that has no harmful effects. Approximately 2.6% of the total daily fat intake is from trans fat and that 50% of the trans may be from vaccenic acid (18:1n11).
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\n\t\t\t
16. Conclusion
\n\t\t\t
The oil produced by soybeans is widely used by manufacturers of both food products and industrial manufactured goods. Crude soybean oil contains essential fatty acids that our body needs to work properly. However, much of the soybean oil consumed today has been partially hydrogenated. This hydrogenation removes the necessary essential fatty acids contained within the original oil. Additionally, some of the partially hydrogenated soybean oil has been converted to trans fatty acids.
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There are two mechanisms that have been shown to lead to heart disease involving the consumption of trans fatty acids. They effect the levels of prostacyclin and thromboxane, which increases the risk of thrombosis, and they increase sphingomyelin production by the body, which then causes calcium influx into the arterial cells to increase, leading to atherosclerosis. Soybeans can be an excellent source of protein, but partially hydrogenated soybean oil can be detrimental to health.
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NC Soybean Producers Assn. How soybeans are used. Retrieved from http://www.ncsoy.org/ABOUT-SOYBEANS/Uses-of-Soybeans.aspx
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/40484.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/40484.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/40484",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/40484",totalDownloads:2856,totalViews:2051,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"March 15th 2012",dateReviewed:"August 22nd 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 20th 2013",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/40484",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/40484",book:{slug:"soybean-bio-active-compounds"},signatures:"Fred A. Kummerow",authors:[{id:"153267",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Fred",middleName:null,surname:"Kummerow",fullName:"Fred Kummerow",slug:"fred-kummerow",email:"fkummero@uiuc.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Soybeans",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Uses for soybean oil",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Nutrition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Fried foods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Free radicals",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Two mechanisms involved in coronary heart disease",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Mechanism one",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. The in vivo effect of sphingomyelin on the composition of the vascular membrane ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Oxysterols increased sphingomyelin and Ca2+ deposition in patients with CABG surgery",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"11. The concentration of cholesterol and lipid oxidation products in the plasma of cardiac catheterized patients was also determined [36]",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"12. Mechanism two",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"13. The effects of trans fatty acids on calcium influx into human arterial epithelial cells",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"14. The trans fatty acids in partially hydrogenated fat can cause blood clots",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"15. Environmental impact of soybean use",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"16. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPedersen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tSoy Products.\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://extension.agron.iastate.edu/soybean/uses_soyproducts.htmlaccessed 1 August 2012).\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tSoya.\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tInformation about soy and soya products.\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.soya.be/soybean-oil-production.phpaccessed 31 July).\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKummerow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. 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Sci\n\t\t\t\t\t902\n\t\t\t\t\t128\n\t\t\t\t\t131\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B16",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLeschziner\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDimitriadis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1989\n\t\t\t\t\tComputation of three-dimensional turbulent flow in non-orthogonal junctions by a branch-coupling method\n\t\t\t\t\tComputers & Fluids\n\t\t\t\t\t17\n\t\t\t\t\t371\n\t\t\t\t\t396\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B17",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKoenig\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tErnst\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1992\n\t\t\t\t\tThe possible role of hemorheology in atherothrombogenesis.\n\t\t\t\t\tAtherosclerosis\n\t\t\t\t\t94\n\t\t\t\t\t93\n\t\t\t\t\t107\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B18",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGimbrone\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTopper\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNagel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAnderson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGarcia-Cardena\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tEndothelial dysfunction, hemodynamic forces, and atherogenesis.\n\t\t\t\t\tAnn. 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Sci\n\t\t\t\t\t902\n\t\t\t\t\t230\n\t\t\t\t\t240\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B19",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKataoka\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKume\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMiyamoto\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMinami\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMoriwaki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMurase\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSawanmura\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMasaki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHashimoto\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKita\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tExpression of lectin-like oxidized LDL receptor-I human atherosclerosis lesions.\n\t\t\t\t\tCirculation\n\t\t\t\t\t99\n\t\t\t\t\t3110\n\t\t\t\t\t3117\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B20",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMehta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tAntisense to LOX-1 inhibits oxidized LDL-mediated upregulation of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and monocyte adhesion to human coronary artery endothelial cells.\n\t\t\t\t\tCirculation\n\t\t\t\t\t101\n\t\t\t\t\t2889\n\t\t\t\t\t2895\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B21",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMurase\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKume\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKorenaga\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAndo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSawamura\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMasaki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKita\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tFluid shear stress transcriptionally induces lectin-like oxidized low density lipoprotein receptor-1 in vascular endothelial cells.