RT-PCR amplification primers.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6202",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Modified Starches",title:"Applications of Modified Starches",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Starch is the main source of energy to humans, but starch today has other roles in food, packing and pharmaceutical industries like filler, emulsion stabilizer, coating, etc. The native form of starch has application limitations on broad range of temperature, pH and stability, among others, required on several industrial applications. The alternative way is modified starch to improve its properties and uses on several industrial fields. The book explores the use of physical and, chemical modifications and even the unusual modification using ionizing radiation on several sources of starch, the effect of them on the properties and application fields of modified starch.",isbn:"978-1-78923-373-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-372-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-333-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68610",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"applications-of-modified-starches",numberOfPages:78,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9d5fc4b642d47ae13c608ceaa38cf554",bookSignature:"Emmanuel Flores Huicochea and Rodolfo Rendón Villalobos",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6202.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5753,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:24,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:53,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 28th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 18th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 24th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 24th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 24th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"206705",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores Huicochea",slug:"emmanuel-flores-huicochea",fullName:"Emmanuel Flores Huicochea",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206705/images/system/206705.jpg",biography:"Dr. Emmanuel Flores Huicochea obtained his bachelor\\'s degree from Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos and later obtained a Ph.D. degree from the Chemistry Faculty, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México in Engineering in 2013. He has been a full-time researcher and associate professor of postgraduate studies in the Centro de Desarrollo de Productos Bióticos belonging to Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México. Additionally he has contributed to research projects and has published research papers and book chapters. His investigation topics are related to starch modification and use to produce bioplastics added with lignocellulosic to use as a barrier or disposable container.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"190298",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodolfo",middleName:null,surname:"Rendon",slug:"rodolfo-rendon",fullName:"Rodolfo Rendon",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190298/images/7525_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. J. Rodolfo Rendón Villalobos is a Professor at Department of Technological Development, National Polytechnic Institute, Mexico. He obtained his academic degrees of B.S., Biologist, University of Morelos; M. S., Marine Ecology, Center for Scientific Research and Higher Education at Ensenada, and Dr. degree in Polymer Science, Zacatepec Institute of Technology. He has received numerous awards such as National System of Researches Fellow, Associazione Italiana di Scienza e Tecnologia delle Macromolecole Fellow, International Association for Cereal Science and Technology Fellow, American Association of Cereal Chemists Fellow and Leading Scientists of the World. He serves as a reviewer for International Journals in areas such as Polymer, Biochemistry, Food Sciences, Nutrition, Cereals. He is an academic editor of Journal of Applied Life Sciences International. He has more than 50 scientific publications, 6 book chapters and has been a director of 16 research projects.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"915",title:"Polymers",slug:"materials-science-biochemistry-polymers"}],chapters:[{id:"61507",title:"Introductory Chapter: Starch Modifications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78366",slug:"introductory-chapter-starch-modifications",totalDownloads:833,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Emmanuel Flores Huicochea",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61507",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61507",authors:[{id:"206705",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Flores Huicochea",slug:"emmanuel-flores-huicochea",fullName:"Emmanuel Flores Huicochea"}],corrections:null},{id:"58124",title:"Chemical Modification of Starch with Synthetic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72384",slug:"chemical-modification-of-starch-with-synthetic",totalDownloads:1336,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An alternative for solving the environmental pollution problems generated by conventional plastics, it is the chemical modifications graft-type of the starch with synthetic polymers of post-consumer and in situ polymerizations on the starch granules. The starch modified by this methodology allows to counteract the disadvantages of both polymers such as the little or no biodegradability of the synthetic polymer and the poor mechanical properties of the starch. In the present study, a review on the chemical modification of starch with synthetic polymers by grafting is carried out. Factors affecting the copolymerization reactions of starch-g-synthetic polymer were analyzed, for example, their chemical nature, solubility, size and length of polymer chains, temperature, catalyst and starch/amylose content, as well as their characterization chemistry and the potentials applications of this copolymer.",signatures:"Aurelio Ramírez Hernández",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58124",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58124",authors:[{id:"207871",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurelio",surname:"Ramirez Hernández",slug:"aurelio-ramirez-hernandez",fullName:"Aurelio Ramirez Hernández"}],corrections:null},{id:"59112",title:"Evaluation of Styrene Content over Physical and Chemical Properties of Elastomer/TPS-EVOH/Chicken Feather Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72969",slug:"evaluation-of-styrene-content-over-physical-and-chemical-properties-of-elastomer-tps-evoh-chicken-fe",totalDownloads:1150,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A series of styrene-butadiene (SB) elastomer/thermoplastic starch (TPS)/ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH) composites were modified including chicken feathers in its formulation, which have the main component keratin. The composites were prepared by means of melt blending, and their chemical interactions were evaluated by means of infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and their thermal properties as Tg values were investigated using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermal stability using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and viscoelastic properties with dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). The styrene content in SB was changed in 3 levels, and chicken feather content also changed in 3 levels. It was identified that Tg value in composites decreases that is attributed to the styrene content in elastomer and that the chicken feather improved the storage modulus of composite. The thermal stability of composites also was affected by the presence of chicken feathers due its good thermal properties.",signatures:"María Leonor Méndez-Hernández, José Luis Rivera-Armenta, Zahida\nSandoval-Arellano, Beatriz Adriana Salazar-Cruz and María Yolanda\nChavez-Cinco",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59112",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59112",authors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"},{id:"171043",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz Adriana",surname:"Salazar-Cruz",slug:"beatriz-adriana-salazar-cruz",fullName:"Beatriz Adriana Salazar-Cruz"},{id:"186467",title:"MSc.",name:"Maria Yolanda",surname:"Chavez-Cinco",slug:"maria-yolanda-chavez-cinco",fullName:"Maria Yolanda Chavez-Cinco"},{id:"186468",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Leonor",surname:"Mendez-Hernandez",slug:"maria-leonor-mendez-hernandez",fullName:"Maria Leonor Mendez-Hernandez"},{id:"218272",title:"Dr.",name:"Zahida",surname:"Sandoval-Arellano",slug:"zahida-sandoval-arellano",fullName:"Zahida Sandoval-Arellano"}],corrections:null},{id:"59420",title:"Production and Characterization of Starch Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74362",slug:"production-and-characterization-of-starch-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1467,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years, the increasing interest in nanomaterials of natural origin has led to several studies in the area of nano-sized particles from natural polysaccharide polymers, such as cellulose, starch, and chitin. These nanomaterials are used especially as a reinforcement in a polymeric matrix to improve the mechanical and barrier properties of the materials. Starch is a sustainable, abundant biopolymer produced by many plants as a source of storage energy; the main uses of starch are as food and industrial applications. However, recently their use as filler in polymeric matrix (nanoparticles) has attracted attention. Starch nanoparticles (SNPs) can be produced by many methods, using chemical, enzymatic, and physical treatments. The size distribution, crystalline structure, and physical properties of the SNPs may vary from one method to another. These nanoparticles are a very interesting alternatives not only for the polymeric filler but also for the renewability and biodegradability, since they show characteristics inherently of starch granules.",signatures:"Normane Mirele Chaves Da Silva, Fernando Freitas de Lima, Rosana\nLopes Lima Fialho, Elaine Christine de Magalhães Cabral\nAlbuquerque, José Ignacio Velasco and Farayde Matta Fakhouri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59420",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59420",authors:[{id:"214385",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Farayde",surname:"Fakhouri",slug:"farayde-fakhouri",fullName:"Farayde Fakhouri"},{id:"214387",title:"MSc.",name:"Normane",surname:"Chaves",slug:"normane-chaves",fullName:"Normane