Sample and user distribution by transport means in Santiago de Querétaro. Own elaboration by the distribution data from Ref. [27].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9424",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Energy Efficiency and Sustainable Lighting - a Bet for the Future",title:"Energy Efficiency and Sustainable Lighting",subtitle:"a Bet for the Future",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The lighting of both exteriors and interiors is a field within electrical and lighting engineering, where important technological changes have been taking place oriented towards environmental sustainability and energy efficiency. LED technology has been gradually gaining ground in the world of lighting over other technologies due to its high lighting and energy efficiency and savings. However, some problems related to overheating or associated regulation are emerging. This has prompted the search for new, more efficient, and sustainable forms of lighting. This book presents successful cases related to energy efficiency and lighting that may be of great interest to those trying to enter the world of scientific research.",isbn:"978-1-78985-960-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-959-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-186-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85907",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"energy-efficiency-and-sustainable-lighting-a-bet-for-the-future",numberOfPages:274,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e6152671787768a1fd14ed0afac0e18e",bookSignature:"Manuel Jesús Hermoso-Orzáez and Alfonso Gago-Calderón",publishedDate:"March 25th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9424.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6808,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:19,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 20th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 4th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 30th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 14th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!0,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"241453",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel J.",middleName:null,surname:"Hermoso-Orzáez",slug:"manuel-j.-hermoso-orzaez",fullName:"Manuel J. Hermoso-Orzáez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241453/images/system/241453.jpeg",biography:"I am Assistant Professor Doctor hired full time by the University of Jaén since November 2017. I have developed my professional activity in the world of engineering and projects, with a 20-year experience in Public Administration (Municipal Public Lighting Technician) and a private company.\nI have significant experience as a researcher with more than twenty of 30 published articles JCR-Scopus, (15) ten of them very relevant in high impact journals Q1-Q2, as well as presence in International Congresses where I have presented various oral communications (25), written (10), poster (15) and lectures (10). I also participate as a Publons Journal Reviewer (more than 50) and a member of several scientific committees. My field of research is iMy specialties as a researcher are Energy Efficiency Public Lighting, LED lighting, Project Management and Management, Alternative Energies, Gasification, Hydrogen, BIM (Building Information Modeling), Economic and Financial Analysis. Industrial Maintenance and Storage",institutionString:"University of Jaén",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"222219",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Gago-Calderón",slug:"alfonso-gago-calderon",fullName:"Alfonso Gago-Calderón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/222219/images/system/222219.jpeg",biography:'Industrial Engineer (2002 - Best academic record award), Master in Audiovisual Information Systems (2010) and Doctor in Industrial Engineering (2010) by the Universidad de Málaga (UMA). Assistant Professor Doctor of the Higher School of Industrial Engineers. Collaborator of the Institute of Solar Energy (Polytechnic University of Madrid). Professor of the Master\\\'s Degree in Project Preparation BIM and Project Management of the Universidad de Jaén. \\"López Peñalver\\" Prize: Best young researcher in engineering and architecture UMA (2013). Special Mention in the II Innovation Awards of the Alberto Elzaburu Foundation (2015). Author of 7 books/chapters, 7 patents, 12 scientific articles in indexed journals (JCR & SCOPUS) and an extensive participation in international conferences. Fields of study: Applications of LED technology, electronic control for opto-electronic and development of light electric vehicles (LEVs)',institutionString:"University of Málaga",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Malaga",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"144",title:"Sustainable Energy",slug:"sustainable-energy"}],chapters:[{id:"68724",title:"The Improved Model of the Method, Rights, and Resources (MRR) for the Evaluation of the EIA System: Revising the Sustainability Indicators",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88747",slug:"the-improved-model-of-the-method-rights-and-resources-mrr-for-the-evaluation-of-the-eia-system-revis",totalDownloads:509,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Measuring effectiveness of environmental impact assessment systems is central to the implementation of environmental impact assessment, considering the debate about relevance and usefulness of environmental impact assessment systems. Many models for evaluating environmental impact assessment system’s effectiveness have been developed. Difficulties in quantifying environmental impacts have restricted the effectiveness mostly to procedural effectiveness evaluation, though substantive effectiveness evaluation is better. The method, rights, and resources (MRR) model was initially developed to harness the indicator-based evaluation theory into the evaluation of environmental impact assessment system’s effectiveness. This chapter reviews the method, rights, and resources model and proffers some improvement. The method, rights, and resources model evaluates environmental impact assessment systems using indicators of compliance, participation, and capacity. The indicators incorporate both procedural and substantive approaches; hence, it attempts to present a more indicative measure of environmental impact assessment system’s effectiveness. The guiding idea in this chapter is that monitoring and evaluating environmental impact assessment systems should be embedded in the environmental impact assessment system itself as opposed to being concepts that are externally and subsequently applied on existing environmental impact assessment systems.",signatures:"Rowan Kushinga Machaka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68724",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68724",authors:[{id:"289346",title:"Dr.",name:"Rowan",surname:"Machaka",slug:"rowan-machaka",fullName:"Rowan Machaka"}],corrections:null},{id:"68988",title:"Eco-Material Selection for Lightweight Vehicle Design",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88372",slug:"eco-material-selection-for-lightweight-vehicle-design",totalDownloads:748,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In order for automakers to meet the new stringent environmental policies and to improve fuel efficiency of their vehicles, they started to change the design of their vehicles to be better aerodynamically, to downside their vehicle sizes, thus they can reduce the engine size as well, and to increase the level of the electrification (partial or full electrification) of their fleet vehicles. Lightweight design is another widely used strategy to improve fuel economy of automobiles. Potential lightweight material needs to be cost effective, has the ability to reduce the weight of the vehicle and can meet the functionality requirements. Thus, we need a systematic material selection process that takes into consideration all design aspects such as cost, performance, and environmental impacts. Eco-material selection provides a systematic method for material selection and takes into account material’s mechanical properties, cost, and ability to reduce environmental impacts over product’s lifetime. This chapter summarizes methods of eco-material selections for automotive structural panels in the body-in-white. A set of numerical and qualitative metrics for eco-material selection will be developed and discussed in this chapter. These metrics cover products’ environmental impact, functionality, manufacturability, economic, and societal and safety factors.",signatures:"Ahmad T. Mayyas and Mohammed Omar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68988",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68988",authors:[{id:"292675",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Omar",slug:"mohammad-omar",fullName:"Mohammad Omar"},{id:"292681",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad",surname:"Mayyas",slug:"ahmad-mayyas",fullName:"Ahmad Mayyas"}],corrections:null},{id:"68501",title:"Plantation Forests: A Guarantee of Sustainable Management of Abandoned and Marginal Farmlands",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88373",slug:"plantation-forests-a-guarantee-of-sustainable-management-of-abandoned-and-marginal-farmlands",totalDownloads:477,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter summarises the research data on cultivating forest crops in abandoned and marginal farmlands (AL). The course of growth and productivity of different tree species in the local climatic conditions is clarified in a variety of agricultural soils. The research results show the most appropriate tree species for short-rotation or special end-use monoculture or mixed plantations, using Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.), pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.), grey alder (Alnus incana (L.) Moench), alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.), wild cherry (Cerasus avium (L.) Moench syn. Prunus avium), aspen (Populus tremula L.), hybrid aspen (Populus tremula x tremuloides), and small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata Mill.). At the same time, research results show sustainability of management of plantation forests—positive impact on soil agrochemical properties, proportionate changes on above-ground vegetation, and improvement of economic benefits of farmlands.",signatures:"Mudrite Daugaviete, Dagnija Lazdina, Baiba Bambe, Andis Lazdins, Kristaps Makovskis and Uldis Daugavietis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68501",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68501",authors:[{id:"294306",title:"Dr.",name:"Mudrite",surname:"Daugaviete",slug:"mudrite-daugaviete",fullName:"Mudrite Daugaviete"},{id:"294307",title:"Dr.",name:"Baiba",surname:"Bambe",slug:"baiba-bambe",fullName:"Baiba Bambe"},{id:"295016",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagnija",surname:"Lazdina",slug:"dagnija-lazdina",fullName:"Dagnija