\n\t\t\t\t\tCirc. Res\n\t\t\t\t\t83\n\t\t\t\t\t328\n\t\t\t\t\t333\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B22",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSun\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYunzeng\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2011\n\t\t\t\t\tImpact of sphingomyelin levels on coronary heart disease and left ventricular systolic function in humans\n\t\t\t\t\tNutrition & Metabolism\n\t\t\t\t\t8\n\t\t\t\t\t25\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B23",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJiang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPaultre\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPearson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tPlasma sphingomyelin level as a risk factor for coronary artery disease.\n\t\t\t\t\tArteriosclerosis Thromb. & Vasc. Biol\n\t\t\t\t\t20\n\t\t\t\t\t2614\n\t\t\t\t\t2618\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B24",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNelson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJiang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTabas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tPlasma Sphingomyelin and Subclinical Atherosclerosis: Findings from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis\n\t\t\t\t\tAm. J. Epidemiol\n\t\t\t\t\t163\n\t\t\t\t\t903\n\t\t\t\t\t912\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B25",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKummerow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrzybylski\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWasowicz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1994\n\t\t\t\t\tChanges in arterial membrane lipid composition may precede growth factor influence in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.\n\t\t\t\t\tArtery\n\t\t\t\t\t21\n\t\t\t\t\t63\n\t\t\t\t\t75\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B26",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBittman\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1988\n\t\t\t\t\tSterol exchange between mycoplasma membranes and vesicles.\n\t\t\t\t\tYeagle PL, editor. Boca Raton, FL: Biology of Cholesterol CRC Press\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B27",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLehninger\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1975\n\t\t\t\t\tBiochemistry.\n\t\t\t\t\tNew York: Worth Publishers Inc\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B28",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBergelson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBarsukov\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. I.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1977\n\t\t\t\t\tTopological asymmetry of phospholipids in membranes.\n\t\t\t\t\t Science\n\t\t\t\t\t197\n\t\t\t\t\t224\n\t\t\t\t\t230\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B29",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDevaux\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1991\n\t\t\t\t\tStatic and dynamic lipid asymmetry in cell membranes.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiochemistry\n\t\t\t\t\t30\n\t\t\t\t\t1163\n\t\t\t\t\t1173\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B30",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHolmes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYoss\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1984\n\t\t\t\t\tHydroxysterols increase the permeability of liposomes to Ca2+ and other cations.\n\t\t\t\t\tBiochim Biophys Acta\n\t\t\t\t\t770\n\t\t\t\t\t15\n\t\t\t\t\t21\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B31",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKummerow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCook\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWasowicz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJelen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tChanges in the phospholipid composition of the arterial cell can result in severe atherosclerotic lesions\n\t\t\t\t\tJ Nutr Biochem\n\t\t\t\t\t12\n\t\t\t\t\t602\n\t\t\t\t\t607\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B32",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRidgway\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1995\n\t\t\t\t\tHydroxycholesterol stimulates sphingomyelin synthesis in Chinese hamster ovary cells.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ Lipid Res\n\t\t\t\t\t36\n\t\t\t\t\t1345\n\t\t\t\t\t1358\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B33",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhou\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWasowicz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHandler\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tAn excess concentration of oxysterols in the plasma is cytotoxic to cultured endothelial cells.\n\t\t\t\t\tAtherosclerosis\n\t\t\t\t\t149\n\t\t\t\t\t191\n\t\t\t\t\t197\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B34",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhou\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBand\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHernandez\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKummerow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\t27-Hydroxycholesterol inhibits neutral sphingomyelinase in cultured human endothelial cells.\n\t\t\t\t\tLife Sci\n\t\t\t\t\t75\n\t\t\t\t\t1567\n\t\t\t\t\t1577\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B35",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKummerow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOlinescu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFleischer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHandler\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShinkareva\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tThe relationship of oxidized lipids to coronary artery stenosis.\n\t\t\t\t\tAtherosclerosis\n\t\t\t\t\t149\n\t\t\t\t\t181\n\t\t\t\t\t190\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B36",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKummerow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tImproving hydrogenated fat for the world population\n\t\t\t\t\tPrevention & Control\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t157\n\t\t\t\t\t164\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B37",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKummerow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhou\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMahfouz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tTrans fatty acids in hydrogenated fat inhibited the synthesis of the polyunsaturated fatty acids in the phospholipid of arterial cells.\n\t\t\t\t\tLife Sciences\n\t\t\t\t\t74\n\t\t\t\t\t2707\n\t\t\t\t\t2723\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B38",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStary\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tAtlas of atherosclerosis progression and regression.\n\t\t\t\t\t New York: Parthenon Publishing Group\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B39",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKummerow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhou\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMahfouz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tEffect of trans fatty acids on calcium influx into human arterial endothelial cells.\n\t\t\t\t\tAmerican J Clin Nutr\n\t\t\t\t\t70\n\t\t\t\t\t832\n\t\t\t\t\t838\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B40",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVane\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMoncada\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1977\n\t\t\t\t\tThe discovery of prostacyclin: a fresh insight into arachidonic acid metabolism, biochemical aspects of prostaglandins and thromboxanes.\n\t\t\t\t\tNew York: Academic Press\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B41",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMahfouz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKummerow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tHydrogenated fat high in trans monoenes with an adequate level of linoleic acid has no effect on prostaglandin synthesis in rats.