\r\n\tAnimal food additives are products used in animal nutrition for purposes of improving the quality of feed or to improve the animal’s performance and health. Other additives can be used to enhance digestibility or even flavour of feed materials. In addition, feed additives are known which improve the quality of compound feed production; consequently e.g. they improve the quality of the granulated mixed diet.
\r\n
\r\n\tGenerally feed additives could be divided into five groups: \r\n\t1.Technological additives which influence the technological aspects of the diet to improve its handling or hygiene characteristics. \r\n\t2. Sensory additives which improve the palatability of a diet by stimulating appetite, usually through the effect these products have on the flavour or colour. \r\n\t3. Nutritional additives, such additives are specific nutrient(s) required by the animal for optimal production. \r\n\t4.Zootechnical additives which improve the nutrient status of the animal, not by providing specific nutrients, but by enabling more efficient use of the nutrients present in the diet, in other words, it increases the efficiency of production. \r\n\t5. In poultry nutrition: Coccidiostats and Histomonostats which widely used to control intestinal health of poultry through direct effects on the parasitic organism concerned.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe aim of the book is to present the impact of the most important feed additives on the animal production, to demonstrate their mode of action, to show their effect on intermediate metabolism and heath status of livestock and to suggest how to use the different feed additives in animal nutrition to produce high quality and safety animal origin foodstuffs for human consumer.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-404-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-403-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-405-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",keywords:"Technological Feed Additives, Feed Industry, Quality of Compound Feed, Non-Antibiotic Growth Promoter, Product Quality, Additive Enzymes, Digestibility of Nutrients, NSP Enzymes, Farm Animals, Livestock, Immunity, Microbiome",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 20th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Emeritus from the University of Debrecen, Hungary who authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited 3 books. Member of various committees and chairman of the World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.jpg",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus of animal nutrition at the University of Debrecen, Hungary. From 1984 to 1985 he worked at the Agricultural University in Wageningen and in the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition in Lelystad (the Netherlands). He also worked at the Agricultural University of Vienna in the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition (Austria) and in the Oscar Kellner Research Institute in Rostock (Germany). From 1988 to 1992, he worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition (Agricultural University in Wageningen). In 1992 he obtained a PhD degree in animal nutrition from the University of Wageningen.He has authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters). He edited 3 books and 14 international conference proceedings. His total number of citation is 407. \r\nHe is member of various committees e.g.: American Society of Animal Science (ASAS, USA); the editorial board of the Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A- Animal Science (Norway); KRMIVA, Journal of Animal Nutrition (Croatia), Austin Food Sciences (NJ, USA), E-Cronicon Nutrition (UK), SciTz Nutrition and Food Science (DE, USA), Journal of Medical Chemistry and Toxicology (NJ, USA), Current Research in Food Technology and Nutritional Sciences (USA). From 2015 he has been appointed chairman of World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).\r\nHis main research areas are related to pig and poultry nutrition: elimination of harmful effects of heat stress by nutrition tools, energy- amino acid metabolism in livestock, relationship between animal nutrition and quality of animal food products (meat).",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"25",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"8404",title:"Actively Q-switched Thulium Lasers",doi:"10.5772/7948",slug:"actively-q-switched-thulium-lasers",body:'\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
The near and mid infrared range of optical spectrum (1500 – 5000 nm) has attracted great attention over the last decades, mainly because of a numerous set of absorption / emission lines being “finger prints” of specific chemical and biological compounds (see e.g. (Sorokina & Vodopyanov, 2003)). One of the most reliable techniques for stand alone detection and identification of such agents is laser spectroscopy, for which the coherent, highly monochromatic, tuneable laser sources are required. Research on mid infrared laser sources destined for long range detection is one of the most active areas of solid state photonics nowadays (see e.g. (Godard, 2007) (Mirov et al., 2007) etc.) (Schellhorn, et al., 2007) (Eichhorn, 2008)). One of the necessary requirements for such application is high spatial coherence of laser output beam (parameter M2 near 1). Among the most perspective types of lasers operating in a mid infrared range (above 2.2 μm-wavelength) are quantum cascade lasers, Cr2+:AIIBVI lasers and optical parametric generators. For shorter wavelengths laser diodes and erbium (1600 – 1700 nm), thulium (1800 - 2000 nm), holmium (2050-2200 nm) solid state lasers realised in bulk/crystalline/ or fibre technology are available. The main properties differentiating such groups of lasers are peak power and pulse energy. It has to be pointed out, that for such a wavelength range, damage thresholds of optical elements are severely decreased, comparing to 1-μm wavelength, because of the presence of water vapour and OH groups, having a wide absorption peak just in this wavelength range. The physics of laser action in semiconductor lasers prohibits the high peak power and high energy operation. Moreover, the high CW power 1D or 2D laser diodes stacks characterise low spatial coherence and high beam volume, thus they can be used mainly as optical pumps for other lasers, e.g. holmium or erbium ones.