Chaves"},{id:"214388",title:"Dr.",name:"Rozanna",surname:"Fialho",slug:"rozanna-fialho",fullName:"Rozanna Fialho"},{id:"214390",title:"Dr.",name:"Elaine",surname:"Albuquerque",slug:"elaine-albuquerque",fullName:"Elaine Albuquerque"},{id:"239226",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Freitas De Lima",slug:"fernando-freitas-de-lima",fullName:"Fernando Freitas De Lima"}],corrections:null},{id:"57456",title:"Aspects on Starches Modified by Ionizing Radiation Processing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71626",slug:"aspects-on-starches-modified-by-ionizing-radiation-processing",totalDownloads:967,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Starch is one of the most studied natural polymers due to its widespread and applications as well as to the global interest regarding renewable, cheap, and easy to process resources. The native form of starch is frequently subjected to different processing methods in order to modify its structure and thus to obtain some functional properties suitable in specific industrial applications. Radiation-based method is a “green tool” for modification of natural polymers, such as starch, cellulose, pectin, and chitosan, alginate, having advantages over conventional methods that involve chemical agents associated with environmental toxicity. Radiation processing of natural polymers involves a simple, ecofriendly, and fast process that has harmless feature and provides advanced materials with unique properties. The chapter intends to be an overview of the major findings in the last decade concerning the starches modified by ionizing radiation processing. Therefore, aspects strongly related to changes in physicochemical, functional, and structural properties of starches from various botanical origins are approached. The main key points of this topic are highlighted by a critical evaluation of the mentioned aspects and future perspectives are suggested.",signatures:"Mirela Brașoveanu and Monica-Roxana Nemțanu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57456",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57456",authors:[{id:"12480",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",surname:"Nemtanu",slug:"monica-nemtanu",fullName:"Monica Nemtanu"},{id:"12741",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirela",surname:"Brasoveanu",slug:"mirela-brasoveanu",fullName:"Mirela Brasoveanu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10045",title:"Fillers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aac44d6491e740af99bec2f62aa05883",slug:"fillers",bookSignature:"Emmanuel Flores Huicochea",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10045.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206705",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Flores Huicochea",slug:"emmanuel-flores-huicochea",fullName:"Emmanuel Flores Huicochea"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3043",title:"New Polymers for Special Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd782fff3bea8992c224dfd3280d6cd1",slug:"new-polymers-for-special-applications",bookSignature:"Ailton De Souza Gomes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135416",title:"Dr.",name:"Ailton",surname:"De Souza Gomes",slug:"ailton-de-souza-gomes",fullName:"Ailton De Souza Gomes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1573",title:"Thermoplastic Elastomers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"68733430093bd948f36fd95ab2ff4746",slug:"thermoplastic-elastomers",bookSignature:"Adel Zaki El-Sonbati",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1573.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"98324",title:"Prof.",name:"Adel",surname:"El-Sonbati",slug:"adel-el-sonbati",fullName:"Adel El-Sonbati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"467",title:"Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:"Polymer Nanocomposites",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"carbon-nanotubes-polymer-nanocomposites",bookSignature:"Siva Yellampalli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/467.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62863",title:"Dr.",name:"Siva",surname:"Yellampalli",slug:"siva-yellampalli",fullName:"Siva Yellampalli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2003",title:"Polyurethane",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7391b5a0085d7c0aa0a5c75ee6f275b2",slug:"polyurethane",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2003.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2383",title:"Polyester",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79fd9d6314f8e1abd60d7e21896ce878",slug:"polyester",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. 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\r\n\tWith the discovery of more unconventional heavier crude and alternative hydrocarbon sources, primary upgrading or cracking of the oil into lighter liquid fuel is critical. With increasing concern for environmental sustainability, the regulations on fuel specifications are becoming more stringent. Processing and treating crude oil into a cleaner oil with better quality is equally important. Hence, there has been a relentless and continuous effort to develop new crude upgrading and treating technologies, such as various catalytic systems for more economical and better system performance, as well as cleaner and higher-quality oil.
\r\n\tThis edited book aims to provide the reader with an overview of the state-of-the-art technologies of crude oil downstream processing which include the primary and secondary upgrading or treating processes covering desulfurization, denitrogenation, demetallation, and evidence-based developments in this area.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-681-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-680-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-682-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"808b0ddfb3b92e0636ae44a83ef7dbd9",bookSignature:"Dr. Ching Thian Tye",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11542.jpg",keywords:"Crude Oil Properties, Hydrocracking, Catalytic Cracking, Coking, Visbreaking, Thermal Cracking, Hydroprocessing, Hydrodesulfurization, Desulfurization, Denitrogenation, Demetallation, Dearomatization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Associate professor at the School of Chemical Engineering in Universiti Sains Malaysia and dedicated researcher in fuel-related catalytic process and chemical reaction engineering. 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She has been involved in projects to improve catalysis activities, system efficiency, as well as products quality via different upgrading and treating paths that are related to petroleum and unconventional oil such as heavy oil, used motor oil, spent tire pyrolysis oils as well as renewable resources like palm oil. She serves as a review panel for international & national refereed journals, scientific proceedings as well as international grants.",institutionString:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Giving USA reported that total giving by corporations in 2016 is $18.55 billion. The Committee Encouraging Corporate Philanthropy (CECP, 2017) report that the median total giving by a corporation increased from $20.7 to $21.2 million between 2014 and 2016 among 209 companies surveyed [1]. The median of total giving as a percentage of revenue and that as a percentage of pre-tax profit also increased in this period, despite decreases in total revenue and profits. These contributions are directed to diverse programs that are not relevant to production. For example, they are donated to health and social services, education, environment, disaster relief, and so on. Why would corporations contribute to consumption of public goods from which only consumers receive direct benefits? Corporate responsibility is defined as “actions that appear to further some social good, beyond the interest of the firm and what is required by law,” or alternatively, “actions which reduce the extent of externalized social costs” [2, 3]. Why would a profit-maximizing firm be interested in social corporate responsibility by making charitable contributions?
This is a first survey on the link between corporate social responsibility and firm value. We focus on how and why companies engage in responsible activities and how such activities can increase product demand and shareholder value. The plan of this chapter is to focus on recent developments. In the following three sections, we discuss recent findings in empirical evidences, theoretical models, and trends in practice. It is not intended to be a comprehensive survey of the literature. With this survey, we introduce this growing literature to the audience and hope to bring more research attention to bridging the fields of business strategy and the provision of the public good. We discuss empirical studies that confirm positive impacts of corporate social responsibility on indicators of firm value. Theoretical models provide possible mechanisms and economic foundations of why socially responsible actions can increase demand in different market structures. Responsible actions can be induced by external activists for fear of boycotts. Investors may prefer to hold shares of responsible firms when corporate giving can substitute for personal giving. A public good may be produced jointly with a private good. Models of general industry equilibrium find that demand increase due to the public good may come from the endogenous market effects. Companies in industries with entry barriers, such as health care, banking and finance, and high technology, are among top charitable givers. We discuss how corporate social responsibility is conducted in practice with companies in these industries as examples.
Studies on charitable contributions found considerable evidence that corporate social responsibility has a positive impact on shareholders. Some have suggested that low contribution levels of corporate social responsibility can improve a firm’s value [4], yet too much corporate contributions can pull down shareholder wealth [5]. Most academic research has found that companies that are engaged in corporate social responsibility experience greater stock returns [6, 7] due to establishing greater trust among its employees, customers, and shareholders. The benefits from corporate social responsibility are especially prevalent during times of financial market uncertainty. Investors appear to reward companies that have a history of making charitable contributions with higher stock returns during the financial market crisis of 2008–2009 with between 4 and 7 percentage point returns to companies that exhibited higher corporate social responsibility intensity [8].