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of Nutrition\n\t\t\t\t\t129\n\t\t\t\t\t15\n\t\t\t\t\t24\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B42",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKummerow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMahfouz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhou\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tTrans fatty acids in partially hydrogenated soybean oil inhibit prostacyclin release by endothelial cells in presence of high level of linoleic acid\n\t\t\t\t\tProstaglandins Other Lipid Mediat;84\n\t\t\t\t\t138\n\t\t\t\t\t153\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B43",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMahfouz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKummerow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tOxysterols and TBARS are among the LDL oxidation products which enhance thromboxane A2 synthesis by platelets.\n\t\t\t\t\tProstaglandins Other Lipid Mediat\n\t\t\t\t\t56\n\t\t\t\t\t197\n\t\t\t\t\t217\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B44",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMahfouz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKummerow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tOxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) enhances thromboxane A2 synthesis by platelets, but lysolecithin as a product of LDL oxidation has an inhibitory effect. \n\t\t\t\t\tProstaglandins Other Lipid Mediat\n\t\t\t\t\t62\n\t\t\t\t\t183\n\t\t\t\t\t200\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B45",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMaddox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tHeart disease and sudden cardiac death.\n\t\t\t\t\thttp://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/guide/sudden-cardiac-deathaccessed 31 July).\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B46",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFDA.\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tFood labeling: trans fatty acids in nutrition labeling, nutrient content claims, and health claims.\n\t\t\t\t\tFinal rule. Fed Regist\n\t\t\t\t\t68\n\t\t\t\t\t41433\n\t\t\t\t\t41506\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B47",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVesper\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKuiper\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMirel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJohnson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPirkle\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. L.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2012\n\t\t\t\t\tLevels of plasma trans-fatty acids in non-Hispanic white adults in the United States in 2000 and 2009.\n\t\t\t\t\tJournal of American Medical Association\n\t\t\t\t\t307\n\t\t\t\t\t562\n\t\t\t\t\t563\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Fred A. Kummerow",address:"fkummero@uiuc.edu",affiliation:'
University of Illinois, USA
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"3244",title:"Soybean",subtitle:"Bio-Active Compounds",fullTitle:"Soybean - Bio-Active Compounds",slug:"soybean-bio-active-compounds",publishedDate:"February 20th 2013",bookSignature:"Hany A. 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Fonseca, Luciano N. Batista, Viviane F. Silva, Erica C. G. Pissurno, Thais C. Soares, Monique R. Jesus and Georgiana F. Cruz",authors:[{id:"47161",title:"Dr.",name:"Mauricio",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca",fullName:"Mauricio Fonseca",slug:"mauricio-fonseca"},{id:"155285",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgiana",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",fullName:"Georgiana Cruz",slug:"georgiana-cruz"},{id:"155286",title:"MSc.",name:"Luciano",middleName:null,surname:"Batista",fullName:"Luciano Batista",slug:"luciano-batista"},{id:"155287",title:"MSc.",name:"Viviane",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",fullName:"Viviane Silva",slug:"viviane-silva"},{id:"155288",title:"Mrs.",name:"Erica",middleName:null,surname:"Pissurno",fullName:"Erica Pissurno",slug:"erica-pissurno"},{id:"155289",title:"Ms.",name:"Thais",middleName:null,surname:"Soares",fullName:"Thais Soares",slug:"thais-soares"},{id:"155290",title:"Ms.",name:"Monique",middleName:null,surname:"Jesus",fullName:"Monique Jesus",slug:"monique-jesus"}]},{id:"42924",title:"Facilities for Obtaining Soybean Oil in Small Plants",slug:"facilities-for-obtaining-soybean-oil-in-small-plants",totalDownloads:2746,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Ednilton Tavares de Andrade, Luciana Pinto Teixeira, Ivênio Moreira da Silva, Roberto Guimarães Pereira, Oscar Edwin Piamba Tulcan and Danielle Oliveira de Andrade",authors:[{id:"95167",title:"Dr.",name:"Ednilton",middleName:"Tavares De",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Ednilton Andrade",slug:"ednilton-andrade"}]},{id:"42659",title:"Phytoestrogens and Colon Cancer",slug:"phytoestrogens-and-colon-cancer",totalDownloads:1574,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"B. Pampaloni, C. Mavilia, E. Bartolini, F. Tonelli, M.L. 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1. Introduction
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When we talk about women’s identity and their role in the workforce we normally refer to women with designations and well defined job descriptions that are certain about their roles in their homes and offices. A woman plays many roles in her lifetime and each role that she plays requires her to be perfect. An idea about their roles and job details helps them to perfect their roles accordingly. But there are numerous ladies out there who have been forced into the work force without any option left for them to decide otherwise. May be they don’t enjoy the recognition they deserve and the only motivating force for them is the preservation of their individual dignity. There is no certainty about their future yet they are successful in many ways. I have been privileged to work with lesser privileged women who are the bread winners of their family after being severely traumatised by the violence done to them or are leading a life of a single working woman in a male dominated society without realising their unique strength. My visit to some State runs short stay/shelter homes and my interaction with those destitute women in 2003 was the beginning of my beautiful journey with these beautiful souls. I was the district member of the advisory committee of the Odisha State Social Welfare Board which comes under the Women and Child Development Department. What struck me there was their unfailing spirit to celebrate life in spite of the difficulties that they have faced in their lives. That led me to work for them more seriously trying to understand the underlying psychological principles of their successful lives. To be able to work more closely with them I have been involved with a residential home for such women in Odisha since 2008. Recognizing the need to prevent women from exploitation and to support their survival and rehabilitation, the scheme of Short Stay Home/Shelter homes for women and girls was introduced as a social defence mechanism in India, by the then Department of Social Welfare in 1969. The scheme is meant to provide temporary accommodation, maintenance and rehabilitative services to women and girls rendered homeless due to family discord, crime, violence, mental stress, social ostracism or are being forced into prostitution and are in danger. Another scheme with the similar objectives namely Swadhar –A Scheme for Women in Difficult Circumstances was launched by the Department of Women and Child Development in 2001–2002. The scheme through the provisions of shelter, food, clothing, counselling, training, clinical and legal aid aims to rehabilitate such women in difficult circumstance. The shelters provide a physical space for women, where they could escape violence temporarily, stay safe and make decisions about their lives. Furthermore, communicating with other victims of violence helps them to overcome the feeling of isolation and the perception of being the only woman that has a violent partner. Violence against women prevails in increasing numbers in India as well as in other parts of the world.