\n\t\t\t
For short infrared range (< 2 μm wavelength) the Tm or Ho–doped fibre lasers sources operating in a CW regime seem to be the most perspective choice (Gapontsev et al., 2007) (McComb et al., 2009). The pulsed operation of fibre lasers, with energies of tens to hundreds of microJoules, can be realized applying Q-switching technique (Eichhorn & Jackson, 2008) (Eichhorn & Jackson, 2009) or gain-switched method. The best result of 2-μm Q-switched Tm:fibre lasers from the point of view of pulse energy (0.6 mJ for 10 Hz of rep. rate) were obtained (Barnes & De Young, 2009). Mid infrared fibre lasers suffer from lack of good quality active glasses and problems with high peak power / high energy operation for longer wavelengths. However the promising result namely 10 W at 2.78-μm-wavelength has been demonstrated recently in the ZBLAN fibre laser (Zhu & Jain, 2007).
\n\t\t\t
Solid state lasers based on bulk crystalline gain media offer much higher peak powers and pulse energies compared to fibre ones. For the shortest wavelengths (1600-1700 nm) the best configuration is an erbium doped crystalline laser pumped by erbium fibre laser (Clarkson et al., 2006) or directly by laser diode (Setzler et al., 2005) (Kudryashov et al., 2009), (Eichhorn, 2008). For 1800-2000 nm wavelength range the thulium doped crystalline laser pumped by laser diodes seems to be the best option (Honea et al.,1997) (Budni et al., 2000), (Dergachev et al., 2002) (So et al, 2006), (Schellhorn, 2008), (Schellhorn et al., 2009). Intensive research has been devoted to thulium doped gain media (see e.g. (Huber et al.,1988) (Payne et al., 1992) (Lisiecki et al.,2006)) and methods of Q-switching. Passive Q-switching by means of holmium or chromium doped saturable absorbers as well as special types of quantum dots structures (Gaponenko et al., 2008) were examined, however simple, active Q-switching by means of acousto-optic modulators seems to be the better choice because of matured technology, very low insertion losses and relatively high damage thresholds.
\n\t\t\t
The aim of this work was the theoretical analysis of such laser types and its experimental verification for one type of gain medium namely thulium doped yttrium, lithium fluoride (Tm:YLF).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Theoretical analysis of actively Q-switched thulium lasers
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.1. Model of quasi- three -level laser for CW pumping
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 1.
Scheme of energetic levels of Tm3+ gain medium.
\n\t\t\t\t
The following analysis can be applied to any quasi-three-level laser for which the lower laser levels are partly occupied at room temperature (see e.g. (Beach, 1996) (Bourdet, 2000) (Bourdet, 2001) (Lim & Izawa, 2002)). Typical configuration of Tm3+ lasers levels (see Figure 1) consists of at least three manifolds : 3H6 - pumping and laser lower levels manifold, 3H4 – pumping, upper levels manifold and 3F4 - laser upper level manifold. The pumping process between 3H6\n\t\t\t\t\t3H4. corresponds to wavelength ~ 790 nm which is avaiable for typical AlGaAs laser diodes. Excitation of upper laser levels 3F4 is a result of an efficent cross-relaxation process 3H4 + 3H6 2 x 3F4. In the following analysis we assumed, that this two-stage pumping process is characterised by the quantum efficiency equal to 2. Further, we will consider only relaxation/excitation processes (typical for quasi-III-level lasers) between two manifolds 3H6 - lower pump/laser manifold and 3F4 - upper pump/laser manifold. The analysis given in this paper will be followed by the model developed by (Bourdet, 2000).