Lazdina"},{id:"295017",title:"Dr.",name:"Andis",surname:"Lazdins",slug:"andis-lazdins",fullName:"Andis Lazdins"}],corrections:null},{id:"69542",title:"Explorative Analysis of Household Energy Consumption in Bauchi State, Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89597",slug:"explorative-analysis-of-household-energy-consumption-in-bauchi-state-nigeria",totalDownloads:656,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study was conducted with the major aim of conducting descriptive and exploratory analyses on the socio-economic characteristics of households in Bauchi state and their pattern of energy choice and consumption. A total sample of 539 household responses were analysed, which were selected using cluster area sampling. The analysis indicates that the average monthly household income is USD 220, and the average monthly firewood consumption per household is about 35 bundles. Moreover, about 70% of the respondents argued that they use firewood as their main source of cooking fuel. For the lighting source of energy, 65% of the households argued that they use electricity as their main source of lighting. Additionally, the correlation analysis indicates that income has a positive relationship with the quantity of energy consumption, while there is a negative relationship between the price of a particular source of energy and its consumption. The study suggests that there is a need of a good policy that will reduce the households much dependence on firewood to other cleaner sources of energy.",signatures:"Abubakar Hamid Danlami and Rabi’ul Islam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69542",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69542",authors:[{id:"242850",title:"Dr.",name:"Abubakar",surname:"Danlami",slug:"abubakar-danlami",fullName:"Abubakar Danlami"},{id:"311469",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabiul",surname:"Islam",slug:"rabiul-islam",fullName:"Rabiul Islam"}],corrections:null},{id:"68794",title:"Roof Lighting with Recycled Plastic Bottles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88917",slug:"roof-lighting-with-recycled-plastic-bottles",totalDownloads:558,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The carbon footprint currently produced on the planet forces universities and government entities to seek solutions to basic services and other social needs, which are positive with the environment. One of these solutions is linked to indoor lighting without electric power consumption. The Moser lamp offers a solution that takes care of environmental health and at the same time is accessible to social sectors with lower purchasing power. This lamp consists of a water bottle with chlorine exposed to sunlight. The test carried out by the authors collects data that coincide with those obtained by Moser, in the sense that they generate the lighting required for housing. The criteria of the authors are that more controlled trials should be carried out in order to determine the replicability of the exercise, as well as experiment with other elements to obtain chemiluminescence, mainly at night, since the Moser lamp can only be used together with the sunlight. Examples of these elements are luminol and synthetic luciferase and luciferin, which can chemically provide luminescence indoors.",signatures:"Nancy Varela Terreros and Daniel Espinoza Díaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68794",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68794",authors:[{id:"307298",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nancy",surname:"Varela",slug:"nancy-varela",fullName:"Nancy Varela"},{id:"310019",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Espinoza Díaz",slug:"daniel-espinoza-diaz",fullName:"Daniel Espinoza Díaz"}],corrections:null},{id:"68852",title:"Dimensioning of an Autonomous Photovoltaic Installation: Case Study in Msaken, Sousse (Tunisia)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88771",slug:"dimensioning-of-an-autonomous-photovoltaic-installation-case-study-in-msaken-sousse-tunisia-",totalDownloads:599,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Renewable energy production has the potential to replace traditional fossil energy and reduce the consumption invoice. In this context, a client wants to realize an autonomous photovoltaic installation for his house that is under construction, located in the city of Msaken, Sousse (Tunisia), in an isolated area of the network of the Tunisian Company of Electricity and Gas (STEG) and will be inhabited by the end of the year 2019. The installation autonomy must be 72 hours in case of bad weather. Therefore, in this chapter, we will determine the technical characteristics of each component of the installation to meet the customer’s energy needs and ultimately provide the total price.",signatures:"Olfa Bel Hadj Brahim Kechiche, Marwa Hamza and Habib Sammouda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68852",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68852",authors:[{id:"305713",title:"Dr.",name:"Olfa",surname:"Bel Hadj Brahim Kechiche",slug:"olfa-bel-hadj-brahim-kechiche",fullName:"Olfa Bel Hadj Brahim Kechiche"},{id:"309479",title:"Mrs.",name:"Marwa",surname:"Hamza",slug:"marwa-hamza",fullName:"Marwa Hamza"},{id:"309480",title:"Prof.",name:"Habib",surname:"Sammouda",slug:"habib-sammouda",fullName:"Habib Sammouda"}],corrections:null},{id:"69549",title:"Energy Efficiency and Sustainability in Outdoor Lighting - A Bet for the Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89413",slug:"energy-efficiency-and-sustainability-in-outdoor-lighting-a-bet-for-the-future",totalDownloads:473,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Electricity from PKL tree has been developed using PKL extract previously. In this work, electricity production has been developed using living PKL tree. It has been studied that an electrochemical cell has been developed using living PKL tree. The experimental data have been demonstrated in that way, hence this method is feasible and effective. Electricity has been conducted from PKL (Pathor Kuchi leaf) using PKL extract with positive and negative electrodes. Several research papers have been published on it in the recognized journal at home and abroad. This research work has expressed the electricity generation from living PKL tree. It can be found that due to the difference of the pH between the soil and the living PKL tree, electricity can be produced. The performance of this electricity has been studied. This work has been developed by authors, which produced electricity from living PKL tree without damaging the PKL plants. The unused suitable land areas such as hilly areas, forest areas, and coastal areas, those could supply clean power for remote communities all over the world.",signatures:"Kamrul Alam Khan, Salman Rahman Rasel, S.M. Zian Reza and Farhana Yesmin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69549",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69549",authors:[{id:"278969",title:"Dr.",name:"Md.Kamrul Alam",surname:"Khan",slug:"md.kamrul-alam-khan",fullName:"Md.Kamrul Alam Khan"}],corrections:null},{id:"70293",title:"Analysis of Outdoor Lighting Control Systems Applied to the New Smart City Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88834",slug:"analysis-of-outdoor-lighting-control-systems-applied-to-the-new-smart-city-models",totalDownloads:654,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lighting accounts for more than 19% of the world’s electricity consumption. Simply replacing existing lighting systems with other LED technology would reduce energy consumption by up to 40%, and if we also use lighting controls, the figure can reach 80%. The transition to efficient lighting technologies (LEDs) is economically one of the most realistic and simple energy efficiency initiatives. Control systems play an important role in the world of lighting. Wherever you have exterior lighting, there will be a need for control. The systems that have been used so far have precedents that date back more than 35 years and allow control and monitoring functions of groups of light points, i.e. not individually. One of the major drawbacks of these systems is that they do not have flexibility, since they do not allow the individualization of the point of light, and in addition the orders that can emit are of generic character and affect the group, obtaining a rather inaccurate information of the installation. Complete telemanagement systems are currently being developed to meet the needs of different application segments. Experience shows that it is necessary to work with open systems so that the lighting management system works and communicates with other systems such as air treatment, safety systems, etc. Intelligent lighting, in addition to its control and energy management functions, also contributes to reducing the excess of artificial light to which our cities are subject, making them more livable.",signatures:"Eduardo Ruiz Vela, Blas Ogáyar Fernandez, Andrés López Valdivia and Hermoso-Orzáez Manuel Jesús",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70293",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70293",authors:[{id:"241453",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel J.",surname:"Hermoso-Orzáez",slug:"manuel-j.-hermoso-orzaez",fullName:"Manuel J. Hermoso-Orzáez"},{id:"304966",title:"Prof.",name:"Blas",surname:"Ogayar",slug:"blas-ogayar",fullName:"Blas Ogayar"},{id:"304967",title:"Prof.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Ruiz Vela",slug:"eduardo-ruiz-vela",fullName:"Eduardo Ruiz Vela"},{id:"304968",title:"Prof.",name:"Andres",surname:"López",slug:"andres-lopez",fullName:"Andres López"}],corrections:null},{id:"68914",title:"Improvement the Efficiency of Distribution Network Using an Efficient Lighting System of Streets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88959",slug:"improvement-the-efficiency-of-distribution-network-using-an-efficient-lighting-system-of-streets",totalDownloads:477,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, improve the efficiency and reduce active loss are very important target for any electric company. One of the methods to reach this target is using appropriate street lighting and tunnel lighting systems. Control of lighting, appropriate products of lighting system, and management of the luminaire dimming will used to improve the efficiency of lighting network. Studying the lamp efficiency of low pressure sodium, LED, high pressure sodium, compact fluorescent lamps, etc. Case study and calculations of active losses in lighting system of 30 luminaire are presented in this chapter. The results discuss the impact of type and number of luminaires, distance between poles, and dimming ratio on the outdoor lighting efficiency and values of active loss in lighting network which is part of distribution networks.",signatures:"Nassim Iqteit and Khalid Yahya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68914",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68914",authors:[{id:"270815",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",surname:"Yahya",slug:"khalid-yahya",fullName:"Khalid