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It becomes pertinent to focus on the social setup and the belief patterns of the society of which these women are part of and have grown up to believe that men are important members of the society, men are to take major decisions in the family, women should worship their husbands after marriage as they are Gods for their wives (there is a day in the year called Savitri Puja they observe by fasting and worshipping their Husband Gods believing that by doing so their husbands will live for long). The dowry system still prevails in spite of many legal reforms where demanding dowry is a punishable offence. The birth of a male child is still celebrated over the birth of a female child in rural Odisha as it is believed that a son only has funeral rights and after death, parents will get Moksha or liberation if their pyre is lit by their son. Fortunately things are changing in urban Odisha and people are treating their daughters equally as with their sons. But unfortunately there are areas where education is still important only for boys and highly educated girls are considered as a curse to the family, women don’t get to marry their choices, dowry decides the happiness of the girl in her in law’s house after marriage, giving birth to girl child is scorned upon, widowed women are considered as bad omen on auspicious occasions, it is desirable for a young girl to be able to cook for her father and brothers if she doesn’t have a mother or any elderly lady in the family, even if she is as young as 8 or 10 years old, women raising a voice for claiming their own rights is considered as a sin. Growing up in such social set up has made the women more tolerant of the injustices done to them. But when it becomes too much for them, they try to find their own mental balance by questioning the system and leave their houses to maintain their individual dignity. For these battered women their own houses have failed to be their safe havens. In most cases they are considered as rebels and have been declared to be mentally unsound by their own family members and end up in rescue homes/shelter homes. Though there is provision of providing counselling by mental health professionals in such homes to these devastated women, they take time to gather their pieces and to start thinking for their future life which they never did as they were never allowed to participate in decision making regarding their own lives in their own family by the male members. Their sense of self is always blurred and their self introduction always featured the names of their fathers or husbands. Their beaten self has emerged as a winner for these women because of their optimistic outlook and hope for a better future and most importantly for their resiliency they could bounce back into life with positivity which calls for special mention and admiration. Not much qualitative research has been done to study the positive psychological variables at play in such population which can throw light on the character strengths and virtues of these women and can implicate for training in such direction like self efficacy in such rescue homes as it is a state like concept.
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2. Aim
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Women in India still feel the gender differences in all areas of their lives and when a battered woman seeks help, it is the family members who don’t come forward to help her. In spite of all the odds women face and even if they are victims of violence and injustice; there are some psychological variables at play which help them to bounce back into life. Since most of the success stories of such victorious women are not documented to emphasize on the importance of the character strengths and virtues which help in maintaining the balance in difficult life situations, this is a humble attempt to portray the real life case studies of three strong women, who can be examples of showing high resiliency, gratitude and epitomising hope and optimism. They are the women who stayed in rescue/shelter homes for a brief period when life became tough for them, fought with the injustice and for their own dignity and rights, and moved on with their own lives setting examples for others.
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3. Method
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To collect the information from subjects that are taken here as case studies have been followed up staying in different short stay/rescue homes in Odisha and I have been working for such women as a volunteer for the last 14 years in the coastal districts of Odisha, a backward state of the Indian subcontinent, situated in the eastern region on the coast of Bay of Bengal. The subjects were carefully chosen and they are the ones who were followed up over a period of time. It seems perfect to cite their life stories as case studies because of the way they have handled their lives with a little bit of therapeutic intervention and a lot of self determination which can be referred to as a high level of self efficacy.
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4. Case presentation
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Sometimes the age factor is so embedded in our culture that we don’t get surprised when an illiterate person reports his/her age to be half of the age that he/she appear to be. The first two case study women mentioned here are above sixty years of age, though they have reported their age to be lesser than their real age. In rural Odisha, especially those who are not literate have no idea about their age as none of them have birth certificates and birth certificates became compulsory only in the 90s. They have a way of referring to their age as” one Kodi” or “two Kodi” or “three Kodi, where ‘kodi’ refers to twenty years. So it jumps from forty years to sixty years or eighty years and the safest way we follow to know their age is by asking the age of their youngest kid and then calculate the age of all kids by asking the age difference between them. In the case studies I have kept their ages as reported by them. Thus the two women in case study 1 and case study 2 are above 60, but the case study 3 woman is now 47 years old and is taken here as a case study for the confidence and resilience she has shown which can be emulated by other shelter home women. All these women after moving out from a shelter home normally continue to lead an independent and fulfilling life till their end.
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5. Case study 1
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She was the second daughter of her parents and had a younger brother who was pampered by all. As the parents were very poor they could not afford to send all their kids to school. Her brother was allowed to continue schooling though she was better than her younger brother in studies while he struggled through the classes. The eldest daughter was married off at a very young age with huge amount of dowry and she, as the second daughter, was considered as a burden to the family and was forced to do the household chores from a very young age. She felt unwanted and unloved and looked sad always as a teen. She wished to be a boy instead, as she thought boys will always be loved by their parents even if they are no good in other aspects of life. When she was 19 years old she was discovered to be pregnant by her grandmother, who she was sharing her bed with, as she noticed her bulging stomach and morning sickness. She was almost beaten to death by her father but did not reveal the name of the person who was responsible for her pregnancy. Her mother pleaded her to leave home as she feared for her life and was also worried about facing the social ostracism because of her daughter’s pregnancy before marriage. They also thought that their elder daughter will be thrown out from her in law’s house if they come to know about the younger daughter’s plight. She was sent to stay with her aunt who was instructed to take her for an abortion in her village. This was back in 1985 when medical help was not good in villages in rural Odisha. Her aunt took her to a quack who expressed his inability to terminate the pregnancy but suggested to sell the new born to a childless couple. She started worrying for her unborn child and went back to her own village to ask her lover to marry her who was a married man already with two kids. He called her a liar and denied having any relationship with her. She didn’t budge from his house and kept sitting there in front of his house for two days. She was abused physically and mentally by the man’s family members and was rescued by a social worker in an almost unconscious state. The lady who rescued her was a teacher in a primary school and brought her home. By this time almost the whole village had come to know what had happened to her and started ridiculing her as if she was only to be blamed for the whole thing and wanted the family of the married man not to be disturbed. She was forced to stay with her parents and her parents were not willing to take her back home. When she reached home she was singled out and was flogged again by her mother and the next day she had a miscarriage. After few days she was sent to that aunt of hers again where she had to stay permanently or till they could find her a suitable groom. She was happier there as no one knew about her history in that village except her aunt. After staying with her aunt she joined a village tailoring unit to learn some stitching so that she can be independent financially and earn some money for her own expenses. As she continued stitching she made few friends in that area and also started believing in herself again. She was happy to take care of her ailing aunt who by now had become sick and old. After her aunt’s death she was forced to leave that house as the aunt’s brother wanted to sell the house and her aunt was a childless widow. She went on to stay in a shelter home, one of the oldest shelter homes of Odisha, where she was requested to teach stitching to the other inmates who are also abandoned by their own families. She is looked upon as a mature and confident lady who is capable of taking care of distressed women with her gentle approach. She gets a minimum amount of salary for her services by the organization which she spends on the children of her younger brother who is not having a constant source of income. Though her brother’s family wants her to come and stay with them she doesn’t want to go as she feels her presence here in the organisation is more important and she exudes confidence while quoting that these women who come to stay in the shelter home have to learn a lot in life and her assuring smile indicates that she is there for them and it gave a sense of relief to the young woman who was standing close to her and was a new entrant in the home.