Theoretical investigations into corporate social responsibility explore mainly the fact that consumer demand for products increases with the public good. Empirical and experimental evidence on behavior beyond surveys confirm that consumers are willing to pay more for products associated with charity or environmental friendliness [9]. Sample data from eBay auction show that the winning prices for items linked to charitable donations through eBay Giving are higher than those matched items not linked to donations. And this charity premium decreases with item value [10]. Companies market products with environmental labeling, which is a signal hard to verify by consumers. Experimental studies of laboratory markets show that such signaling of a product increases the product’s trade volume even when buyers are subject to various forms of incomplete information [11]. Green products can sell at significant premiums. For example, customers of Patagonia, an outdoor sportswear brand, are willing to pay significant premiums for organic cotton garments [12].
This demand shift induces corporate giving in the environment of imperfect competition. External activists may initiate boycotts successfully when a firm does not conform to responsible standards. Fearing a profit loss from boycotts, the firm will behave responsibly [13]. Consumers may choose joint production of the product and public good over producing separately when the former has a cost advantage [14]. Yet, corporate giving may result in the same equilibrium outcome as individual voluntary contribution [15]. Giving can be an outcome of oligopolistic competition [16]. When investors can choose a portfolio composed of shares of responsible firms and regular firms, those with a higher substitution parameter for corporate giving will buy shares of the responsible firm, and those with a lower parameter would prefer personal giving [17, 18]. The above approaches suffer various degrees of limitations. For example, the warm glow effect is an extra assumption that appeals to personal emotions of giving in addition to public consumption. Portfolio choice models assume fixed profits or arbitrary profit functions, which are not based on market foundations. Recently, models of general industry equilibrium were proposed. The incentive for corporate giving is embedded in the properties of market demand. Consumer loyalty brought by socially responsible actions results in a lower elasticity of demand. This can help a firm to lower the risk in profit stream and induce a premium to its product price [19]. Some private products are complementary to the public good. Stronger complementarity induces higher corporate giving [20].
A few practical reasons cause companies to engage in responsible activities. First, the tax code provides incentives for companies to make charitable contributions as doing so lowers their taxable income. Second, making charitable contributions improves the corporate image. Third, these contributions support the communities in which their employees live making the community a better place to live. Fourth, corporate giving garners respect from the employees. Moreover, these contributions also serve to increase the popularity of the business which may increase consumer loyalty to the company. Fifth, companies involved with social corporate philanthropy receive valuable advertising and marketing from media exposure and positive public attention/recognition.
Given the reasons mentioned above for charitable contributions, which companies are more likely to be involved in corporate social responsibility? We expect that companies which are currently profitable have a greater incentive to provide contributions to social causes. In addition, it may also prove easier to make contributions when a company is profitable than when a company is losing money. The more competitive the industry, the less likely a company is to be profitable which reduces the likelihood of the corporation making charitable contributions. Companies that are not profitable, have no excess profits to share with society in the public good provision. Hence, we expect to find more sustainable corporate giving in monopolistically competitive markets where an existing barrier to entry may allow companies to earn profits which can be shared with society. There are explanations such as tax incentives which provide incentives for companies to make charitable contributions as doing so lowers their taxable income. The highest US corporate tax rate is 35% and when combined with state and local taxes, the actual corporate tax rate is closer to 39%. Hence, for every $1 contributed to charitable causes, the company can save about 39 cents in lower tax payments. We note that in December 2017, the Tax Cut bill reduced the corporate tax rate to 20%.
Beyond tax incentives, we also expect to find companies that are attempting to either improve on their public image or maintain their public image will seek to make charitable contributions and conducting social corporate responsibility seriously. For example, tobacco companies may feel compelled to be a good community citizen. Pharmaceutical companies with blockbuster drugs which generate large corporate profits may also be seeking to improve their corporate image by contributing to social causes. Companies that have recently experienced a public black eye (e.g., United Airlines received lots of negative media attention for forcing a passenger off a plane) may also be seeking to improve their public image by providing contributions to social causes.
Prior work in the academic literature on corporate social responsibility and its impact on shareholders has found that idiosyncratic volatility (the portion of companies’ stock returns that are not explained by the stock market) is positively correlated with aggregate corporate social responsibility. In addition, some researchers believe that corporate social responsibility reduces flexibility to the company in responding to productive shocks and as a result earnings become less predictable hence the rise in idiosyncratic volatility [21].
How does corporate social responsibility impact shareholders? There is a debate in the literature about this issue as some researchers find at low contribution levels corporate social responsibility has a positive impact on firm value, while this relationship turns negative at high levels of corporate social responsibility expenditures [4]. This initially positive and then negative shaped relationship between corporate social responsibility suggests an optimal level of corporate social responsibility, a result documented by Gillan et al. [5].
On the other hand, there is considerable evidence that companies which take a more active role in corporate social responsibility experience higher stock returns by establishing greater trust among employees, customers, and shareholders. While some may question giving a portion of companies profits to charitable causes, these investments provide considerable benefits especially during financial crises. There are numerous studies that have documented the positive benefits from increased social corporate philanthropy. We will highlight a few of those now. Developing a valuation model, prior work finds through model simulation a positive relationship between firm valuation and corporate responsibility. The authors attribute the higher firm valuation to a firm’s commitment to social responsibility contributions which can increase the firm’s probability of survival, improvement in a firm’s intermediate and long-run cash flows, and reduce its cost of capital [6]. In addition, the authors also cite a more loyal customer base, more dedicated and committed employees, less likelihood of confrontations with labor unions, consumer advocacy groups or governmental agencies as reasons for higher probability of survival and lower cost of capital.
Others have also found a positive relationship between shareholder value and corporate social responsibility. Using an instrumental variable approach as an identification strategy, they show that firms that are managed effectively have fewer agency concerns (e.g., protection for minorities, strong pay-for-performance incentives, and less cash abundance) are more likely to participate in corporate social responsibility. These results run counter to the belief that corporate social responsibility contributions are a waste of company resources. Hence, the conclusion that corporate social responsibility can be consistent with maximizing shareholder wealth [7].
Other approaches include examining corporate social responsibility in the areas of environment, social, and governance (ESG) sustainability to determine whether investors (short sellers) take into consideration a companies’ ESG [22]. They find lower valuations, worse future financial performance, lower return on equity and return on assets for firms that have low composite ESG scores. They also find a negative relationship between short selling and ESG composite scores. Hence, their findings suggest that investors (short sellers) are aware and take into consideration corporate social responsibility when making investment decisions.
More research has found evidence that corporate social responsibility is positively linked with higher firm value [23, 24]. This research has found that corporate social responsibility policies are similar for companies that are located close to one another (within the same 3-digit zip code) [23]. Examining CEO power (as measured by CEO pay slice, CEO tenure, and CEO duality), prior work has found CEO power to be negatively correlated with a firm’s participation in corporate social responsibility [24].
Examining stock returns during the 2008–2009 financial crisis, research has found that companies with higher corporate social responsibility intensity had between 4 and 7 percentage points higher stock returns compared to firms that had low social capital [24]. These results highlight the importance of firms establishing trust through engaging in corporate social responsibility. Companies are rewarded for these social capital investments in times when financial markets experience negative shocks.
Other researchers have found higher average stock returns for both US and European companies between 2003 and 2006 for firms that have great corporate social responsibility [25]. They find that the stock returns are larger for the US companies compared to their European counterparts. The robustness of their results that corporate social responsibility holds for companies in both continents lends strength to its importance. When examining large European companies’ finances between 2009 and 2014, further evidence that corporate social responsibility matters in Europe is provided as companies with more efficient investors have higher corporate social responsibility. These results also suggest that corporate social responsibility helps firms address both agency problems and information asymmetry problems [26].