Yahya"},{id:"306578",title:"Dr.",name:"Nassim",surname:"Iqteit",slug:"nassim-iqteit",fullName:"Nassim Iqteit"}],corrections:null},{id:"68855",title:"Energy Efficiency of the Road Lighting: The Impact of Active Power Losses on Energy Performance Indicators and Electricity Costs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88833",slug:"energy-efficiency-of-the-road-lighting-the-impact-of-active-power-losses-on-energy-performance-indic",totalDownloads:449,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Improving the energy efficiency of road lighting is currently one of the most important issues. One of the methods of improving energy efficiency is the use of dimmable luminaires. In order to be able to compare the energy efficiency of different technical solutions, EN 13201-5 introduces energy performance indicators for road lighting installations. The chapter describes energy performance indicators for road installation and the impact of active power losses on these indicators and electricity costs. In order to accurately calculate the above indicators, the active power losses in the elements of the lighting installation should be taken into account. The chapter presents the dependencies which can be used to calculate the active power losses in single- and three-phase systems. In addition, an example of calculation of energy performance indicators, active power and energy losses and electricity costs is provided. The calculation was made for an exemplary installation of road lighting with dimmable luminaires. The analysis was done for single-phase and three-phase installations.",signatures:"Roman Sikora and Przemysław Markiewicz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68855",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68855",authors:[{id:"304945",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Roman",surname:"Sikora",slug:"roman-sikora",fullName:"Roman Sikora"},{id:"305264",title:"Dr.",name:"Przemysław",surname:"Markiewicz",slug:"przemyslaw-markiewicz",fullName:"Przemysław Markiewicz"}],corrections:null},{id:"71195",title:"The Thermal Dissipation of LED Outdoor Lighting Luminaires: Comparative Analysis for a Real Case of Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91400",slug:"the-thermal-dissipation-of-led-outdoor-lighting-luminaires-comparative-analysis-for-a-real-case-of-s",totalDownloads:724,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Today LED technology is being imposed, day by day, in our cities and homes as an efficient way of lighting. The performance of its lighting, durability, energy efficiency, and light, coupled with the economy of its use, is shifting to other classic forms of lighting. However, some problems associated with the durability of equipment associated with thermal dissipation and high-temperature problems, which end up affecting the light intensity and service life, are beginning to be detected. The objective of this paper is to compare the results obtained previously, at different contour temperatures, with the current practical results obtained with a FLUKETI25 thermal imaging camera. The theoretical results will be compared with the current results applied to the different luminaires. Where real thermal dissipation is studied, it is obtained for each of them in the laboratory of illumination with the thermographic camera FLUKE TI. The theoretical and experimental results are evaluated, and the results are discussed. This study shows that instead of LED technology, it is less risky for quality depreciation and durability of lighting if a project has already been achieved that favors optimal thermal dissipation, supported by the importance of choosing an appropriate design and appropriate materials.",signatures:"Hermoso-Orzáez Manuel Jesús, Hervás-Pulido Manuel Jesús, Unión-Sánchez Juan de Dios, Ogáyar-Fernández Blas and Gago-Calderon Alfonso",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71195",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71195",authors:[{id:"241453",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel J.",surname:"Hermoso-Orzáez",slug:"manuel-j.-hermoso-orzaez",fullName:"Manuel J. Hermoso-Orzáez"},{id:"222219",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso",surname:"Gago-Calderón",slug:"alfonso-gago-calderon",fullName:"Alfonso Gago-Calderón"},{id:"307250",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel Jesús",surname:"Hervas-Pulido",slug:"manuel-jesus-hervas-pulido",fullName:"Manuel Jesús Hervas-Pulido"}],corrections:null},{id:"68853",title:"Control Systems and Ornamental Lighting. A Case Study: Illumination of the Facade of Santiago Hospital in Úbeda (Jaén)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88815",slug:"control-systems-and-ornamental-lighting-a-case-study-illumination-of-the-facade-of-santiago-hospital",totalDownloads:484,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We propose the analysis of the control systems associated with ornamental lighting applied to the architectural and monumental heritage from our teaching experience developed since 2017 at the University of Córdoba—Illumination Faculty of Philosophy of Córdoba, year 2017, and Center of Experimental Culture in the Plaza de la Corredera, year 2018—and the lighting project of the facade of the Hospital de Santiago de Úbeda, Jaén. The DMX system is the one which mostly fulfill the requirements of this kind of lighting. Its implementation is increasingly simple and is associated in many cases with the type of luminaire to be used and the particularity of differential wiring. This solution allows a personalized, creative, and dynamic control and the adaptation of the daily lighting to different events of singular character. It can be used as an instrument of economic revitalization of the tourist and commercial sectors, and of diffusion of the architectural and historical heritage values. The application of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Big Data could allow the creation of a predictive model that helps the spectral design of light sources and an objective tool that contributes to the confluence of art and science.",signatures:"Juan Cantizani Oliva, Eduardo Ruiz Vela and José Zamora Salido",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68853",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68853",authors:[{id:"309595",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",surname:"Cantizani Oliva",slug:"juan-cantizani-oliva",fullName:"Juan Cantizani Oliva"},{id:"309714",title:"Prof.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Ruíz Vela",slug:"eduardo-ruiz-vela",fullName:"Eduardo Ruíz Vela"},{id:"309715",title:"Prof.",name:"José",surname:"Zamora Salido",slug:"jose-zamora-salido",fullName:"José Zamora Salido"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6490",title:"Energy Management for Sustainable Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5e77ab7a4bfed7a2a1d524b8a3d6a90",slug:"energy-management-for-sustainable-development",bookSignature:"Soner Gokten and Guray Kucukkocaoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6490.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70354",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Soner",surname:"Gokten",slug:"soner-gokten",fullName:"Soner Gokten"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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\r\n\tThe book explains and educates the reader regarding normal sexual function, sexual dysfunction, and sexual dysfunction disorders both in males and females. The objective of the book will be to highlight the importance of sex education and explain normal human sexuality. With the growing number of males and females reporting sexual dysfunction the need for a ready reckoner of sexual dysfunction may be relevant and necessary.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book will have chapters on normal human sexuality, sexual health, Sexual dysfunction in the male and female, sexual dysfunction disorders related to libido, orgasm, ejaculation, erection, and genetic or hormonal or developmental or sexuo-erotic orientation defects.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book will also highlight the importance of sex counselors and therapists.
\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
Our goal in this chapter is to describe how young children build from their natural curiosity about their world to having the skills for systematically observing, predicting, and understanding that world. We suggest that scientific reasoning is a specific type of intentional information seeking, one that shares basic reasoning mechanisms and motivation with other types of information seeking (Kuhn, 2011a). For example, curiosity is a critical motivational component that underlies information seeking (Jirout & Klahr, 2012), yet only in scientific reasoning is curiosity sated by deliberate data collection and formal analysis of evidence. In this way, scientific reasoning differs from other types of information seeking in that it requires additional cognitive resources as well as an integration of cultural tools. To that end, we provide an overview of how scientific reasoning emerges from the interaction between internal factors (e.g., cognitive and metacognitive development) and cultural and contextual factors.
The current state of empirical research on scientific reasoning presents seemingly contradictory conclusions. Young children are sometimes deemed “little scientists” because they appear to have abilities that are used in formal scientific reasoning (e.g., causal reasoning; Gopnik et al., 2004). At the same time, many studies show that older children (and sometimes adults) have difficulties with scientific reasoning. For example, children have difficulty in systematically designing controlled experiments, in drawing appropriate conclusions based on evidence, and in interpreting evidence (e.g., Croker, 2012; Chen & Klahr, 1999; Kuhn, 1989; Zimmerman, 2007).
In the following account, we suggest that despite the early emergence of many of the precursors of skilled scientific reasoning, its developmental trajectory is slow and requires instruction, support, and practice. In Section 2of the chapter, we discuss cognitive and metacognitive factors. We focus on two mechanisms that play a critical role in all cognitive processes (i.e., encoding and strategy acquisition/selection).
Effective scientific reasoning requires both deductive and inductive skills. Individuals must understand how to assess what is currently known or believed, develop testable questions, test hypotheses, and draw appropriate conclusions by coordinating empirical evidence and theory. Such reasoning also requires the ability to attend to information systematically and draw reasonable inferences from patterns that are observed. Further, it requires the ability to assess one’s reasoning at each stage in the process. Here, we describe some of the key issues in developing these cognitive and metacognitive scientific reasoning skills.
The main task for developmental researchers is to explain how children build on their intuitive curiosity about the world to become skilled scientific reasoners.