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Here are some excerpts from the interview that echoed the importance of optimism and meaning in life for the overall well-being of a person. Asked about what she values in life, she said “its relationship with the right kind of people”. In response to what is it that she wants the other women to learn in life, she said focussing on a bigger reason and other’s problems will make them learn the biggest lessons of life automatically and their own problems will be reduced into dust. She said it’s the journey after deciding the goal will teach them the most… she blurted out “…for me I have reached a point in life where I don’t feel helpless anymore”. The meaning of her life is the total of her experiences that she experienced in her life through her relationships, work and more importantly self analysis as she puts it.
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6. Case study 2
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This woman came to the short stay home when she was almost 50 years old. She was married when she was 22 years old. Her husband used to work as a sweeper in a private organisation and also used to do some odd jobs like a daily wage labourer. He used to drink everyday at night and beat her black and blue. As her parents were very poor and never supported her when she complained about the beatings by her husband, saying it is normal for a man to beat to ‘control’ their wives. She chose to put up with her situation. She delivered a son after few years of marriage. But the beatings never stopped. The child grew up in an environment where he witnessed his father coming home drunk and beating his mother and his mother keeping quiet and silently taking care of them. As the child grew up he got into bad company and started smoking at a young age. Then drinking followed. Meanwhile her husband was not keeping well and was admitted into the hospital for stomach ulcer. After months of treatment he passed away. Her son was not doing anything and as the wife of an employee who died before retirement, she got her husband’s job. She used to finish all the household work and then leave for her job. Her son used to roam around doing nothing. Then he started taking money from her on the pretext of starting a small shop. But one day she discovered that no money has been spent on any shop building. He has blown it all on drugs and alcohol. When she confronted him he got violent and abused her verbally. She was saddened by her son’s behaviour and thought of addressing it more seriously as she didn’t want him to follow his father’s path. But at that night her son came with one of his friends and forcefully took her gold ornaments that she was wearing. He didn’t come home for the next few days. Then he emerged after few days, drunk. He fought with her and asked for money and pushed her and punched her. When she protested he tried to suffocate her by throttling her. The neighbours came and rescued the woman who was coughing incessantly. She couldn’t speak for the next two days and her neck got swollen. But her son was unmoved and stayed in the same house expecting his mother to cook for him and take care of him while he continued with his evil ways. The woman’s employers enquired about her absence and got to know about her serious condition. They took her out to a gentle man who was working in a program meant for destitute women. As there was threat to her life they wanted her to stay there and take legal action against her son. After a few days the son was arrested for attempting to murder his mother and was sent to a rehabilitation centre meant for drug addicts and alcoholics. She didn’t know that it was so easy to get the protection and didn’t feel alone for the first time in her life even if she was not staying with her own family members. She keeps saying that now it is very important to believe in one’s worth and not to be afraid of anything. If anyone has to be afraid of then it should be the one who is doing wrong. It is our duty to be happy as she puts it and says that she always hoped to see her son different from that of his father. She hasn’t lost hope. She goes to visit him once in a month with lots of gifts. Now she is working as a sweeper cum gardener in the same shelter home where she is staying. In addition to that she is the one who is in charge of coordinating with the doctors whenever there is any medical emergency. Her strength of personality, as other women said, makes other women look up to her for help and guidance in times of difficulty. She has started reading out short educational stories and informative articles on various issues to other inmates during their leisure time. When she took me to the house where her son and daughter in law are staying she met a lady who used to be her neighbour. The old neighbour pointed out to her that she looked happy and healthy and different from those days when she used to stay in the same house where her son lives now and teased her saying that she should take her along.