The classical libertarian free-market viewpoint sees that firms should not engage in charitable work with stockholders’ money and should leave public goods to the public sector. Even if investors have the option of contributing to the public good via corporate giving in addition to their personal giving, the private channel is more efficient. Moreover, in a perfectly competitive environment, there is no room for charity which reduces profits. This is a well-known argument by Friedman [27]. What lies under the classical viewpoint are the assumptions of perfect competition and that consumer demand for products is independent of the public good. Friedman’s viewpoint prevails under these conditions, and there is an ideal separation between the private and the public sectors. If firms, however, do benefit from acts of charity, in the form of increased sales, profits and share price, assumptions for a perfectly competition market must not hold.
Therefore, to incorporate corporate social responsibility into profit-maximizing behavior, there need to be demand increases for firms’ products associated with more public good. Moreover, firms operate in a variety of imperfectly competitive market structures. A successful model of corporate social responsibility needs to incorporate imperfect competition and demand shifts by the public good. The literature takes on a few different modeling strategies. We discuss these strands of models comparing the differences in their market structure, production technologies, and components of consumer utility, and how these increase the value of a firm. Firms may engage in socially responsible actions due to external pressure from activists for the fear of boycotts, or responding to incentives internal to the market. Socially responsible actions can take the form of donations to the public, joint production of the public good with products, or a better quality of products. The decision of engaging in socially responsible products may be made by managers in the firm, by investor through holding shares, or by consumers purchasing the products.
Some results in the literature may be driven by modeling features. Consumers consume and firms produce indivisible products; competing firms produce identical products, or the public good is jointly produced with a private product at a fixed ratio. Firms’ roles are suppressed; either they are not making production decisions or their actions are limited by indivisibility and linearity. Hence, there is the equivalence result and that corporate giving crowds out investors’ personal giving. Firms, however, should have the full range of price or quality decisions and also choice of contribution levels. Discussions on the benefits from altruistic business actions and the different ways in which firms execute them can be found in Ref. [9]. Other model features in the literature include, for example, the warm glow effect, which is an extra assumption that appeals to personal emotions of giving in addition to public consumption. Portfolio choice models assume fixed profits or linear profit functions, which are not based on market foundations. It would be fruitful if the interlinked relationships among the public and private goods, being complementary or substitutive, can be further explored. A model that exhibits different degrees of complementarity and substitutability among different goods would be an alternative approach [28, 29].
A firm can expand some output to improve the environment, and such efforts toward the environment will be rewarded by more sales of its product. An activist may also launch a boycott and threaten the firm into a settlement for more contribution toward the environment. This situation is studied as an extensive form game in Ref. [13]. The firm can link amount of giving
In equilibrium, when the firm has a better market opportunity or the pollution level is high in the environment, the activist will spend more efforts and make a higher initial demand. In this type of model, consumer behavior is limited to one product by one firm. The multiple market interactions are assumed away. The part of firm value due to corporate giving is supported by the threat of boycotts.
This type of models have a production technology jointly producing a public good (or alleviating a public bad) along with the product, called a green product. There is a cost advantage for such joint production over separate production if it requires less input to produce the same combination of product and public good. Consumers are making purchasing decisions maximizing utility. A representative consumer can allocate resources endowment into a private product or an environmental public good [14]. When the joint production of public good is engaged, this is called a green market. When there is a cost advantage in joint production, introducing the green market or improving the green technology may discourage private provision of public good. When the joint production is a simple bundling of the private and the public goods, such as direct donations with a unit of product, the equilibrium outcome is the same as consumer voluntary contribution without joint production.
Consumers have diverse preferences. It is realistic to consider two types of consumers: one type care about the public good and the other type do not [15]. Consumers have linear indirect utility
The first term
We can compare three modes of public good provision in this setting: corporate social responsibility, private voluntary contribution, and government provision. There is a crowding out effect on government provision from the other two modes. Corporation social responsibility will produce public goods at exactly the same level as predicted by the standard voluntary contribution equilibrium by individuals. Yet, corporate provision has an advantage when public good is naturally bundled together with the private good in production.
This type of models compare corporate giving in oligopolistic markets following Cournot type and Bertrand type of competition [16]. Firms produce identical products. In Cournot (Bertrand, respectively) competition, firms decide their output quantities (product prices) and leave the price (quantities) to be determined in the market. Firms can link a contribution to the public good with one unit of their products. When linked, a portion of sales is donated to a charitable cause. Both versions of the products, linked and unlinked, are available in the market. Consumers demand only one unit of product, either linked or not. They are heterogeneous in the willingness to pay for private and public goods. All consumers enjoy the public good, and there is a warm glow effect [30] associated with purchasing the linked product. They have an additive utility function containing nonlinked product
In equilibrium, two types of firms compete for socially responsible customers, and this can lead to overprovision of the public good. In this setting, both underprovision and overprovision of public good may occur. There is a tradeoff between efficient private good production and the efficiency of public good provision between these two modes. Namely, there is a higher level of public good under the Cournot competition which also has a higher product price.
The representative investor’s utility function contains a private good and a public good. The private good is produced by two firms. One of them is a socially responsible firm that produces the public good together with the private good. Investors may earn financial returns from shares of these two firms. The public good is composed of corporate giving from the firm and personal giving from investors, which also has a warm glow effect on utility. An investor has a choice of giving to charity directly or buying shares of the socially responsible firm and, hence, engaging in altruistic investing. This is a model of corporate giving versus direct giving through portfolio choice [17]. The link between firm value and its giving is explicit in this type of model, reflected in share price. The limitation to this approach lies in the number of firms and competition among firms.
Upon buying
The investor maximizes utility over the portfolio of shares and direct giving. When the model parameters satisfy a certain condition, shares of the responsible firm trade at a lower price than the neutral firm. When there are heterogeneous investors in the market and some strictly prefer corporate giving to direct giving, the responsible firm will adopt the socially responsible policy of a positive amount of charitable giving in order to maximize share price.
A capital market with heterogeneous investors can be built on this model [18]. Firms have fixed profits and will distribute profits as financial returns. Besides two types of firms, there are also types of investors differentiated by a parameter
The mechanism of managerial decision is added to this model in Refs. [31, 32]. Managerial contracts and personal utility induce managers to engage in socially responsible actions. The market value of the firm has a positive covariance with social returns. Firm’s profit function
Some results in the approaches discussed above may be driven by their modeling features. Consumers consume and firms produce indivisible products; competing firms produce identical products; or the public good is jointly produced with a private product at a fixed ratio. The equivalence result between corporate giving and personal giving comes from these modeling features that suppresses the roles of firms. Either they are not making production decisions or their actions are limited by indivisibility and linearity. Firms in an ideal model, however, should have the full choice range of price, quantity, and also contribution levels. Discussions on the benefits from altruism and the ways in which it is executed in corporations are provided in Ref. [9]. Other model limitations include, for example, that the warm glow effect is an extra assumption that appeals to personal emotions of giving in addition to public consumption. Portfolio choice models assume fixed profits or arbitrary profit functions, which are not based on market foundations. We introduce two recent approaches that incorporate a market of many firms.