A mechanistic account of the development of scientific reasoning includes information about the processes by which this change occurs, and how these processes lead to change over time (Klahr, 2001). Mechanisms can be described at varying levels (e.g., neurological, cognitive, interpersonal) and over different time scales. For example, neurological mechanisms (e.g., inhibition) operate at millisecond time scales (Burlea, Vidala, Tandonneta, & Hasbroucq, 2004) while learning mechanisms may operate over the course of minutes (e.g., inhibiting irrelevant information during problem solving; Becker, 2010). Many of the cognitive processes and mechanisms that account for learning and for problem solving across a variety of domains are important to the development of scientific reasoning skills and science knowledge acquisition. Many cognitive mechanisms have been identified as underlying scientific reasoning and other high-level cognition (e.g., analogy, statistical learning, categorization, imitation, inhibition; Goswami, 2008). However, due to space limitations we focus on what we argue are the two most critical mechanisms –
Encoding is the process of representing information and its context in memory as a result of attention to stimuli (Chen, 2007; Siegler, 1989). As such, it is a central mechanism in scientific reasoning because we must represent information before we can reason about it, and the quality and process of representation can affect reasoning. Importantly, there are significant developmental changes in the ability to encode the relevant features that will lead to sound reasoning and problem solving (Siegler, 1983; 1985). Encoding abilities improve with the acquisition of
Effective encoding is dependent on directing attention to
Strategies are sequences of procedural actions used to achieve a goal (Siegler, 1996). In the context of scientific reasoning, strategies are the steps that guide children from their initial state (e.g., a question about the effects of weight and distance in balancing a scale) to a goal state (e.g., understanding the nature of the relationship between variables). We will briefly examine two components of strategy development:
New strategies are added to the repertoire of possible strategies through discovery, instruction, or other social interactions (Chen, 2007; Gauvain, 2001; Siegler, 1996). There is evidence that children can discover strategies on their own (Chen, 2007). Children often discover new strategies when they experience an insight into a new way of solving a familiar problem. For example, 10- and 11-year-olds discovered new strategies for evaluating causal relations between variables in a computerized task only after creating different cars (e.g., comparing the effects of engine size) and testing them (Schauble, 1990). Similarly, when asked to determine the cause of a chemical reaction, children discovered new experimentation strategies only after several weeks (Kuhn & Phelps, 1982). Over time, existing strategies may be modified to reduce time and complexity of implementation (e.g., eliminating redundant steps in a problem solving sequence; Klahr, 1984). For example, determining causal relations among variables requires more time when experimentation is unsystematic. In order to identify which variables resulted in the fastest car, children often constructed up to 25 cars, whereas an adult scientist identified the fastest car after constructing only seven cars (Schauble, 1990).
Children also gain new strategies through social interaction, by being explicitly taught a strategy, imitating a strategy, or by collaborating in problem solving (Gauvain, 2001). For example, when a parent asks a child questions about events in a photograph, the parent evokes memories of the event and helps to structure the child’s understanding of the depicted event, a process called conversational remembering (Middleton, 1997). Conversational remembering improves children’s recall of events and often leads to children spontaneously using this strategy. Parent conversations about event structures improved children’s memory for these structures; for example, questions about a child’s day at school help to structure this event and improved recall (Nelson, 1996). Children also learn new strategies by solving problems cooperatively with adults. In a sorting task, preschool children were more likely to improve their classification strategies after working with their mothers (Freund, 1990). Further, children who worked with their parents on a hypothesis-testing task were more likely to identify causal variables than children who worked alone because parents helped children construct valid experiments, keep data records, and repeat experiments (Gleason & Schauble, 2000).
Children also acquire strategies by interacting with an adult modeling a novel strategy. Middle-school children acquired a reading comprehension strategy (e.g., anticipating the ending of a story) after seeing it modeled by their teacher (Palinscar, Brown, & Campione, 1993). Additionally, children can acquire new strategies from interactions with other children. Monitoring other children during problem solving improves a child’s understanding of the task and appears to improve how they evaluate their own performance (Brownell & Carriger, 1991). Elementary school children who collaborated with other students to solve the balance-scale task outperformed students who worked alone (Pine & Messer, 1998). Ten-year-olds working in dyads were more likely to discuss their strategies than children working alone and these discussions were associated with generating better hypotheses than children working alone (Teasley, 1995).
More than one strategy may be useful for solving a problem, which requires a means to select among candidate strategies. One suggestion is that this process occurs by adaptive selection. In adaptive selection, strategies that match features of the problem are candidates for selection. One component of selection is that newer strategies tend to have a slightly higher priority for use when compared to older strategies (Siegler, 1996). Successful selection is made on the basis of the effectiveness of the strategy and its cost (e.g., speed), and children tend to choose the fastest, most accurate strategy available (i.e., the most adaptive strategy).
Cognitive mechanisms provide the basic investigation and inferential tools used in scientific reasoning. The ability to reason about knowledge and the means for obtaining and evaluating knowledge provide powerful tools that augment children’s reasoning.
Sodian, Zaitchik, and Carey (1991) argue that two basic skills related to early metacognitive acquisitions are needed for scientific reasoning. First, children need to understand that inferences can be drawn from evidence. The theory of mind literature (e.g., Wellman, Cross, & Watson, 2001) suggests that it is not until the age of 4 that children understand that beliefs and knowledge are based on perceptual experience (i.e., evidence). As noted earlier, experimental work demonstrates that preschoolers can use evidence to make judgments about simple causal relationships (Gopnik, Sobel, Schulz, & Glymour, 2001; Schulz & Bonawitz, 2007; Schulz & Gopnik, 2004; Schulz, Gopnik,& Glymour, 2007). Similarly, several classic studies show that children as young as 6 can succeed in simple scientific reasoning tasks. Children between 6 and 9 can discriminate between a conclusive and an inclusive test of a simple hypothesis (Sodian et al., 1991). Children as young as 5 can form a causal hypothesis based on a pattern of evidence, and even 4-year-olds seem to understand some of the principles of causal reasoning (Ruffman, Perner, Olson, & Doherty, 1993).
Second, according to Sodian et al. (1991), children need to understand that inference is itself a mechanism with which further knowledge can be acquired. Four-year-olds base their knowledge on perceptual experiences, whereas 6-year-olds understand that the testimony of others can also be used in making inferences (Sodian & Wimmer, 1987). Other research suggests that children younger than 6 can make inferences based on testimony, but in very limited circumstances (Koenig, Clément, & Harris, 2004). These findings may explain why, by the age of 6, children are able to succeed on
Research with older children, however, has revealed that 8- to 12-year-olds have limitations in their abilities to (a) generate unconfounded experiments, (b) disconfirm hypotheses, (c) keep accurate and systematic records, and (d) evaluate evidence (Klahr, Fay, & Dunbar, 1993; Kuhn, Garcia-Mila, Zohar, & Andersen, 1995; Schauble, 1990, 1996; Zimmerman, Raghavan, & Sartoris, 2003). For example, Schauble (1990) presented children aged 9-11 with a computerized task in which they had to determine which of five factors affect the speed of racing cars. Children often varied several factors at once (only 22% of the experiments were classified as valid) and they often drew conclusions consistent with belief rather than the evidence generated. They used a positive test strategy, testing variables believed to influence speed (e.g., engine size) and not testing those believed to be non-causal (e.g., color). Some children recorded features without outcomes, or outcomes without features, but most wrote down nothing at all, relying on memory for details of experiments carried out over an eight-week period.
Although the performance differences between younger and older children may be interpreted as potentially contradictory, the differing cognitive and metacognitive demands of tasks used to study scientific reasoning at different ages may account for some of the disconnect in conclusions. Even though the simple tasks given to preschoolers and young children require them to understand evidence as a source of knowledge, such tasks require the cognitive abilities of induction and pattern recognition, but only limited metacognitive abilities. In contrast, the tasks used to study the development of scientific reasoning in older children (and adults) are more demanding and focused on hypothetico-deductive reasoning; they include more variables, involve more complex causal structures, require varying levels of domain knowledge, and are negotiated across much longer time scales. Moreover, the tasks given to older children and adults involve the acquisition, selection, and coordination of investigation strategies, combining background knowledge with empirical evidence. The results of investigation activities are then used in the acquisition, selection, and coordinationof evidence evaluation and inference strategies. With respect to encoding, increases in task complexity require attending to more information and making judgments about which features are relevant. This encoding happens in the context of prior knowledge and, in many cases, it is also necessary to inhibit prior knowledge (Zimmerman & Croker, in press).
Sodian and Bullock (2008) also argue that mature scientific reasoning involves the metastrategic process of being able to think explicitly about hypotheses and evidence, and that this skill is not fully mastered until adolescence at the very earliest. According to Amsel et al. (2008), metacognitive competence is important for hypothetical reasoning. These conclusions are consistent with Kuhn’s (1989, 2005, 2011a) argument that the defining feature of scientific thinking is the set of cognitive and metacognitive skills involved in differentiating and coordinating theory and evidence. Kuhn argues that the effective coordination of theory and evidence depends on three metacognitive abilities: (a) The ability to encode and represent evidence and theory separately, so that relations between them can be recognized; (b) the ability to treat theories as independent objects of thought (i.e., rather than a representation of “the way things are”); and (c) the ability to recognize that theories can be false, setting aside the acceptance of a theory so evidence can be assessed to determine the veridicality of a theory. When we consider these cognitive and metacognitive abilities in the larger social context, it is clear that skills that are highly valued by the scientific community may be at odds with the cultural and intuitive views of the individual reasoner (Lemke, 2001). Thus, it often takes time for conceptual change to occur; evidence is not just evaluated in the context of the science investigation and science classroom, but within personal and community values. Conceptual change also takes place in the context of an individual’s personal epistemology, which can undergo developmental transitions (e.g., Sandoval, 2005).