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7. Case study 3
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I met her for a session after she was handed over to the staff of a short stay home by the senior psychiatrist of the mental health department of a State run hospital. The doctor felt she doesn’t need hospitalization and her family members were not responding to their calls. She seemed to be from a very good, well to do family and spoke perfect English. She excused herself for being shabbily dressed and felt very conscious for the way she was dressed and kept on repeating that she doesn’t look like that on normal days and she is very ashamed of her condition. She was a beautiful 45 year old lady and agreed to stay in the short stay home which functions like a stepping stone for women who want to do something in their lives but never got the opportunity because of financial problems or no parental support or are the victims of domestic violence. This lady seemed to be mature enough and could adjust well with the other inmates quickly. It is normally those from the lower socio-economic backgrounds with very little education that are found in such rescue homes/shelter homes. But here she was, a graduate and her father was the Director of the Veterinary Hospital. She opened up in the first session itself and kept crying and seemed as if she was in shock. Her life story seemed nothing less than a cinema story, only difference being her story is real and she lived every bit of it and has fought with the situation, with the injustice done to her and with her parents and finally is settled in a job as a teacher in a school for mentally retarded and autistic children. This is how her life has been as she described as follows:
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She was taken to the mental health department of the hospital by her father and as the doctors advised him to keep her in the hospital under observation; her father went out on the pretext of getting bed sheet and pillow for her and never returned. In Odisha it is still a social stigma to have mental disorders of any kind and people try to hide it unless and until it becomes out of control. For them the ‘stamp’ of being “mad” gets attached to the person after visiting a psychiatrist is still looked down upon and is something to be ashamed of. As the doctors found her perfectly okay to go home they tried to contact her family members but couldn’t trace them. As days passed she couldn’t think of ways to get out of the hospital as per the rules of the hospital she cannot be left alone and allowed to go home alone. The senior psychiatrist was sure about one thing that she doesn’t need hospitalization and if she is not rescued from there she will get seriously ill and it will harm her more. On one of those days when the doctor was on duty, thought of giving it a try by taking his own initiative. He called the staff of a shelter home and enquired if she can be taken in from the hospital as she is perfectly fine. She was welcomed with love and from day one she made sure that she will be staying there till she is capable enough to take care of herself. She had made up her mind that she’s going to take charge of her life from that moment onwards and while having sessions with her, she told me about what she has gone through in her life.
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She was the second daughter of her parents and has a younger brother also. Her elder sister is not married. She is convent educated and was in college doing her graduation when life took a sharp turn for her. She was very good in studies and was very sociable. She fell in love with a man who was known for his tantric pujas. When her parents got to know about her interest in that man, they stopped her from going to college. She was locked up in a room and was not allowed to meet her friends even. After two years they thought she must have forgotten about the man and allowed her to go to temple once in a week only. But the man somehow got to know about her and came prepared to take her away from the temple. They eloped and got their marriage registered. She was very simple and naive. He took her to a remote area and kept her again in a locked up room. She felt like a sex slave as she was not allowed to open the doors and windows of the house. Here also she was in a cage like her parents’ place. She was very young at that time and kept crying and stopped eating. One day she fainted in the morning and couldn’t stand on her own feet. Seeing all this, the man got frightened and put her in a car and brought her to her parents’ house and dropped her in front of the gate in an unconscious state and fled. The family members of this woman were so worried about losing their name in the society that they kept quiet about it and hushed her up. Here again she was made to stay put inside the house and was not allowed to meet anyone. Not even when guests came to their house. After 3 years her father enrolled her in a computer course. She never got treated well by her own family members. The computer course that she got admitted into after 5 years of leaving college was the only incident that brought a smile to her face. In the computer centre one of the lecturers wanted to marry her as she was very pretty looking. He followed her to her house and met her parents and begged for her hand in marriage. The parents were reluctant to agree but after knowing about her past he wanted to marry her as she was legally divorced by then from her first husband. After their marriage they moved into their house. The husband got a job in London as he was a software engineer. He kept working from home for a few months and kept postponing his trip to London. But he blew all the money in buying cars and a house. He also developed the habit of drinking. After few months he suddenly left his job. As they had a son, this woman wanted to contribute by doing a job. She took a part time job and also did Nursery Teachers’ Training course. Then she got the job of a teacher in a reputed school. Her husband had become an alcoholic and used to take money from her and when she questioned about him being absent from home for days together he used to beat her. Once he hit her so hard and his son also that her face got deformed. She gathered all her courage and lodged a complaint in the police station. She stayed in the police station with her son for the whole night for her own protection and the next morning he was arrested. After a few days, he got released and came home to take revenge. Her in-laws also never supported their own son and asked their daughter-in-law to leave him and come and stay with them. In Odisha it is still not desirable for a woman to leave her husband’s house, no matter what the situation is. The woman’s parents never got to know about the difficulties their daughter was facing. Again she was hit by her husband very badly and this time it happened in the school where she was working. She was completely devastated and felt humiliated. She went to the police again and got him arrested. But the husband was furious this time and threatened her with dire consequences. She came home with her son and completely lost it and went on sobbing inconsolably. She called her mother to come and take her and couldn’t speak more on the phone. Her parents got her back home saying that everything will be fine after a few days and wanted her to go back to her husband, as they believe that a married woman’s place is always her husband’s house. But as her condition worsened and her crying didn’t stop she was referred to the psychiatrist. She couldn’t even say her name to the doctors as she was in a state of shock. That is when the parents felt it was a disgrace to the family to let their daughter stay in the mental hospital ward and left her there and never came to take her back. The elder sister of this woman is unmarried and she started taking care of her son’s study who is now going to college. She stayed in the hospital till she came to this rescue home.