Socially responsible actions by a firm can bring customer loyalty from those who care about the public; this leads to less elastic demand. With a lower demand elasticity, firm’s profit is less sensitive to market fluctuations and provides a less risky stream of financial returns to investors. Thus, corporate social responsibility is a tool of risk management [19]. There are two types of products in the market. All products
A firm can choose to invest in a production technology for a product among the continuous variety of products. It takes a fixed cost investing in one of these technologies. The fixed cost of socially responsible technology follows a distribution with a lower bound that is smaller than the fixed cost of the regular products. After acquiring the technology, production has constant returns to scale. Investors are endowed with stocks and cash. They allocate endowment into consumption, stock holdings, and bonds. In period one, investment decisions are made and there is an aggregate consumption good which is not differentiated. It is found that responsible products sell at a premium to regular products. Shares of responsible firms trade on average higher than those of regular firms.
Another approach explores the interlinked relationships among the public and private goods, being complementary or substitutive. Consumer utility contains multiple private goods that exhibit different degrees of complementarity and substitutivity with the public good [28, 29]. There is no cost advantage in public good production tied with any product. The public good has differential effects on private products; it may be complementary to one and substitutive to another. For example, roads will increase the marginal utility of automobiles; this is a public good complementary to private products. On the other hand, national defense and police force will decrease the marginal utility of privately owned firearms; this is a public good substitutive to private products. PBS programs will increase the marginal utility of television sets and at the same time decrease the marginal utility of television programs. Without assumptions like cost advantage in joint production or indivisibility, complementarity is enough to explain the endogenous demand increase caused by a public good. When there are products that are complementary or substitutive to the public good in various degrees, it is apparent that firms whose products that are more complementary to the public good will face demand increases with a higher public good. Thus, there are incentives to contribute to the public. Firms whose products that are more substitutive to the public good suffer a demand decrease with a higher public good level.
A model of monopolistic competition with differentiated products and a public good is presented in Ref. [20]. Individuals and firms contribute at the same time but for different reasons. Individuals are looking to enjoy the public good directly, while firms contribute to induce demand increases. Consumers and firms can choose quantities freely in the market (products are not indivisible); corporate giving is a separate decision from production (do not need to be joint production). There is a profile of private goods
A firm chooses quantity as strategy, find corresponding prices on the demand curve, and then announce prices in the market. This is an approach advocated by Refs. [33, 34]. By analyzing the derivative of the profit function with respect to
In practice, companies engage in responsible activities for a few main reasons. First, the tax code provides incentives for companies to make charitable contributions as doing so lowers their taxable income. The highest US corporate tax rate is 35% and when combined with state and local taxes, the actual corporate tax rate is closer to 39%. Hence, for every $1 contributed to charitable causes, the company can save about 39 cents in lower tax payments. Second, making charitable contributions improves the corporate image. In addition, these contributions support the communities in which their employees live making the community a better place to live. Corporate giving garners respect from the employees. Third, these contributions support the communities in which their employees live making the community a better place to live. Fourth, corporate giving garners respect from the employees. Klara Kozlov, head of corporate clients at the Charities Aid Foundation cites companies desire to “do good” as motivation for corporate gifts. Moreover, these contributions also serve to increase the popularity of the business which may increase consumer loyalty to the company. Fifth, companies involved with social corporate philanthropy receive media exposure and positive public attention/recognition. Hence providing the company with valuable advertising and marketing.
There are numerous examples of companies who are involved in corporate social responsibility. We provide some examples here, highlighting some of the companies that have recently been recognized for their generosity. In the United States, the Motley Fool in 2017 ranked the 12 most charitable US companies with health care, bank, and technology companies leading the list [35]. While there were two notable exceptions in Exxon and Walmart on the leading charitable company list, the remaining companies were comprised of health care, banking, and technology. The key component that drives corporate donations is company profitability. Companies that are not profitable or are losing money do not have money to give away for public goods. The US companies which dominate the most charitable list of Motley Fool share a common attribute - there are considerable barriers to entry, for example, the pharmaceutical companies on the list are Pfizer, Gilead, Merck, Bristol Myers Squibb, and Eli Lily, all have block buster drug patents that generate millions in profits for the companies. These health care companies may be trying to change the narrative when it comes to negative media attention about outlandish drug prices. For example, President Donald Trump tweeted on March 7, 2017: “I am working on a new system where there will be competition in the drug industry. Pricing for the American people will come way down!” [36].
In the technology industry, Alphabet (parent company of Google), Microsoft, and Cisco also appear on the Motley Fool’s 12 most charitable US companies list. These high-technology companies are highly profitable and due to their market dominant position they possess, market power. Moreover, their leading position creates a significant barrier to entry for competitors. What is driving these companies to make charitable contributions? One research study found that people received greater happiness from giving away money to others rather than spending money on themselves [37]. In corporate giving, Alphabet has taken this approach in its corporate gifts as it has provided money to its clients to donate to charity, where the client chooses who receives the donation via the nonprofit web site. Such actions by Alphabet promote Google’s mantra of “don’t be evil” while earning loyalty and respect of its employees and clients.
Financial companies Goldman Sachs and Wells Fargo appear on the charitable list as well. It is ironic that Wells Fargo appears on the most charitable list, given since 2009 to 2015 Wells Fargo created 3.5 fake bank and credit card accounts. In an effort to re-gain consumer and public trust Wells Fargo may feel compelled to continue to make charitable contributions in an attempt to change the perception of Wells Fargo. The financial industry also has significant barriers to entry with the market structure being monopolistically competitive. Charitable contributions by financial institutions are not limited to the United States, since in the United Kingdom the industry sector with the largest average cash and in-kind gifts occurs in the finance industry [38].
One of the most competitive industries in the United States is the airline industry. Since September 11, 2001 there have been 12 chapter 7 filings (company closes) and 29 chapter 11 filings (re-organization). Of the four largest US carriers today, three of them (American Airlines, United Airlines, and Delta Airlines) were at some point in Chapter 11 bankruptcy since 2001. The remaining exception is Southwest Airlines which has never declared bankruptcy. Hence, we should expect to find larger charitable contributions for Southwest Airlines compared to its peers. In 2017, Southwest Airlines provided nearly 39,000 free flights for a combined value of more than $19 million in total charitable gifts [39]. In 2016, American Airlines provided $23.5 million in total charitable giving [40].
Next, we examine reasons beyond profitability to explain corporate social responsibility. Some businesses may choose to make charitable contributions in lieu of advertising/marketing expenditures as these businesses may see the chance for possible public recognition as “free” advertising and marketing. For example, Texas Roadhouse operates in such a fashion as explained by David Hollinger (Managing Partner of Texas Roadhouse in Greenville, NC) since Texas Roadhouse views making charitable contributions to non-profit organizations as a “part of the fabric of the community. In return, we hope that people choose to eat at our restaurant” (interview with author January 11, 2018).
Additional evidence that corporations make charitable contributions as a form of advertising comes from outside the restaurant industry. Consider Allstate Insurance company which makes a contribution to the universities general scholarship fund for each field goal that lands in a net with the Good Hands logo of Allstate. There are 90 college and university stadiums as well as championship and bowl game events that carry the Good Hands logo. Moreover, the television broadcasters also mention the contribution that Allstate is making to the scholarship fund. Clearly, Allstate is receiving “free” advertising for these contributions. Upon further examination of the Allstate contributions to the Good Hands Field Goal Net Program for the 10-year period 2005–2014, it has been found that Allstate contributed $3.4 million to scholarships or about $340,000 per year in scholarships [41]. Given that 90 universities carry the Good Hands logo on their nets, this translates to about $3778 per school per year which would cover about 50% of one semester tuition and fees for an instate resident to attend the University of Michigan. Given that the cost of a 30-section television ad on ESPN during the National Championship game in 2016 is $1 million [42], it is no wonder that Allstate has chosen the “free” advertising of the Good Hands Field Goal Net Program.