Returning to the encoding and retrieval of information relevant to scientific reasoning tasks, many studies demonstrate that both children and adults are not always aware of their memory limitations while engaged in investigation tasks (e.g., Carey, Evans, Honda, Jay, & Unger, 1989; Dunbar & Klahr, 1989; Garcia-Mila & Andersen, 2007; Gleason & Schauble, 2000; Siegler & Liebert, 1975; Trafton & Trickett, 2001). Kanari and Millar (2004) found that children differentially recorded the results of experiments, depending on familiarity or strength of prior beliefs. For example, 10- to 14-year-olds recorded more data points when experimenting with unfamiliar items (e.g., using a force-meter to determine the factors affecting the force produced by the weight and surface area of boxes) than with familiar items (e.g., using a stopwatch to experiment with pendulums). Overall, children are less likely than adults to record experimental designs and outcomes, or to review notes they do keep, despite task demands that clearly necessitate a reliance on external memory aids.
Children are often asked to judge their memory abilities, and memory plays an important role in scientific reasoning. Children’s understanding of memory as a fallible process develops over middle childhood (Jaswal & Dodson, 2009; Kreuzer, Leonard, & Flavell, 1975). Young children view all strategies on memory tasks as equally effective, whereas 8- to 10-year-olds start to discriminate between strategies, and 12-year-olds know which strategies work best (Justice, 1986; Schneider, 1986). The development of metamemory continues through adolescence (Schneider, 2008), so there may not be a particular age that memory and metamemory limitations are no longer a consideration for children and adolescents engaged in complex scientific reasoning tasks. However, it seems likely that metamemory limitations are more profound for children under 10-12 years.
Likewise, the acquisition of other metacognitive and metastrategic skills is a gradual process. Early strategies for coordinating theory and evidence are replaced with better ones, but there is not a stage-like change from using an older strategy to a newer one. Multiple strategies are concurrently available so the process of change is very much like Siegler’s (1996) overlapping waves model (Kuhn et al., 1995). However,
Similarly, Zohar and Peled (2008) focused instruction in the control-of-variables strategy (CVS) on metastrategic competence. Fifth-graders were given a computerized task in which they had to determine the effects of five variables on seed germination. Students in the control group were taught about seed germination, and students in the experimental group were given a metastrategic knowledge intervention over several sessions. The intervention consisted of describing CVS, discussing when it should be used, and discussing what features of a task indicate that CVS should be used. A second computerized task on potato growth was used to assess near transfer. A physical task in which participants had to determine which factors affect the distance a ball will roll was used to assess far transfer. The experimental group showed gains on both the strategic and the metastrategic level. The latter was measured by asking participants to explain what they had done. These gains were still apparent on the near and far transfer tasks when they were administered three months later. Moreover, low-academic achievers showed the largest gains. It is clear from these studies that although meta-level competencies may not develop routinely, they can certainly be learned via explicit instruction.
Metacognitive abilities are necessary precursors to sophisticated scientific thinking, and represent one of the ways in which children, adults, and professional scientists differ. In order for children’s behavior to go beyond demonstrating the correctness of one’s existing beliefs (e.g., Dunbar & Klahr, 1989) it is necessary for meta-level competencies to be developed and practiced (Kuhn, 2005). With metacognitive control over the processes involved, children (and adults) can change what they believe based on evidence and, in doing so, are aware not only that they are changing a belief, but also know
Much of the existing laboratory work on the development of scientific thinking has not
Our goal in this section is to re-examine our two focal mechanisms (i.e., encoding and strategy) and show how the development of these cognitive acquisitions and metastrategic control of them are facilitated by both the social and physical environment.
Children must learn to encode effectively, by knowing what information is critical to pay attention to. They do so in part with the aid of their teachers, parents, and peers. Once school begins, teachers play a clear role in children’s cognitive development. An ongoing debate in the field of science education concerns the relative value of having children learn and discover how the world works on their own (often called “discovery learning”) and having an instructor guide the learning more directly (often called “direct instruction”). Different researchers interpret these labels in divergent ways, which adds fuel to the debate (see e.g., Bonawitz et al., 2011; Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn, 2007; Kirshner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Klahr, 2010; Mayer, 2004; Schmidt, Loyens, van Gog, & Paas, 2007). Regardless of definitions, though, this issue illustrates the core idea that learning takes place in a social context, with guidance that varies from minimal to didactic.
Specifically, this debate is about the ideal role for adults in helping children to encode information. In direct instruction, there is a clear role for a teacher, often actively pointing out effective examples as compared to ineffective ones, or directly teaching a strategy to apply to new examples. And, indeed, there is evidence that more direct guidance to test variables systematically can help students in learning, particularly in the ability to apply their knowledge to new contexts (e.g., Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Lorch et al., 2010; Strand-Cary & Klahr, 2008). There is also evidence that scaffolded discovery learning can be effective (e.g., Alfieri, Brooks, Adrich, & Tenenbaum, 2011). Those who argue for discovery learning often do so because they note that pedagogical approaches commonly labeled as “discovery learning,” such as problem-based learning and inquiry learning, are in fact highly scaffolded, providing students with a structure in which to explore (Alfieri et al., 2011; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Schmidt et al., 2007). Even in microgenetic studies in which children are described as engaged in “self-directed learning,” researchers ask participants questions along that way that serve as prompts, hints, dialogue, and scaffolds that facilitate learning (Klahr & Carver, 1995). What there appears to be little evidence for is “pure discovery learning” in which students are given little or no guidance and expected to discover rules of problem solving or other skills on their own (Alfieri et al., 2011; Mayer, 2004). Thus, it is clear that formal education includes a critical role for a teacher to scaffold children’s scientific reasoning.
A common goal in science education is to correct the many misconceptions students bring to the classroom. Chinn and Malhotra (2002) examined the role of encoding evidence, interpreting evidence, generalization, and retention as possible impediments to correcting misconceptions. Over four experiments, they concluded that the key difficulty faced by children is in making accurate observations or properly encoding evidence that does not match prior beliefs. However, interventions involving an explanation of what scientists expected to happen (and why) were very effective in mediating conceptual change when encountering counterintuitive evidence. That is, with scaffolds, children made observations independent of theory, and changed their beliefs based on observed evidence. For example, the initial belief that a thermometer placed inside a sweater would display a higher temperature than a thermometer outside a sweater was revised after seeing evidence that disconfirmed this belief and hearing a scientist’s explanation that the temperature would be the same unless there was something warm inside the sweater. Instructional supports can play a crucial role in improving the encoding and observational skills required for reasoning about science.
In laboratory studies of reasoning, there is direct evidence of the role of adult scaffolding. Butler and Markman (2012a) demonstrate that in complex tasks in which children need to find and use evidence, causal verbal framing (i.e., asking whether one event caused another) led young children to more effectively extract patterns from scenes they observed, which in turn led to more effective reasoning. In further work demonstrating the value of adult scaffolding in children’s encoding, Butler and Markman (2012b) found that by age 4, children are much more likely to explore and make inductive inferences when adults intentionally try to teach something than when they are shown an “accidental” effect.
As discussed earlier in this chapter, learning which strategies are available and useful is a fundamental part of developing scientific thinking skills. Much research has looked at the role of adults in teaching strategies to children in both formal (i.e., school) and informal settings (e.g., museums, home; Fender & Crowley, 2007; Tenenbaum, Rappolt-Schlichtmann, & Zanger, 2004).
A central task in scientific reasoning involves the ability to design controlled experiments. Chen and Klahr (1999) found that directly instructing 7- to 10-year-old children in the strategies for designing unconfounded experiments led to learning in a short time frame. More impressively, the effectiveness of the training was shown seven months later, when older students given the strategy training were much better at correctly distinguishing confounded and unconfounded designs than those not explicitly trained in the strategy. In another study exploring the role of scaffolded strategy instruction, Kuhn and Dean (2005) worked with sixth graders on a task to evaluate the contribution of different factors to earthquake risk. All students given the suggestion to focus attention on just one variable were able to design unconfounded experiments, compared to only 11% in the control group given their typical science instruction. This ability to design unconfounded experiments increased the number of valid inferences in the intervention group, both immediately and three months later. Extended engagement alone resulted in minimal progress, confirming that even minor prompts and suggestions represent potentially powerful scaffolds. In yet another example, when taught to control variables either with or without metacognitive supports, 11-year-old children learned more when guided in thinking about how to approach each problem and evaluate the outcome (Dejonckheere, Van de Keere, & Tallir, 2011). Slightly younger children did not benefit from the same manipulation, but 4- to 6-year-olds given an adapted version of the metacognitive instruction were able to reason more effectively about simpler physical science tasks than those who had no metacognitive supports (Dejonckheere, Van de Keere, & Mestdagh, 2010).