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The psychiatrist gave a certificate to her that she is in good condition to go home and hospitalization is not required. So she was brought to the short stay/rescue home and made good progress in a few days. She was ready after two sessions to go out looking for jobs. She is also a certified physiotherapist. Getting a job was not a problem for her. She got the job of a physiotherapist in a nearby hospital which was very close to the short stay home where she was staying. Meanwhile her parents were contacted and were requested to meet her. They came to meet her with home cooked food and dresses for her. But they denied her when she expressed her desire to see her own son. She shed tears silently and believed that maybe it’s good for the son not to see her. Her parents requested her not to come to their place as her brother’s wife is pregnant and they didn’t want her to see her. Meanwhile, the husband came back looking for her and wanted to take her signature for a joint account she had with him. She strongly protested. After a few months the husband died of an accident. She informed me about his death in a very flat tone as if she was unaffected by the news. But then she said now that the husband is dead, she is clear about what she wants to do in life. After six months of stay in the short stay home and the hospital job she moved into a rented house and took up the job of a special educator in a school and is serving the mentally retarded, autistic and cerebral palsy students. When asked about her fear she bravely states that now she fears nobody and it was the social system she was scared of, what others would say was the fear that her parents transmitted to her. By staying alone she has learned to fight. Even now, whenever she talks to her mother over the phone and gives her opinion on something her mother quickly asks her if she is still taking the psychiatric medicines thinking that she is still “mad’. In one of the sessions she told me laughingly that in our society our own parents want us to keep quiet about the injustice and make us feel guilty about things which we haven’t done. She doesn’t blame her parents as she empathises with them saying that after all they have to stay in the same society which judges a woman but never a man, even if it is always the woman who is a victim of the injustice and violence done to her by man. She has plans for her son and wants to sponsor his studies. He too wants to be an engineer. She smiles so confidently and looks so hopeful; I kept wondering if she is the same woman I met when she was brought from the mental hospital, crying incessantly. These days she sends her school kids’ pictures and never forgets to send a good morning message with a smiley and thank you. It’s her gratitude, I feel, which has helped her overcome the low phase of her life. Now she is always a bubbly, laughing, talkative lady, full of energy.
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8. Discussion and conclusion
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Women learn to suffer silently and bear the injustice perpetrated on them as they are expected to make other members in the family happy by sacrificing their own needs. Male dominance in all matters including finances and the male violence manifested in different ways in the different stages of a woman’s life are the causes of the suffering of women in the male dominated patriarchal societies. A woman sees the father and brother as the provider and protector when she is a child and then the dependency gets transferred to the husband and in her old age she relies on her son for her financial, emotional and social needs. The ruthless customs of patriarchal society and the male arrogance leave women with no other option but to seek outside help and leave their own home for their own safety. The causes of a woman leaving her own house can be blamed for poor education, poor living conditions, strained family relationships specially oppression, violence, sexual abuse, subordination and devaluation of women by the men in their own families. Violence against women within the family is a global phenomenon. However, its intensity is much greater in India. The most pathetic aspect of such atrocities is domestic violence.
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When a woman is tortured and violated and finds her own family members as perpetrators, life becomes a big confusion for them. As they get ready to step out of the house which is not quite encouraged in patriarchal societies, they are trying to find a new identity which is devoid of their husband’s name or father’s name and she is not quite sure if she has any identity of her own. But one thing she respects at that moment while taking the big bold step of leaving the house is that it’s her individual dignity and that helps her to find new meaning in life. The meaning of life that we are talking about for these women here means their significance, relevance or value in their own eyes.. Out of many attempts made by many to handle this question of meaning in life, it is Martela & Steger (2016) whose take on meaning seems to be appropriately handling the question that these women must be facing consciously or otherwise. Yalom talks about cosmic and terrestrial meaning. Cosmic meaning comes up with religious or spiritual connotations, because it sees meaning as a part of a bigger picture that is superior to that of the individual. Whereas, terrestrial meaning comes up with an answer to the question- what is the meaning of my life? Thus the debate regarding cosmic and terrestrial meaning, as put by Yalom, is between the external and internal. As the woman in case study 1 puts it that focussing on a bigger reason and other’s problems will make them learn the biggest lessons of life automatically and their own problems will be reduced into dust it makes me wonder if we believe meaning is something imposed on us or we are free to create it for ourselves. These women suddenly become responsible for creating meaning of their life, though unknowingly. And it is the Hope which keeps them ticking in such trying times. Their families generally do not take them back without legal intervention after they come to the shelter homes as victims of violence. As it is, these women are in a very vulnerable state, yet they adjust in a new situation which becomes their home until their case is resolved. Adjusting with the emotional turmoil and to a new environment with unknown people is not an easy task for these battered women. Sociological data and demographic features are available on destitute women both in global and national context but no bold serious attempt has been undertaken to understand the dynamic process of adaptation of these women. Whatever scanty attempt has been made is made in clinical terms. However, positive psychologists are attempting to explain behaviour in terms of virtues and strengths. Positive psychology takes interest in positive subjective experiences, positive traits, and the adaptation methods used by individuals when life seems meaningless. It also answers despite all hurdles in life how people manage to improve the quality of life and live with dignity. In these women resilience, a positive psychological construct, emerges as a strong component of their personality. Resilience refers to patterns of positive adaption or development manifested in the context of adverse experiences or situations in life. It refers to a class of phenomena characterized by good outcomes in spite of serious threats to adaptation or development. The trauma theory of resilience suggests that exposure to psychological or physical trauma may have long- lasting negative consequences for children and adults [1, 2]. Trauma is often discussed along with resilience. Some theorists suggest that the two can co-occur. A child may exhibit signs of being highly traumatized and resilient at the same time [3]. With these women it can be observed that they themselves were unaware about their self worth until it became unbearable for them to deal with the abuse, both physical and mental abuse. The resilience they showed is only after facing the traumatic situations in life. It is the resiliency of these women and their optimistic outlook about life makes them adapt to a new situation in life successfully.