Companies may feel compelled to undertake socially responsible actions for a variety of reasons including to lower their taxable earnings, to become a fabric of the community, to encourage consumer loyalty, foster employee pride/satisfaction, and to receive “free” advertising/publicity. Companies that are more inclined to make charitable contributions may also have more profits to share with the community. Moreover, the most charitable companies in the USA possess the characteristics of being both highly profitable and these companies have a market dominant position in their industry, which may explain why high technology, big pharmaceutical companies, and large financial institutions predominantly comprise the most charitable companies in the United States. There is overwhelming evidence provided on both continents that firms which engage in corporate social responsibility have higher firm valuations. At the heart of these companies that voluntarily choose to go above and beyond by making contributions to society is the creation of trust. This trust encourages loyalty among consumers and loyalty among employees. When financial difficulty does arise, this loyalty that companies have accrued through being good corporate citizens gets repaid in terms of better stock market performance during the financial crisis.
Empirical studies confirm the positive impact of corporate social responsibility on firm value. Yet, there are different types of socially responsible actions, such as environmental and social compliance, donation to charitable causes, and public good linked products. Their impacts may realize in investors’ expectation of a better company perspective or in consumer’s preferences bringing in a higher product demand. Future research may aim to identify and distinguish the quantitative effects from different responsible actions and different channels. Theoretical models study in various market situations, how corporate social responsibility affect firms’ value and competition. In the market, a firm’s decision to contribute to the public is influenced by the interactions among consumers, investors, managers, and activists. The firm contributes to the public good through joint production of monetary giving. Firms compete in market structures of different degrees of competitiveness. Socially responsible actions can increase firm value via demand increases. These demand increases are usually exogenously assumed without a market foundation. Recent approaches embed demand increase in the competition among firms in the full market of industry equilibrium. Corporate giving is endogenized as one among other market strategies of firms, like price and output quantity. This research direction is fruitful and there is a need for empirically testable models. In a competitive market, perfectly or imperfectly, we can examine and test the substitutability of corporate social responsibility for other market strategies. For example, spending on corporate giving may crowed out investment, advertisement, and product development. We also need a well-defined welfare comparison for the effects of increased public good and efficiency loss in the market. This is a growing area that bridges business strategy and the provision of public good.
Because of rapid economic development, more than 30 million tons of wet sewage sludge (SS) are produced in China every year [1]. SS contains lots of organic pollutants, microorganisms, eggs of parasitic organisms, and heavy metals (HMs), which makes it an obvious threat to ecological environment [2]. Conventional disposal technologies such as landfill, incineration, and agricultural application encounter many environmental problems; so, they cannot be widely used [3]. Especially, the direct application of SS in agricultural production is strictly banned due to the problem of pathogens and contaminants [4].
\nThe pyrolysis of SS is a technology in which SS is heated under zero or low-oxygen condition to produce sewage sludge biochar (SSB) and pyrolysis oil and gas. After conversion into SSB, all the pathogens and organic pollutants in SS are eliminated and the volume of SS is significantly reduced [5]. Also, the oil and gas produced by pyrolysis can save the input of external energy as supplemental fuel [6]. Apart from the applications mentioned above, SSB has numerous special advantages in improving soil quality and crop growth. First of all, biochar possesses a porous structure that can influence the soil’s structure, porosity, particle size distribution, and density, which contributes to increasing the soil water-holding capacity and microbial activity [7]. Furthermore, biochar is alkaline and can improve the pH of soil [8]. Finally, biochar is rich in plenty of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, etc., exhibiting a positive effect on plant growth [9]. Song et al. [10] studied the influence of pyrolysis temperature and proportion of SSB on garlic yield and HMs accumulation and found that the SSB produced at 450°C and its addition at 25% could improve the yield of garlic well and inhibit HMs accumulation in garlic. Khan et al. [4] investigated the effects of SSB on rice yield, HMs bioaccumulation, and greenhouse gas emission and found that SSB amendments increased the pH, total nitrogen, organic carbon, and available nutrients of soil and crop yield, and decreased HMs bioavailability and N2O emission. In addition, there are a large amount of studies on the influence of SSB on plant growth and HMs migration that have proved the positive effects of biochar addition [11, 12, 13].
\nBased on the pilot-scale plant on pyrolysis of SS with capacity 30 t/d in Xiamen, and our previous studies, it was found that the HMs in SS were converted into a more stable state after hydrothermal pretreatment combined with pyrolysis and the obtained SSB could be used to prepare ceramsite [14, 15, 16]. However, the study of the influence of SSB from the pyrolysis of hydrothermally treated SS on the microbial environment of soil during planting is still indispensable. On the one hand, the soil microorganisms are involved in many biochemical processes, including the degradation and conversion of organic matter, the mineralization and immobilization of nutrients, and the formation and stabilization of soil aggregates [17]. On the other hand, the soil microorganisms are also a repository of soil nutrients and an important nutrition source for plant growth [18]. In this study, we chose the common and easy-to-grow Chinese cabbage as the planting crop to investigate the influence of SSB from the pyrolysis of hydrothermally treated SS on the physical and chemical properties and microbial environment of soil before and after planting. Furthermore, the growth status of Chinese cabbage and HMs availability were also studied.
\nThe used soil was collected from a farmland near an abandoned mine in Longyan, Fujian Province, China. The soil was sieved and homogenized after collection. SS was obtained from a wastewater treatment plant in Xiamen, China. Then, the SS was disposed via hydrothermal treatment at 160°C for 1 hour, and followed by filtration and pyrolysis by a rotary furnace at 500°C for 3 hours to obtain SSB in the pilot-scale plant in Xiamen, Fujian Province [19]. The high-quality and early raping NO.5 seed of Chinese cabbage was chosen as the testing plant.
\nThe Chinese cabbage pot experiment was carried out in a greenhouse located in Xiamen, Fujian province, China (24.36 N–118.3 E) and the height and diameter of the polyethylene pot were 15 and 20 cm, respectively. To investigate the influence of SSB on the properties of soil, Chinese cabbage growth, and HMs availability, SSB was added with an SSB-to-soil mass ratio of 1:9 (10% SSB) in pot and the pure soil served as a control group. The total weight of soil or treated soil in each pot was 5.0 kg. Every pot experiment was assessed by four replicates. After seeding, each pot was treated with watering regularly and thinned out to ensure that only one Chinese cabbage grows. When the pot experiment finished (about 55 days), the soil and Chinese cabbage were collected to conduct relative tests, respectively.
\nThe pH was measured according to the agricultural trade standard of China (NY/T 1377-2007) and the solution was analyzed with a UB-7 pH meter (Ultra Basic, US). Electrical conductivity (EC) was measured according to the national environmental protection standard of China (HJ 802-2016) and the solution was analyzed with a Cond 3110 conductometer (Teltracon 325, Germany). Surface area was calculated by the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method after testing using nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms with an apparatus (TriStar II 3020 V1.01, USA). Elemental analysis was conducted by an elemental analyzer (Vario MAX, Germany). The concentrations of nutrient elements were analyzed by digestion in an acid mixture [15] and the solution was determined by ICP-OES (Optima 7000DV, USA). The concentrations of available HMs in the sample were measured by the DTPA extraction method [20] and the solution was determined by ICP-MS (Agilent 7500cx, USA). The surface functional group of SSB was analyzed by FTIR spectrometry (iS10, Thermo, USA) and the morphology of SSB was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM, S-4800, Hitachi, Japan).