\n\t\t\t\t
Primarily, let us define processes of pumping between lower pumping level of number Np,lower – and the upper pumping level of number Np,upper (Np,lower Np,upper). Similarly, the laser transition has to be defined between the pair of levels Nl,upper and Nl,lower (Nl,upper Nl,lower). It was assumed, that it is valid plane wave approximation and both pump and laser beams have the same radius W and area Am=Ap=πW2/2. For such assumptions the analytical formulae describing the quasi-three-level laser can be derived (see details (Bourdet, 2000)).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 2.
Scheme of pumping and laser action in the Bourdet’s model.
\n\t\t\t\t
The final expression for relative laser output intensity I\n\t\t\t\t\tlas in dependence on incident relative pump intensity I\n\t\t\t\t\tp and cavity and gain medium parameters is the following:
where: L – rod length, R\n\t\t\t\t\tm,l,\n\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\tOC - rear and output mirror reflectivity at laser wavelength, R\n\t\t\t\t\tm,p - rod reflectivity at pump wavelength. The function Γ (corresponding to the transmission of pump beam for laser action) is given by:
\n\t\t\t\t\tN\n\t\t\t\t\t0 – concentration of active ions, σp, σl – absorption/emission cross sections at pump/emission wavelengths, respectively, f\n\t\t\t\t\tN – Boltzmann‘s occupation factor of N–th level. To calculate the final output laser power P\n\t\t\t\t\tout and the incident pump power P\n\t\t\t\t\tp the relative intensities I\n\t\t\t\t\tlas, I\n\t\t\t\t\tp have to be multiplied by the mode/pump area Am =Ap =A=πW2/2 and emission/ absorption saturation densities I\n\t\t\t\t\tsat,l, I\n\t\t\t\t\tsat,p as follows:
Moreover, in contrast to the typical case of a four-level laser, the absorption efficiency is different in laser and non-laser conditions. As a result of laser transition the occupations of upper and lower laser level are “clamped“ to those at threshold and are dependent only on coupling conditions, losses etc.
\n\t\t\t\t
For the case of laser action (above threshold) the absorption efficiency is given by:
As a rule, η\n\t\t\t\t\tabs,las is higher compared to non-laser conditions and does not depend on pump power.
\n\t\t\t\t
In the case of non-lasing conditions the main effect of the diminishing of absorption efficiency consists in saturated absorption. Therefore, the absorption efficiency can be defined in two alternative ways:
Absorption efficiency vs. relative pump power; non lasing – continuous curve, lasing R\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\toc=0.5 dotted curve, lasing R\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\toc=0.01 – dash-dot curve.
\n\t\t\t\t
An alternative way to determine absorption efficiency in non-laser conditions is to find a numerical solution for the pump transmission function Γ of the following equation:
and substituting the obtained value of Γ to formula (8). The results of absorption efficiency calculation for non-laser and laser conditions are shown in Figure 5.
\n\t\t\t\t
Below threshold absorption efficiency decreases with pump intensity. In a laser condition above threshold, absorption efficiency does not depend on pump power and it can even jump to higher values depending on output coupler reflectivity as was shown in Figure 5. In our case of an actively Q-switched laser the non-lasing condition has to be assumed during the pumping process.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.1.1 Optimisation of laser parameters
\n\t\t\t\t
Analysing the formula (1), it is quite easy to find the condition for the optimum length of gain medium. Please note, that the small signal gain (assuming R\n\t\t\t\t\tm,p = 0) can be defined as follows:
Thus, assuming constant I\n\t\t\t\t\tp, R\n\t\t\t\t\toc, R\n\t\t\t\t\tm,p,\n\t\t\t\t\tN\n\t\t\t\t\to and temperature, after differentiating (12) with respect to L, the final formula on optimal crystal length can be found:
The example of calculation of optimal crystal length dependent on pump intensity is shown in Figure 6.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 4.
Optimal crystal length vs. relative pump intensity for different output coupler reflectivities R\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\toc, R\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm,l=0.99.
\n\t\t\t\t
Please note, that output power for a given pump intensity depends also on output coupler reflectivity and cavity losses. The typical characteristics of output power intensity vs. pump power intensity are shown in Figure 7.
\n\t\t\t\t
As was shown in Figure 6, 7, to obtain the higher output power with increased pump power density the gain medium length and out-coupling losses have to be increased. Please note that threshold pump power is also the function of gain medium length via reabsorption losses.