Clearly, even with the number of studies that have focused on individual cognition, a picture is beginning to emerge to illustrate the importance of social and cultural factors in the development of scientific reasoning. Many of the studies we describe highlight that even “controlled laboratory studies” are actually scientific reasoning in context. To illustrate, early work by Siegler and Liebert (1975) includes both an instructional context (a control condition plus two types of instruction:
The sociocultural perspective highlights the role that language, speech, symbols, signs, number systems, objects, and tools play in individual cognitive development (Lemke, 2001). As highlighted in previous examples, adult and peer collaboration, dialogue, and other elements of the social environment are important mediators. In this section, we highlight some of the verbal, visual, and numerical elements of the physical context that support the emergence of scientific reasoning.
Most studies of scientific reasoning include some type of
Panel A illustrates the type of pictorial support that accompanies the verbal description of a hypothesis-testing task (from
Various elements of
Although language, symbols, and number systems are used as canonical examples of cultural tools and resources within the socio-cultural tradition (Lemke, 2001), recent advances in
Computer simulations allow visualization of phenomena that are not directly observable in the classroom (e.g., atomic structure, planetary motion). Other advantages include that they are less prone to measurement error in apparatus set up, and that they can be programmed to record all actions taken (and their latencies). Moreover, many systems include a scaffolded method for participants to keep and consult records and notes. Importantly, there is evidence that simulated environments provide the same advantages as isomorphic “hands on” apparatus (Klahr, Triona, & Williams, 2007; Triona & Klahr, 2007).
New lines of research are taking advantage of advances in computing and intelligent computer systems. Kuhn (2011b) recently examined how to facilitate reasoning about multivariable causality, and the problems associated with the visualization of outcomes resulting from multiple causes (e.g., the causes for different cancer rates by geographical area). Participants had access to software that produces a visual display of data points that represent main effects and their interactions. Similarly, Klahr and colleagues (Siler, Mowery, Magaro, Willows, & Klahr, 2010) have developed an intelligent tutor to teach experimentation strategies (see Figure 1, panel C). The use of intelligent tutors provides the unique opportunity of personally tailored learning and feedback experiences, dependent on each student’s pattern of errors. This immediate feedback can be particularly useful in helping develop metacognitive skills (e.g., Roll, Alaven, McLaren, & Koedinger, 2011) and facilitate effective student collaboration (Diziol, Walker, Rummel, & Koedinger, 2010).
Tweney, Doherty, and Mynatt (1981) noted some time ago that most tasks used to study scientific thinking were artificial because real investigations require
Determining the developmental trajectory of scientific reasoning has been challenging, in part because
There is far more to a complete account of scientific reasoning than has been discussed here, including other cognitive mechanisms such as formal hypothesis testing, retrieval, and other reasoning processes. There are also relevant non-cognitive factors such as motivation, disposition, personality, argumentation skills, and personal epistemology, to name a few (see Feist, 2006). These additional considerations do not detract from our assertion that encoding and strategy use are critical to the development of scientific reasoning, and that we must consider cognitive and metacognitive skills within a social and physical context when seeking to understand the development of scientific reasoning. Scientific knowledge acquisition and, importantly, scientific knowledge
All authors contributed equally to the manuscript. The authors thank Eric Amsel, Deanna Kuhn, and Jamie Jirout for comments on a previous version of this chapter.
The present chapter shows one of the most relevant issues regarding the area of road safety since according to the WHO, road accidents are among the ten leading causes of death in the world [1]. “In Mexico, it is estimated that between 70% and 90% of traffic accidents are attributed to the driver, with human errors and driver offenses in traffic regulations as the two main contributing factors” [2].
Shell [3] exposes “Improving road education involves an analysis of human behavior, where both classroom instruction on safety issues, laws and regulations, vehicle operation, and those factors affecting driving are combined.” It is for these reasons that “the vast majority of road education exams have focused on accidents.” [4] The factors in these studies include age, income, and driver’s attitude.
In relation to the implementation of any road safety system, Ker
This study analyzed together the socioeconomic and road knowledge characteristics of these users to determine the probabilities of being involved in a road accident. This issue arises from the research that has been done [3], which informs us that those who have knowledge of road education are less likely to be involved in accidents or to carry out traffic violations. Whereas Factor
It is worth mentioning that the present research aims to develop a methodology to create, step by step, a model that determines which socioeconomic variables and road education are significant to determine the probability of being involved in a road accident, which was applied to a case study in the city of Santiago de Querétaro.
This is why it is important to analyze the behavior of drivers on public roads since one of the main factors of road accidents is the lack of education and knowledge that these users may have about road safety. Not only does lack of knowledge influence road safety but also social factors, such as differing cultures, social behavior, the age of a driver, and the socioeconomic status of the drivers. This is an explanation as to the importance of doing the study because knowing these aspects that were previously mentioned, are all aspects that can attribute to a driver’s performance when operating a vehicle.
When examining the number of road mishaps as a meaning of a given country’s economic level, Xu
These accidents affect different social areas, and for this reason the subject of road education is a responsibility that belongs to a whole society, which encompasses pedestrians, cyclists, motorcyclists, drivers of vehicles, passengers, and transportation. Improving road education involves an analysis of human behavior, where both classroom instruction on safety issues, laws and regulations, vehicle operation, and those factors affecting driving, as well as vehicle driving practice are combined with a trained instructor [3]. It is for these reasons that the vast majority of road education exams have focused on accidents [4].
Regarding age, on the other hand, much of the road safety literature focuses on high-risk drivers, often being young, low-income men with low education [17]. It is recognized that older people appear to be more safety-conscious [18].
In terms of income, it should be noted that per capita income has been identified as a determinant of overall injury mortality [19]. Based on research conducted by Zmud and Arce [20, 21], it is ensured that lower-middle income groups may be at increased risk of occupant motor vehicle injuries. Attitude is a very important factor in road education, which also predicts longitudinally an unsafe driver [22].
For this process, three decision-making models are discussed that are based on the manipulation of the simple related data that provide the means to develop indicators in a systematic way [23]. These decision-making criteria represent a multi-criteria approach, which must be compared with other processes of several criteria such as the qualification model, the hierarchical analytical process (AHP), and the multiple attribute utility theory. The AHP method is a method that has been applied to deal with problems in different areas, matching the sentences of intangible qualitative criteria with tangible quantitative criteria [24]. The AHP method was initially developed by Saaty [25], with the objective of determining the relative importance of a set of alternatives in a multi-criteria decision problem. There are three main steps in the AHP: design of the hierarchy, a prioritization procedure, and the calculation of the results.
Recent road safety research focuses on the need to improve the “behavior” of drivers [7]. In this sense, we did not give the task of evaluating 5 (five) road users, such as pedestrian, cyclist, motorcyclist, vehicle driver, and freight truck driver.
The study consisted of an evaluation of the previously mentioned users determined by a sample size as a significant representation; this evaluation was applied through a questionnaire designed for each type of user, which was divided into two parts; the first containing information such as general data, socioeconomic level, age and origin of acquired knowledge and accident, second is designed with information such as regulations or recommendations, traffic signals, current situation in road safety and human factors, infrastructure, courtesy and urbanity and applied situations. It should be noted that because each questionnaire was designed by user type there are variants in some questions.
This research also has an important message for society and aims to contribute knowledge on the subject as well as to help in the reduction of traffic accidents in our country. For the execution of this project, we will be using the five steps of methodology to conduct this investigation, we will also describe each of these steps:
The main objective of this stage consists of bounded problems for which the fundamental parameters can be defined. For this activity, some elements are incorporated in the analysis and are obtained from a review of global, national, and local literature in relation to safety education programs and driving tests. As a result of this analysis, a list of specific questions involving six common variables around which two or three user-related questions are written is based on the comparative analysis of the necessary knowledge. Each question was obtained through a review of the literature, the resulting number of questions for each of the users of the infrastructure is as follows: 24 for drivers of vehicles, 24 for freight conductors, 24 for motorcycle users, 21 for bicycle users, and 21 for pedestrians.
Within this stage, once the questions were established in the context of the selected variables two parallel processes will be carried out: the planning for the execution of the survey and the establishment of the weighting factors for the survey questions. The AHP method will be selected for this process, as it represents a structured and computerized process in which comparisons are made on a peer basis, which provides some evidence regarding the assessments made by experts of the Mexican Institute Transport (IMT) and the Autonomous University of Querétaro (UAQ). To obtain the reason scales of the AHP methodology, we compared the set of peer evaluations for each question. The peer comparison was as follows: 1 = equal, 3 = moderate, 5 = strong, 7 = very strong, and 9 = extreme.
In this step, we will determine the size of the sample of users of the road examined which is calculated according to the number of inhabitants of the area [26] and the means of transport chosen by the users, as reported by Obregón and Betanzo [27].