\nThe dehydrogenase (DHA) activity in soil was measured by the triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) spectrophotometric method [21]. The urease activity was measured by Nesslerization [22]. The molecular target genes of bacteria, fungi, ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA), and ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) were measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis [23] and the information of primers is shown in Table 1. A standard curve was obtained by tenfold dilution of recombinant plasmid acquired in each molecular target gene of the above microorganisms and each sample was repeated three times. The SYBR® Premix Ex Taq™ kit from Bao Biological Engineering (Dalian, China) Co. Ltd. was used for analysis at Roche Lightcycler® 480 PCR. The quantitative PCR reaction system was 20 μL, including 1 μL of tenfold diluted DNA template, 10 μL of SYBR® Premix Ex Taq™, 0.2 μL (20 μM) of forward and reverse primers respectively, and 8.6 μL of sterilized distilled water. The procedure of PCR consisted of denaturation at 95°C for 5 min, denaturation at 94°C for 30 s, annealing at 55°C for 45 min, and extension at 72°C for 1 min, followed by 40 cycles of denaturation, annealing, and extension at 72°C for 10 min.
\nTarget gene | \nPrimer name | \nPrimer sequence (5′–3′) | \n
---|---|---|
Bacteria 16S rRNA | \n58F | \nCCTACGGGAGGCAGCAG ATTCCGCGGCTGCTGGCA | \n
517R | \n||
Fungi 18S iRNA | \nITS3 | \nGCATCGATGAAGAACGCAGC TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC | \n
ITS4 | \n||
AOA amoA | \nArch-amoAF | \nSTAATGGTCTGGCTTAGACG GCGGCCATCCATCTGTATGT | \n
Arch-amoAR | \n||
AOB amoA | \namoA-1F | \nGGGGTTTCTACTGGTGGT CCCCTCKGSAAAGCCTTCTTC | \n
amoA-2R | \n
RT-PCR amplification primers.
The physical and chemical properties of the original soil and SSB are listed in Table 2. SSB has higher pH, EC, and BET surface area compared with the soil, which shows that the addition of SSB can improve the physicochemical properties of soil, such as pH, salinity content, water retention, the adsorption of nutrient, and microbial population [24]. In particular, the change of pH in soil indicates the occurrence of some chemical and biological reactions. The contents of C, H, N, and S in biochar depend on the feedstock and pyrolysis condition. The H/C and C/N ratios represent the aromaticity of biochar and the capacity for organics to release inorganic N [10, 25]. In this study, the H/C ratio of SSB is lower (<0.1) than that of the soil, which suggests that SSB has higher aromaticity and can exist in the soil for many years [25]. However, the higher C/N ratio of SSB inhibits the release of inorganic N compared with the original soil. In addition, SSB contains higher concentrations of K, Na, P, and Ca compared with the soil, which indicates that the addition of SSB can increase the fertility of soil.
\nParameters | \nSoil | \nSSB | \n
---|---|---|
pH | \n5.32 ± 0.03 | \n10.00 ± 0.04 | \n
EC (μS/cm) | \n203.67 ± 2.22 | \n871.33 ± 3.78 | \n
Moisture (%) | \n0.26 ± 0.00 | \nNDa | \n
BET surface area (m2/g) | \n0.51 | \n13.05 | \n
Carbon (%) | \n3.08 ± 0.02 | \n7.84 ± 0.02 | \n
Hydrogen (%) | \n1.04 ± 0.03 | \n0.63 ± 0.03 | \n
Nitrogen (%) | \n0.26 ± 0.00 | \n0.34 ± 0.00 | \n
Sulfur (%) | \n3.96 ± 0.04 | \n3.82 ± 0.08 | \n
K (mg/g) | \n8.37 ± 0.05 | \n20.33 ± 0.06 | \n
Na (mg/g) | \n0.86 ± 0.01 | \n10.57 ± 0.05 | \n
P (mg/g) | \n1.51 ± 0.02 | \n7.28 ± 0.05 | \n
Ca (mg/g) | \n0.03 ± 0.00 | \n39.66 ± 0.11 | \n
Physical and chemical properties of soil and SSB.
ND, not detected.
The FTIR spectra of SSB is shown in Figure 1a. The identified bands are assigned to the stretching vibrations of hydroxyl functionalities (3446 cm−1), amide bond stretching (1637 cm−1), bending vibration of methyl group (1385 cm−1), carbon-oxygen single bond in phenol (1186 cm−1), and carbon-oxygen double bond (1050 cm−1) [10, 25, 26]. In addition, the stretching vibrations between 600 and 800 cm−1 can be related to the aromatic and heteroaromatic compounds, and the bands below 600 cm−1 can be attributed to the organic and inorganic halogen compounds [25]. The SEM micrograph of SSB is shown in Figure 1b. There are lots of lumps and holes in the SSB, and the size of holes is very large. These results indicate that the SSB with abundant functional groups and pore structure can also change the physical and chemical properties of soil and provide a survival shelter for microorganism [27].
\n(a) FTIR spectra and (b) SEM micrograph of SSB.
The effects of SSB addition on the pH and EC of soil are shown in Figure 2. The pH of the control soil increased remarkably after planting, which indicated that the acid organic matter in soil was decomposed during Chinese cabbage planting [28]. Also, the addition of SSB adjusted the pH of soil from acidic to neutral and the pH increased from 7.12 to 7.49 after planting. Figure 2b shows that the EC of the control soil increased slightly after cabbage planting, but it is just 382 μS/cm and close to the EC of the soil added with 10% SSB before planting. The EC of the soil with 10% SSB addition increased from 364 to 644 μS/cm after planting and the increase rate was 76.92%. When EC is lower than 500 μS/cm or higher than 2000 μS/cm, the phenomenon of lacking nutrient or seedling burning will occur during planting [29]. Therefore, adding SSB in soil could adjust the EC to a suitable range (500–2000 μS/cm) for plant growth. The above results are because a number of alkaline ions such as hydrocarbon anion, bicarbonate, carbonate, and phosphate in SSB were released during planting and increased the pH and EC of soil effectively [30, 31].
\nEffects of SSB addition on the pH (a) and EC (b) of soil.
DHA plays a key role in the decomposition process of organic matter and can be used as an indicator for the evaluation of total cell oxidation activity [32]. Therefore, DHA activity is used to characterize the intensity of microbial activity. Urease can convert urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide or ammonium carbonate, and it reflects the intensity of nitrogen relevant reactions in the soil system [33]. The effects of SSB addition on the concentrations of DHA and urease in soil are shown in Figure 3. The addition of SSB increased the concentrations of DHA and urease in soil before planting, which rose from 3.83 μg IPTF/(g h) and 16.53 μg NH3-N/(g h) to 14.33 μg IPTF/(g h) and 32.00 μg NH3-N/(g h), respectively. Whether SSB is added or not, the concentrations of DHA and urease in soil increased after planting, and the concentrations of the DHA and urease in the soil added with 10% SSB reached 3.60 and 1.67 times as high as those of the control soil. These results implied that adding SSB could improve the activities of DHA and urease in soil, promote anaerobic microbial growth and synthesis of enzymes, and enhance microbial activity. This is because SSB influenced enzyme activity with the changes of physiochemical properties (especially pH) in soil, and the adsorption of enzymes and soil organic matter on SSB also changed the kinetic properties of enzyme activity [17].
\nEffects of SSB addition on the concentrations of DHA (a) and urease (b) in soil.