\n\t\t\t\t
In the process of optimisation of quasi-three-level laser parameters, the starting point is the available pump power. We have to find the best combination of pump area, output coupler transmission, gain medium length to obtain the maximum output power. Further, the cavity design (curvature of mirrors, distances) should satisfy the best mode matching condition i.e. the fundamental laser mode area has to be comparable to the pump area to minimize the aperture/absorption losses occurring in an un-pumped region. The above presented formulae can give only preliminary indications, all these rules have to be verified experimentally.
\n\t\t\t\t
It should be noted, that with increase in pump power density, the temperature of the rod increases, causing an increase in reabsorption losses and additional cavity losses as a result of stress induced aberrations. Thus, it is a trade of between requirements for efficient pumping and thermal limitations of a quasi-three-level laser. In practice, output power of such a laser is limited by thermo-optic effects and thermal fracture (see e.g. (So et al, 2006)), so the proper choice of pump geometry, size and dopant level of gain medium is fundamental to mitigate these effects.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Figure 5.
Output intensity vs. pump intensity.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.2. The thermo-optic limitations of thulium lasers
\n\t\t\t\t
For lasers operating in a free running regime the maximum pump power with respect to fracture limit is determined by the doping level and mechanical toughness of the crystal (see e.g. (Koechner, 1996), (Chen, 1999), (So et al, 2006)). Much below fracture limit the operating parameters of any type of diode pumped lasers are governed by the temperature increase inside the gain medium. The temperature profile induced by absorption of a focused pumping beam inside the gain medium of a quasi-three-level laser manifests by means the following effects:
\n\t\t\t\t
changes in absorption efficiency and available net inversion,
\n\t\t\t\t
reabsorption losses due to temperature dependent occupations of lower laser level,
\n\t\t\t\t
paraxial thermal lensing,
\n\t\t\t\t
higher order thermal aberration,
\n\t\t\t\t
stress induced birefringence and depolarisation losses
\n\t\t\t\t
thermal fracture for higher heat loads.
\n\t\t\t\t
According to the model derived for end pumped lasers (Chen, 1999) the maximum absorbed pump power is given by:
where : a – rod radius, Wp,0 – radius of pump beam in the waist, zw – waist distance to the rod facet, zp – Rayleigh range of pump beam, P\n\t\t\t\t\tabs- absorbed pump power. To obtain average temperature in the rod, ΔTmax(z) has to be integrated along the rod.
\n\t\t\t\t
Maximal thermally induced stress inside the rod occurs on rod facet (z=0). Assuming a linear thermal elasticity model, the maximum stress can be estimated by the following formulae:
For top-hat heat source distribution inside the cylindrical rod we have a parabolic profile of temperature resulting in optical path difference of a parabolic shape. In the framework of a paraxial thermal lensing model, the thermo-optic optical power induced inside the rod is given by:
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Tm:YAG
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Tm:YA l O 3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Tm:YLF
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Tm:YVO 4\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Absoprtion peak wavelength [nm]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
785
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
795
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
792
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
801
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
absorption coeff . α abs [ cm -1] @1%Tm
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.05
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.9 /0.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0. 36
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Refractive index n
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.81
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.92 9/1.943
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.4 7 /1.4 4 8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.98/2.16
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Temperature dispersion dn/d dT[10-6/K]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7.3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
9.7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
-4.4/-2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
8.5/3.9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
thermal expansion coefficient α T [10 -6 /K ]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13.3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4.4/11.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
thermal conductivity K c [W/m/K]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
13
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
7.2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
11
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Young modu l us E [GPa]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
310
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
220
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
85
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
77
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
fracture stress σ max,fracture [kG/mm 2]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
16
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1 6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Thermal shock parameter R T [W/cm]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.7
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
6.1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
βr [mm 2 /W/m]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.17
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.96
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.47
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.71
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
fr [mm] @ I h =1 W/mm \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
85.4
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
50.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
212.8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
58.5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Mechanical and optical parameters of 4 typical Tm doped gain media.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 6.
Maximal stress vs. absorbed pump power for 4 Tm crystals; Wp,0=0.5mm.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 7.
Thermo-optic power vs. absorbed pump power for 4 Tm crystals; Wp,0=0.5mm.
where: ν- Poisson‘s ration, Ap – averaged pump area, n – refractive index, dn/dΤ − temperature dispersion of refractive index.