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Psychosocial adaptation is defined as the process of putting oneself in harmony with the changing circumstances of life so as to enhance one’s sense of well-being and long-term survivorship. Behavioural scientists in general and psychologists in particular have examined the role of pertinent psycho-social variables in women’s empowerment. Although a number of variables have been delineated, psychologists have focused on the empowerment process in terms of women’s personality and self-concept variables [4]. The pertinent literature has shown that the positive self-concept of women and certain specific personality variables such as dominance and achievement orientation have contributed significantly towards successful adaptation of women.
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The construct of hope offers the scope for understanding women’s adaptation. Lynch [5] considered hope to be “the very heart and centre of a human being. It is the best resource of man, always there on the inside, making everything possible when he is in action, or waiting to be illuminated when he is ill.” He defined hope as the fundamental knowledge that a difficult situation can be worked out and that goals can be reached. Hope in case of these women serves as an important ingredient which helps in their better adaptation to the current situation and helps them to flourish. It is a powerful construct in positive psychology.
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The hope theory can be used to help in the better understanding of the adjustment process. Psychological adjustments are influenced by hope through the belief in one’s self. Adjustment or coping is the ability to effectively respond to a stressor so as to reduce psychological and physical pain [6]. In hope theory stressor is the element that interferes with one’s normal ongoing goal of being happy. When confronted with a stressor one must find alternative paths to attain the goal and be mobilized to use those paths. People with higher hope produce more strategies to deal with the stressor (pathways) than people with lower hope. Higher hope persons find more benefits in their ongoing dealings with stressors [7, 8]. As in the case of the woman in case study 3, we can see that in spite of what she faced in her life, it was her hope for a better future and belief in her own self, she could bounce back in her life after such difficulties and hardships.
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The purpose of taking up these case studies was to illustrate that those battered women who do cope with life after being victims of violence and injustice by their own family members have a number of strategies to help them survive. It is obvious that these women have varied skills to manage in extremely adverse situations. Of course, these remarks should not be interpreted to mean that destitute women do not need assistance. Studies of women often fail to use data that emphasize their potential. The more information becomes available about the means they use to survive, the more probable it becomes that development assistance could be structured in a manner most likely to achieve the desired results. After all, the objective of development is to actually empower them psychologically.
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Additional information
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Disclosures
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There is no personal or competing interest.
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Financial disclosure
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None. No financial support was received from any organization for the submitted article.
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Acknowledgements
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The author is thankful to the wonderful staff and residents of the Short stay homes/rescue homes in Odisha for their comprehensive care and support.
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Human subjects
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Consent was obtained from all participants in this study by explaining them the purpose and they were assured about the maintenance of their privacy. They all agreed to the publication of their case for academic purpose as they are assured about their privacy being maintained. Care has been taken to protect their personal information and the cases are used only for the purpose of academic activity.
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\n\n',keywords:"women empowerment, self-concept of women, violence against women",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74488.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74488.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74488",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74488",totalDownloads:11,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"December 1st 2020",datePrePublished:"January 8th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"December 18th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Violence against women has been the subject of study in many countries and in different cultures. The fact that women enjoy a secondary position in many societies is proved through different studies, in spite of the changes in the laws of the countries. How differently a woman is treated at home and work front too is a known subject of research. There are numerous women out there who have been forced into the work force without any option left for them to decide otherwise. May be they don’t enjoy the recognition they deserve and the only motivating force for them is the preservation of their individual dignity. There is no certainty about their future yet they are successful in many ways. Here are three women who have dared to raise a voice against the injustice done to them and have ended up in shelter homes for having a mind which thinks differently than the imposed social norms and customs set by the society and have used their voice to get help to preserve their dignity. From uncertainty about life and hopelessness to gaining confidence, having a strong resiliency to hoping for a better future for the future generation, they have seen it all and have extraordinary inspiring life stories to share with the ordinary women.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74488",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74488",signatures:"Nivedita Das",book:{id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Martha Peaslee Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:"Peaslee",surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Aim",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Method",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Case presentation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Case study 1",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Case study 2",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Case study 3",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Discussion and conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"Additional information",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"Disclosures",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"Financial disclosure",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"Acknowledgements",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"Human subjects",level:"3"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nBromfield, L., Lamont, A., Parker, R., & Horsfall, B. (2010). Issues for the safety and Well-being of children in families with multiple and complex problems: The co-occurrence of domestic violence, parental substance misuse, and mental health problems (NCPC Issues No. 33). Melbourne: National Child Protection Clearinghouse, Australian Institute of Family Studies.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nGordon R. Thirty years of trauma work: Clarifying and broadening the consequences of trauma. Psychotherapy in Australia. 2007;\n13\n(3):12-19\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nHarvey MR. Towards an ecological understanding of resilience in trauma survivors: Implications for theory, research. and practice. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma. 2007;\n14\n(1/2):9-32. DOI: 10.1300/j146v14n01_02\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nBandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. (1997). Choice Reviews Online, 35(03), 35-1826-35-1826. Doi: 10.5860/choice. 35-1826\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nLynch WF. Images of Hope. Balti-more: Garamony/Trichemah; 1965\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nHouston BK. Stress and coping. In: Snyder CR, Ford CE, editors. Coping with negative life events: Clinical and social psychological perspectives. New York: Plenum; 1988. pp. 373-399\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nAffleckk G, Tennen H. Construing Benefits from Adversity: Adaptational significance and dispositional underpinnings. Journal of Personality. 1996;\n64\n(4):899-922. DOI: 10. 1111/j.1467-6494.1996.tb00948.x\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nTennen H, Affleck G. Finding benefits in adversity. In: Snyder CR, editor. Coping: The psychology of what works. New York: Oxford University Press; 1999\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Nivedita Das",address:"drnivedita573@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Psychology, Utkal University, Vani Vihar, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
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BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. 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