In the planting process, bacteria play an important role in the transformation of organic and inorganic matter in soil, while fungi have significant effects on the carbon and energy cycle in soil [18]. The bacteria and fungi counts are important indicators of microbial activity intensity, and effectively reflect whether the environment of soil is suitable for crop growth or not. The effects of SSB addition on the concentrations of bacteria and fungi in soil are shown in Figure 4. The addition of SSB increased the concentrations of bacteria and fungi in soil before planting, which rose from 2.43 × 106 and 0.77 × 106 CFU/g to 20.60 × 106 and 3.67 × 106 CFU/g, respectively. Whether SSB is added or not, the concentrations of both bacteria and fungi in soil increased after planting, and the bacteria and fungi concentrations in soil added with 10% SSB reached 2.84 and 2.62 times as high as those of the control soil, respectively. These results showed that the addition of SSB had beneficial modulation effects on the concentrations of bacteria and fungi during planting, and it could effectively enhance the microbial property of soil.
\nEffects of SSB addition on the concentrations of bacteria (a) and fungi (b) in soil.
AOA and AOB associated with the nitrification of soil are called the nitrifying bacteria. The higher concentrations of AOA and AOB can improve the conversion of other forms of nitrogen into available nitrogen fertilizer so as to enhance the fertility of soil and promote plant growth [34]. The effects of SSB addition on the concentrations of the AOA and AOB in soil are displayed in Figure 5. The addition of SSB increased the concentrations of AOA and AOB in soil before planting, which rose from 4.83 × 106 and 2.47 × 106 amoA copies/g to 8.63 × 106 and 6.07 × 106 amoA copies/g, respectively. Whether SSB is added or not, the concentrations of both AOA and AOB in soil increased after planting, and the AOA and AOB concentrations in soil on adding 10% SSB reached 1.76 and 2.23 times as high as those of the control soil, respectively. These results show that SSB addition could effectively increase the concentrations of microorganisms associated with soil nitrification before and after planting.
\nEffects of SSB addition on the concentrations of AOA (a) and AOB (b) in soil.
To sum up, the influence of SSB on the microbiological property are as follows: on the one hand, SSB stored and supplied a large amount of nutrients by the bonding of nutrient cations and inorganic anions in soil with its surface functional groups; on the other hand, SSB changed the physiochemical property of soil and reduced the toxicity of contaminants to soil microorganisms [17].
\nThe weights of the aboveground and underground parts of Chinese cabbage are considered as important indicators that directly reflect the influence of the physical, chemical, and microbial properties of soil on plant growth. Figure 6 shows the effects of adding SSB on the weight of Chinese cabbage. The weights of the aboveground and underground parts of Chinese cabbage increased with 10% SSB added to soil. The weight of edible aboveground part was 5.82 times and that of the underground part was 8.67 times as much as those from the control soil. These results can be explained by the fact that the addition of SSB brought the pH and EC of the original soil to suitable ranges for plant growth, and that the increases of the DHA activity, urease activity, bacteria concentration, and fungi concentration provided appropriate metabolic environment for soil microorganisms. This favorable metabolic environment further improved the microbial characteristics and forms a virtuous cycle [17]. In addition, SSB contains nutritive elements like K, P, and N at high concentrations, which increased the fertility of barren soil [9]. Therefore, the weights of Chinese cabbage increased significantly after SSB addition. This also showed that SSB had a positive effect on the growth of crop in barren soil.
\nEffects of adding SSB on the weight of Chinese cabbage planted.
Figure 7 shows the concentrations of HMs in the aboveground and underground parts of Chinese cabbage, respectively. For the aboveground part, the addition of SSB to soil significantly decreased the concentrations of Mn and Cd, and reduced the toxicity of Chinese cabbage in the edible part compared with the control group. For the underground part, the addition of SSB significantly decreased the concentrations of Mn, Pb, and Cd compared with the control group, which implied that the addition of SSB in soil inhibited the migration of HMs from soil to the underground part of Chinese cabbage.
\nEffects of adding SSB on the concentrations of HMs in aboveground part (a) and underground part (b) of Chinese cabbage planted.
It is widely accepted that the HMs in plant are entirely from the migration of the available HMs in the mixed soil during planting [4, 35]. Therefore, the concentrations of available HMs in soil before and after planting were measured to investigate the influence of SSB addition on the transfer of HMs, as shown in Table 3. The change rate of available HM concentration in soil after planting compared with that before planting was defined as:
\nHM | \nCondition | \nBefore planting (μg/g) | \nAfter planting (μg/g) | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|
Cr | \nControl | \n8.24 ± 0.01 | \n8.20 ± 0.38 | \n−0.49 | \n
10% SSB | \n6.80 ± 0.06 | \n6.68 ± 0.29 | \n−1.76 | \n|
Mn | \nControl | \n0.35 ± 0.02 | \n0.34 ± 0.02 | \n−2.86 | \n
10% SSB | \n0.34 ± 0.00 | \n0.31 ± 0.01 | \n−8.82 | \n|
Ni | \nControl | \n7.59 ± 0.02 | \n7.92 ± 0.03 | \n+4.35 | \n
10% SSB | \n7.10 ± 0.09 | \n7.08 ± 0.68 | \n−0.28 | \n|
Cd | \nControl | \n4.88 ± 0.11 | \n5.57 ± 0.22 | \n+14.14 | \n
10% SSB | \n4.62 ± 0.47 | \n4.75 ± 0.15 | \n+2.81 | \n|
Pb | \nControl | \n0.36 ± 0.05 | \n0.35 ± 0.06 | \n−2.78 | \n
10% SSB | \n0.27 ± 0.03 | \n0.25 ± 0.02 | \n−7.41 | \n
Concentrations and change rates of available HMs in soil before and after planting.
where, \n
The addition of SSB decreased the concentrations of available Cr, Mn, Ni, Cd, and Pb in soil before planting, which is mostly because the fractions of HMs in SSB are more stable than those in soil. After planting, the concentrations of available Cr, Mn, and Pb in control soil decreased by 0.49, 2.86, and 2.78%, respectively, which indicated that these HMs were taken up by cabbages or migrated to more stable fractions during planting. Compared with the control soil, the addition of SSB reduced the transfer of the available HMs in soil during planting and the \n
In order to investigate the effects of SSB addition on the migration of the available HMs in soil, the conversion rate of the content of available HM was defined as:
\nwhere \n
Condition | \n\n\n | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cr | \nMn | \nNi | \nCd | \nPb | \n|
Control | \n−0.46 | \n66.65 | \n4.35 | \n14.40 | \n−0.97 | \n
10% SSB | \n−1.62 | \n302.60 | \n−0.26 | \n3.50 | \n8.42 | \n
Conversion rates of the content of available HMs.
SSB has better pH and EC, more developed pore structure, and higher concentrations of nutrient elements compared with the original soil. The addition of SSB could adjust the pH of mine soil from acidic to neutral and increase the EC of soil. Also, the addition of SSB increased the concentrations of enzyme and microorganisms. Therefore, the changes of the physiochemical property and microbial environment improved the growth of Chinese cabbage. The edible aboveground and the underground parts of cabbage in SSB-amended soil weighed 5.82 times and 8.67 times as much as those from the control group. Moreover, the addition of SSB promoted the migration of Cr, Ni, and Cd from the available state to the more stable state due to the special properties of SSB and changes of soil environment. To sum up, SSB has positive effects on the planting in barren soil.
\nThe authors would like to thank Xiang Zhang for his valuable help. This work was supported by financial support received from the Industry Leading Key Projects of Fujian Province (2015H0044), the China-Japanese Research Cooperative Program (2016YFE0118000), the Scientific and Technological Major Special Project of Tianjin City (16YFXTSF00420), and the Key Project of Young Talent of IUE, CAS (IUEZD201402).
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Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{id:"82405",title:"Does Board Structure Matter in CSR Spending of Commercial Banks? 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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