\n\t\t\t\t
To help in the choice of a proper gain medium for the thulium laser, the mechanical and optical parameters of four Tm-doped media were collected in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t\t
We have calculated the maximum stress and thermo-optical power vs. absorbed pump power for these 4 gain media (see Figure 8, 9 respectively).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
2.3. Model of actively Q-switched Tm laser
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
2.3.1. Degnan’s analytical model
\n\t\t\t\t\t
To analyse the regime of active, periodic Q-switching we can modify the classical models of Q-switching (see e.g. (Degnan, 1989), (Koechner, 1996), (Eichhorn, 2008)). The model of rate equations for a quasi-three-level laser is defined by two functions: Φ – relative intensity of the laser field, and X - modified relative occupation (further called inversion) of the upper laser level:
The pumping process is periodic with a repetition rate of frep =1/trep. In pumping time ton ≈ trep, losses of q-switch ρqsw,high have to be sufficiently high to prevent laser oscillation. In a short interval of duration toff<< ton, trep the cavity losses are small and the pulse starts to build up.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
For the steady state (after a few initial pulses) the initial inversion Xi before the pulse and final inversion Xf tend to values defined only by pump density, cavity parameters and the repetition period.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
We can define threshold inversion for low losses of Q-switch as follows:
To obtain effective Q-switching, pump intensity and duration should be sufficiently high to achieve initial inversion Xin a much higher value than Xthr :
In pumping time the laser intensity disappears (Φ = 0) and the second equation can be solved analytically, assuming, that absorption efficiency does not change during pumping and other non-linear processes (up-conversion, amplified spontaneous emission) can be neglected. The formula for inversion is the following:
X(0) = Xf – inversion at the starting point of pumping corresponding to the final inversion after pulse generation. The examples of temporal dependence of inversion for different repetition rates are shown in Figure 10.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 8.
Changes in inversion vs. time for different repetition periods.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
During the pulse build up interval the pumping and relaxation components can be neglected in a second rate equation. Thus, we can find the analytical solution of rate equations in the form of a transcendent equation on initial and final inversions Xi, Xf:
To determine the initial inversion including the cross-relaxation and up-conversion processes the more complicated model of a quasi-three-level laser (Rustad & Stenersen, 1996) can be used.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The pulse duration, pulse energy, and peak power can be determined knowing the initial and final inversions. The conditions of optimisation of an actively Q-switched laser were found (Degnan, 1989). Let us introduce the un-dimensional parameter z defined as follows:
Let us notice, that R\n\t\t\t\t\t\tOC,opt depends on the pump density and repetition period.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
For optimal out-coupling losses the formulae on pulse duration t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tpulse, extraction efficiency η\n\t\t\t\t\t\textr and output energy E\n\t\t\t\t\t\tout are the following:
Such an elegant, simple analytical model can give mainly qualitative information about the properties of the Q-switched laser. It should be underlined the role of parameter z equal to the ratio of small signal gain to passive losses. The quality of laser output is proportional to parameter z which could be determined for any type of laser (including high repetition rate Q-switched fibre lasers as well). The short pulses and high peak powers, evidencing effective Q-switching, occur for z > 10.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
However, comparing Degnan’s analytical model with experiments, quite large differences can be found especially for high pumping rate and long repetition periods. It should be noted, that in this model all non-linear processes are neglected, whose role is growing with increase in inversion. Moreover, with an increase in heat load the several temperature dependent processes (thermally induced aberration, stress, lowering of gain etc.) significantly diminish the performance of the laser.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
2.3.2. Numerical modelling of an actively Q-switched Tm:YLF laser.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Comparing results of theoretical analysis with experiments on the Q-switched Tm:YLF laser, it was found, that it is necessary to improve the model adding the thermo-optic and cavity effects. Therefore, we have developed a numerical model (Gorajek, et al, 2009) introducing additional losses γ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tadd\n\t\t\t\t\t\t (T) occurring as a result of the absorption of laser mode wings on unpumped regions of a quasi-three-level medium. In the particular case of our oscillator, the laser scheme for “cold” cavity is nearly half confocal (g\n\t\t\t\t\t\t1=1, g\n\t\t\t\t\t\t2 = 0.5) for vanished thermal lensing). With increase in negative thermal lensing (typical for Tm:YLF crystal) the mode size at the crystal increases until reaching the stability limit of the cavity (g\n\t\t\t\t\t\t1 ~ 2, g\n\t\t\t\t\t\t2 =0.5). However, also, even out of stability range, the spatially limited mode is formed due to diffraction on the gain diaphragm induced by the pumping beam, which could be treated as a kind of “imaginary” lens (Grace, et al, 2001) (Jabczyński et al, 2003). Such a laser mode has a “gaussian” like profile and much higher diffraction losses which depend (via temperature increase) on average pump power. To determine the maximal, average temperature in rod and thermal lensing power the analytical formulae (16), (18), (19) were applied. For calculation of the additional losses γ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tadd\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(Τ) the numerical procedure proposed in (Jabczyński et al, 2003) was used. The results of the calculation of average temperature and pump dependent losses for two cases: quasi-CW pumping (duty factor 10% ) and CW pumping are shown in Figure 11\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 9.