Where
According to Eq. (1), 207 individuals were needed. This sample size considers individuals using the different means of transportation listed in Table 1, where it can be observed that freight vehicle, motorcycle, and bicycle users were the least frequent road users, with 1%, 1%, and 0.7%, respectively. To increase the reliability of these users, the sample size was increased to 20, for each of these modes. The number of validated questionnaires was 254.
Freight vehicle | Car | Motorcycle | Bicycle | Walk | Rest | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Distribution of users by mean of transport (%) | 1.00 | 32.50 | 1.00 | 0.70 | 10.10 | 54.00 | 100 |
Percentage of sample size per type of infrastructure user | 1 | 33 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 54 | 100 |
Estimated sampled | 5 | 148 | 5 | 3 | 46 | 246 | 453 |
Total sampled | 20 | 148 | 20 | 20 | 46 | 0 | 254 |
Sample and user distribution by transport means in Santiago de Querétaro. Own elaboration by the distribution data from Ref. [27].
The specific public areas for applying the survey were selected as a function of the type of transport infrastructure user: (1) public spaces, in which people spend at least 10 minutes completing some paperwork; (2) spaces around public schools, in which students move; and (3) recreational areas, in which users have more time to respond the survey (e.g. malls and public parks).
In this process, we will compile the database obtained through the questionnaires applied to each user evaluated. Subsequently, this database will be analyzed to know the socioeconomic and road users’ knowledge. In the following graph (see Figure 1), the analysis of the variables of road education performed with the results obtained by the surveys in each one of the evaluated users is shown. This shows that the users that resulted with the lowest road knowledge in general are freight drivers (FD) and vehicle drivers (VD), unlike cyclists (C) who obtained the highest level of knowledge. At the same time, we can observe that the motorcyclists (M) obtained a low rating in regulation and recommendations (R&R); in contrast, the pedestrian (P) proved to have low knowledge in courtesy and urbanity (C&U).
Road education grade of each user.
The rest of the variables of road education by its initials are classified in the following form: traffic signals (TS), current situation in road safety and human factor (CRS&HF), infrastructure (Infra), and applied situations (AS).
In the literature, the use of
Due to its ease in its estimation, the
For this model, the dependent variable
This section describes the
Two models were analyzed, in the first model, it can be seen that the significant variable is the income. Unlike Model 2, the most significant variable turned out to be the years with the driver’s license (YDL) that the user has. It is worth mentioning that the variable that resulted most significantly in freight driver to determine the probability of being involved in a road accident is theincome (0.8345) (Table 2).
Model 1 | Model 2 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Coef | SE Coef | Coef | SE Coef | |
Intercept | −3.7912* | 2.0713 | -21.4281 · | 16.6554 |
(−1.830) | (−1.287) | |||
Income | 0.8345* | 0.4865 | — | — |
(1.715) | — | |||
YDL | — | — | −0.7845 · | 0.6018 |
— | (−1.304) |
Logit model, freight driver probability to be involved in a traffic crash.
Note: ***, **, *, · = significance at 1, 5%, 10%, and 15% level.
The first two models were analyzed, showing the following variables that are significant: if the user has a driver’s license (DL) and the age at which the road knowledge was obtained (ARK). In Model 2, the most significant variables were age (Age) and income (Income). It should be noted that the variable that resulted most significantly in vehicle drivers is driver’s license (2.4749) (Table 3).
Model 1 | Model 2 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Coef | SE Coef | Coef | SE Coef | |
Intercept | −1.2401* | 0.6994 | −2.9609** | 1.1795 |
(−1.773) | (−2.510) | |||
Age | — | — | −0.8669*** | 0.2815 |
— | −3.079 | |||
Income | — | — | 0.4208** | 0.1791 |
— | (2.349) | |||
DL | 2.2472*** | 0.6498 | 2.4749** | 1.0788 |
(3.458) | (2.294) | |||
ARK | −0.4100** | 0.1866 | — | — |
(−2.197) | — |
Logit models, vehicle driver probability to be involved in a traffic crash.
Note: ***, **, *, = significance at 1, 5%, and 10% level.
Two models were analyzed in Model 1, we can see the following variables that are significant: the level of road knowledge (LRK) and the courtesy and urbanity (C&U) that the user has. In Model 2, only a significant variable was obtained, which is the years with a driver’s license (YDL) that the user has. It is worth mentioning that the variable that was most significant in motorcyclists to determine the probability of being involved in a road accident is the courtesy and urbanity (27.5462) (Table 4).
Model 1 | Model 2 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Coef | SE Coef | Coef | SE Coef | |
Intercept | −5.9537 · | 3.7085 | −4.8979 · | 3.6383 |
(−1.605) | (−1.346) | |||
LRK | 1.0178 · | 0.7227 | — | — |
(1.408) | — | |||
YDL | — | — | −0.4753 · | 0.2785 |
– | (−1.707) | |||
C&U | 27.5462 · | 17.581 | — | — |
(1.567) | — |
Logit models, motorcyclist probability to be involved in a traffic crash.
Note: ***, **, *, · = significance at 1, 5%, 10%, and 15% level.
For this user, only one model was analyzed, due to the fact that the data obtained show that they were not involved in an accident in the last 12 months. In the following model, the following variables were found to be significant: income (Income) and courtesy and urbanity (C&U) that these users may have on the infrastructure. It should be mentioned that the variable that was most significant in cyclists is the courtesy and urbanity of users (−18.9062) (Table 5).
Model | ||
---|---|---|
Coef | SE Coef | |
Intercept | 0.9418 · | 1.9526 |
(0.482) | ||
Income | 0.5037 · | 0.3304 |
(1.524) | ||
C&U | −18.9062 · | 13.2425 |
(−1.428) |
Logit model, cyclist probability to be involved in a traffic crash.
Note: ***, **, *, · = significance at 1, 5%, 10%, and 15% level.
As we analyzed Model 1, we can see the following variables that were significant: age (Age) and applied situations of users (AS). In contrast to Model 2, the most significant variables were the income (Income), level of road knowledge (LRK) they believe they have, and the age at which they obtained road knowledge (ARK). The significant variables that influence the probability of the pedestrian being involved in a traffic accident are applied situations (−10.2266) and the age at which they obtained road knowledge (−1.2199) (Table 6).
Model 1 | Model 2 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Coef | SE Coef | Coef | SE Coef | |
Intercept | −1.286* | 0.6501 | −6.0174* | 3.2642 |
(−1.859) | (−1.843) | |||
Income | — | — | 0.8987* | 0.4893 |
— | (−1.837) | |||
Age | 0.5841** | 0.2457 | — | — |
(−2.377) | — | |||
LRK | — | — | 1.139* | 0.6655 |
— | (−1.712) | |||
ARK | — | — | −1.2199* | 0.685 |
— | (−1.781) | |||
AS | −10.2266* | 5.358 | — | — |
(−1.909) | — |
Logit model, pedestrian probability to be involved in a traffic crash.
Note: ***, **, *, · = significance at 1, 5%, 10%, and 15% level.
The chapter shows how the statistical
Amongst freight drivers, it was found that the most significant variables influencing the probability of being involved in a road accident are income and years with a driver’s license. Vehicle drivers, age (Age), income (Income), if you have a driver’s license (DL), and the age at which you gained road knowledge (ARK) were found to be the most significant variables to determine the probability of being in a road accident. It was found that for motorcyclists the factors were the level of road knowledge (LRK) they were considered to have, years of driver’s license (YDL) and Courtesy and Urbanity (C&U) as being the most significant variables for these users. For cyclists, it was found that income as well as courtesy and urbanity were the most significant variables. On the other hand, for pedestrians, it was found that the income, age, level of roadway knowledge that they considered to have, the age at which they obtained road knowledge, and the situations applied were the most significant variables.
In the case of motorized means of transport, the following aspects should be considered; age of users, socioeconomic characteristics, age and origin of acquired knowledge, and courtesy and urbanity. In the case of nonmotorized means of transport, the aspects to be taken into account are age, socioeconomic characteristics, age and origin of acquired knowledge, courtesy and urbanity, and the situations applied in this way.
The results of this research can be useful in defining road safety policies. In this sense, Mirzaei et al. [7] suggest that campaigns could be carried out to strengthen educational programs to minimize the probability of road accidents, considering the socioeconomic status and road education aspects of road users.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
As this section deals with legal issues pertaining to the rights of individual Authors and IntechOpen, for the avoidance of doubt, each category of publication is dealt with separately. Consequently, much of the information, for example definition of terms used, is repeated to ensure that there can be no misunderstanding of the policies that apply to each category.