Average temperature inside rod, pump dependent losses vs. pump rate: CW pumping.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The numerical procedure prepared for analysis of giant pulse formation was divided into two stages. In the first one, before switching off the high Q-switch losses, the internal flux vanishes and only the second equation is numerically solved. Moreover additional non-linear effects causing a drop in inversion can be added. After switching off the Q-switch, the threshold condition is tested and the set of both equations is solved for the giant pulse evolution calculation.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The main difference in analysis of Q-switching in a quasi-three level laser (compared to the four level scheme) consists on the effect of temperature on the available parameters of the giant pulse. Because of the increase in temperature with pump power, the inversion and additional losses significantly influence on the available peak power and pulse duration (see Figure 12-13).
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 10.
Average output power, peak power vs. pump rate: CW pumping.
The all above presented effects give the result, that giant pulse is generated for a considerable level of losses dependent on effective average heat power dissipated in the gain medium. Such effects were observed in experiments (see p.3.3 and p.3.4) and we have shown in Figure 11-13 the results of simulation qualitatively explaining the experiment.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Experiments
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.1. Laser head scheme
\n\t\t\t\t
We have designed the laser head of a diode pumped Tm:YLF laser shown in Figure 14 destined for tuneable and Q-switched operation (Jabczyński, et al., 2007) (Jabczyński, et al., 2009). The fibre coupled diode of 30-W output power emitting at a 0.792 μm wavelength was deployed as a pump source.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 12.
Optical scheme of a Tm:YLF laser: FCB- fiber coupled laser diode of 30 W, RM- rear flat mirror, OC- output coupler, Tm:YLF- gain crystal, AOM- acousto-optic Q-switch.
\n\t\t\t\t
The pump beam after passing through a reimaging optic (of 1.5 x magnification) forms inside the gain medium the caustics of waist diameter approximately 0.6 mm and induces a near 60 K increase in temperature for the maximum incident pump power of 26 W.
\n\t\t\t\t
The uncoated, with 3.5%. doping of thulium YLF rods of 8 and 10 mm size wrapped with indium foil were tested as gain media. The crystals were mounted in a copper heat-sink maintaining 293 K temperature of coolant. The diode wavelength was tuned via the control of thermo-electric cooler voltage to maximise the absorbed pump power, however not higher than 65% absorption efficiency for an 8-mm long rod and 80% for a 10-mm crystal were obtained in the best cases of CW pumping without lasing (see Figure 15).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.2. Free running and tunablity characterisation
\n\t\t\t\t
As the output couplers we have used mirrors of a 0.3 and 0.5 m radii of curvature and 10%, 15%, 20% and 30% transmission at a 1.9-μm wavelength. The energetic characteristics in quasi-CW pumping in dependence on absorbed pump power were presented in Figure 16.
\n\t\t\t\t
Above 7-W power with nearly 30% slope efficiency with respect to incident pump power were demonstrated for the best case of quasi-CW pumping for a short, 70-mm resonator. Nearly 5 W were obtained for CW pumping in a short cavity and above 3 W for an elongated 220-mm cavity.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 13.
Absorption efficiency in non-lasing conditions vs. incident pump density for two Tm:YLF rods.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 14.
Output power vs. pump power for quasi-CW pumping (10% duty cycle, 10Hz, 10ms pump duration).