",metaTitle:"Copyright Policy",metaDescription:"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish and distribute publications.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/copyright-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\\n\\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\\n\\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\\n\\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\\n\\nDEFINITIONS
\\n\\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\\n\\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\\n\\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\\n\\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\\n\\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
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LICENSE | \\n\\t\\t\\tUSED FROM - | \\n\\t\\t\\tUP TO - | \\n\\t\\t
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\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t15 March 2022 | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
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\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
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\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, a Scientific Article and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
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\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
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\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \n\t\t\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t15 March 2022 | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
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\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. 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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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The literature source was Web of Science and SSCI, SCI-EXPANDED, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, and ESCI indexes. Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. The major advantages indicated in the articles are “Learning/Academic Achievement,” “Motivation,” and “Attitude”.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Rabia M. Yilmaz",authors:[{id:"225838",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabia",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"rabia-yilmaz",fullName:"Rabia Yilmaz"}]},{id:"63639",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81086",title:"Cooperative Learning: The Foundation for Active Learning",slug:"cooperative-learning-the-foundation-for-active-learning",totalDownloads:3491,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"The role of instructors is evolving from the presenter of information to the designer of active learning processes, environments, and experiences that maximize student engagement. The more active a lesson, the more students tend to engage intellectually and emotionally in the learning activities. Cooperative learning is the foundation on which many of the active learning procedures are based. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. Most of the active learning procedures, such as problem-based learning, team-learning, collaborative learning, and PALS, require that students work cooperatively in small groups to achieve joint learning goals. Cooperative learning is based on two theories: Structure-Process-Outcome theory and Social Interdependence theory. Four types of cooperative learning have been derived: formal cooperative learning, informal cooperative learning, cooperative base groups, and constructive controversy. There is considerable research confirming the effectiveness of cooperative learning. To be cooperative, however, five basic elements must be structured into the situation: positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing.",book:{id:"6929",slug:"active-learning-beyond-the-future",title:"Active Learning",fullTitle:"Active Learning - Beyond the Future"},signatures:"David W. Johnson and Roger T. 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Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"59468",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74344",title:"Virtual and Augmented Reality: New Frontiers for Clinical Psychology",slug:"virtual-and-augmented-reality-new-frontiers-for-clinical-psychology",totalDownloads:2364,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the last decades, the applied approach for the use of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) on clinical and health psychology has grown exponentially. These technologies have been used to treat several mental disorders, for example, phobias, stress-related disorders, depression, eating disorders, and chronic pain. The importance of VR/AR for the mental health field comes from three main concepts: (1) VR/AR as an imaginal technology, people can feel “as if they are” in a reality that does not exist in external world; (2) VR/AR as an embodied technology, the experience to feel user’s body inside the virtual environment; and (3) VR/AR as connectivity technology, the “end of geography’. In this chapter, we explore the opportunities provided by VR/AR as technologies to improve people’s quality of life and to discuss new frontiers for their application in mental health and psychological well-being promotion.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Sara Ventura, Rosa M. Baños and Cristina Botella",authors:[{id:"106036",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Baños",slug:"rosa-maria-banos",fullName:"Rosa Maria Baños"},{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura"},{id:"229056",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Botella",slug:"cristina-botella",fullName:"Cristina Botella"}]},{id:"64583",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81714",title:"Evaluating a Course for Teaching Advanced Programming Concepts with Scratch to Preservice Kindergarten Teachers: A Case Study in Greece",slug:"evaluating-a-course-for-teaching-advanced-programming-concepts-with-scratch-to-preservice-kindergart",totalDownloads:1422,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Coding is a new literacy for the twenty-first century, and as a literacy, coding enables new ways of thinking and new ways of communicating and expressing ideas, as well as new ways of civic participation. A growing number of countries, in Europe and beyond, have established clear policies and frameworks for introducing computational thinking (CT) and computer programming to young children. In this chapter, we discuss a game-based approach to coding education for preservice kindergarten teachers using Scratch. The aim of using Scratch was to excite students’ interest and familiarize them with the basics of programming in an open-ended, project-based, and personally meaningful environment for a semester course in the Department of Preschool Education in the University of Crete. For 13 weeks, students were introduced to the main Scratch concepts and, afterward, were asked to prepare their projects. For the projects, they were required to design their own interactive stories to teach certain concepts about mathematics or physical science to preschool-age students. The results we obtained were more satisfactory than expected and, in some regards, encouraging if one considers the fact that the research participants had no prior experiences with computational thinking.",book:{id:"6936",slug:"early-childhood-education",title:"Early Childhood Education",fullTitle:"Early Childhood Education"},signatures:"Stamatios Papadakis and Michail Kalogiannakis",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8832,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. 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The author also believes the readers can know the relationships among them, and teachers’ professional development can be improved through principal’s instructional supervision and teachers’ KM behaviors.",book:{id:"6674",slug:"contemporary-pedagogies-in-teacher-education-and-development",title:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development",fullTitle:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development"},signatures:"Chien-Chin Chen",authors:[{id:"232569",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Chien Chih",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chien-chih-chen",fullName:"Chien Chih Chen"}]},{id:"75908",title:"From the Classroom into Virtual Learning Environments: Essential Knowledge, Competences, Skills and Pedagogical Strategies for the 21st Century Teacher Education in Kenya",slug:"from-the-classroom-into-virtual-learning-environments-essential-knowledge-competences-skills-and-ped",totalDownloads:519,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"As teachers in Kenya begin to migrate from the classroom to virtual learning spaces following COVID 19 pandemic, there is pressing need to realign Teacher Education to requisite Knowledge, competences, skills, and attitudes that will support online teaching. This chapter explores these needs using a combination of lived experiences and literature review that captured a meta-analysis of research trends on e-learning. While trends in Teacher Education indicate progression towards adoption of technology, there are disparities between the theory and practice. Evidence from recent research and reports; and the recollected experiences confirmed knowledge, competence, skills and pedagogical gaps in the implementation of online learning, that have been exacerbated by COVID-19. The researcher recommends that teacher education should sensitize and train teacher trainees on how to access, analyze and use new knowledge emerging with technology; they also should be coached on how learners learn with technology and on fundamentals of the communication process. Particularly the course on educational technology, should focus on how to create and manage online courses. The 5-stage E-Moderator Model and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) are recommended as effective pedagogical scaffold for online teaching.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo",authors:[{id:"333482",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine Adhiambo",middleName:null,surname:"Amimo",slug:"catherine-adhiambo-amimo",fullName:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo"}]},{id:"75224",title:"Decoding the Digital Gap in Teacher Education: Three Perspectives across the Globe",slug:"decoding-the-digital-gap-in-teacher-education-three-perspectives-across-the-globe",totalDownloads:589,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Educational use of technology is regularly assessed, and results often show a gap between educational policies and what is actually practiced. This chapter will help clarify how teacher educators experience the changing educational contexts due to the digital revolution, how their meaning-making shifts, and how outside forces influence those processes. The results are based on comparative international studies. Central for this study is practitioners’ professional digital competence, their attitudes towards digital technology and the use of digital technology in education. We found that the influence and contribution of digital practice is carried out quite differently across the globe. Our research questions were: How do practitioners experience teaching in a rapidly changing context? How do attitudes change due to top-down governing of education? and What motivates teacher educators to implement digital technology?",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Steinar Thorvaldsen and Siri Sollied Madsen",authors:[{id:"332624",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Siri Sollied",middleName:null,surname:"Madsen",slug:"siri-sollied-madsen",fullName:"Siri Sollied Madsen"},{id:"332626",title:"Prof.",name:"Steinar",middleName:null,surname:"Thorvaldsen",slug:"steinar-thorvaldsen",fullName:"Steinar Thorvaldsen"}]},{id:"75416",title:"Self-Study Research: Challenges and Opportunities in Teacher Education",slug:"self-study-research-challenges-and-opportunities-in-teacher-education",totalDownloads:777,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This article aims to describe what self-study research is, why self-study can be a good approach to teacher educators’ professional development and improvements in practice and highlight some challenges and opportunities in this research approach. In addition, the article will shed light on some methodological aspects related to self-study. Self-study refers to teacher educators who in an intentionally and systematically way examine their practice to improve it, based on a deeper understanding of practice, as well as the context practice takes place. 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Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. 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He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"267257",title:"Dr.",name:"Wame",middleName:null,surname:"Hambira",slug:"wame-hambira",fullName:"Wame Hambira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZhvQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T08:16:15.jpg",institutionString:"Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Botswana",institution:null},{id:"256906",title:"Dr.",name:"Zenebe",middleName:null,surname:"Mekonnen",slug:"zenebe-mekonnen",fullName:"Zenebe Mekonnen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256906/images/20300_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ethiopia"}}}]},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. 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Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"13",type:"subseries",title:"Plant Physiology",keywords:"Plant Nutrition, Plant Hormone, Photosynthesis, Respiration, Plant Stress, Multi-omics, High-throughput Technology, Genome Editing",scope:"Plant Physiology explores fundamental processes in plants, and it includes subtopics such as plant nutrition, plant hormone, photosynthesis, respiration, and plant stress. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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