\n\t\t\t\t
The spectrum of generation was centred at 1908 nm with FWHM of approximately 6 nm (see Figure 17) for the oscillator without deploying Lyot’s filter. In the next step of experiments the cavity was elongated to 220 mm to deploy the Lyot’s filter (consisting of 2 quartz plates of 0.92 and 1.84 mm thickness, respectively) and an active Q-switch.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 15.
Spectra of spontaneous emission and free-running of a Tm:YLF laser with 10%- transmission of OC.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 16.
Spectra of spontaneous emission and tuning of Tm:YLF laser by means of Lyot’s filter.
\n\t\t\t\t
The experiments of tuning were carried out firstly in a free-running regime. The tuning range of 1845-1935 nm was demonstrated for 37o – 47o angle of rotation with respect to the fast axis of quartz plates (see Figure 18). The linewidth was less than 1 nm. For the Q-switching regime the contrast of a deployed birefringent filter was too low to prevent oscillation on the strongest 1908-nm line. In the last part of characterisation in a free-running regime, we have measured the beam profiles in far field in the focal plane of a 500-focal length lens. The divergence angle was about 4.3 mrad and an estimated parameter M2< 1.3 for high 20-W incident pump power.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.3. Q-switching experiments for low duty cycle pumping
\n\t\t\t\t
For Q-switching we have used a water cooled acousto-optic modulator made of 45-mm long fused silica, operating at a radio frequency of 40.7 MHz with a maximum power of 25 W. In fact, that was the largest element of laser head which determined its size. It was shown in separate experiments that for maximum RF power of the acousto-optic modulator the diffraction efficiency was higher than 80%, diffraction angle was about 7 mrad and the falling edge, i.e. switch off time was about 100 ns.
\n\t\t\t\t
In the first part of the Q-switching experiments we have estimated the maximum available output energy in free-running for which the acousto-optic modulator can hold off oscillations for a switch on state of RF power. It should be noted that we have used a 220-mm long cavity with Lyot’s filter inside introducing additional insertion losses. The laser output was horizontally polarized (perpendicularly to the c-axis of YLF crystal).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 17.
Available output energy vs. incident pump energy in free running for the state of effective operation of the active Q-switch
\n\t\t\t\t
As was shown in Figure 19, for the best case the output energy of 40 mJ (for incident pump energy of 400 mJ) was the upper limit of efficient operation of the Q-switch. However, the real limit of output energy was far lower, because of the damage threshold of the Tm:YLF crystal facet. It was shown, that the output energy above 10 mJ corresponding approximately to 1.5 – 2 GW/cm2 of intracavity power density constitutes the upper limit of available pulse energy for the safe operation in a Q-switching regime in the case of our laser head. Thus, we can conclude that a much smaller Q-switch without water cooling will be satisfactory for our purposes.
\n\t\t\t\t
The results of measurements of pulse duration and peak power for a low duty cycle of 10% (10 Hz of PRF and 10 ms pump duration) were shown in Figure 20. The shortest pulse of 22-ns duration (see Figure 21) and 10.5 mJ energy corresponding to 0.45 MW of peak power were demonstrated for the best case of stable output below the risk of damages to laser elements.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 18.
Pulse duration, peak power vs. pump energy for Q-switching in a low 10% duty cycle pumping regime.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Figure 19.
Oscillogram of the giant pulse of 10.5 mJ of energy.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.4. Q-switching experiments for CW pumping
\n\t\t\t\t
For the CW pumping regime the maximum pump power was constituted due to the thermal lensing limit. Because of negative thermal dispersion of Tm:YLF the cavity achieves stability limit for nearly 20-W of incident pump power.
\n\t\t\t\t
The results of the Q-switching experiments were shown in Figure 22, 23, and collected in Table 2. Nearly 20% slope efficiency with respect to absorbed pump energy was obtained for high repetition frequency. The experimental results were in agreement with the numerical model presented in p. 2.3.2
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 20.
Output energy vs. absorbed pump energy for different repetition periods.
The comparable pulse energies of 10 mJ (last two rows of Table 2) were achieved for both cases of pumping. The much longer pulse duration for a case of CW pumping was caused by the combined effect of an increase in reabsorption and additional diffraction loss (see p. 2.3.2). Please note, that maximum available pulse energy was limited in both cases by reaching the damage thresholds of the rod facet or rear mirror.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
Figure 21.
Output peak power vs. absorbed pump power for different repetition periods.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4. Conclusions
\n\t\t\t
The analytical models of quasi-three-level lasers operating in free running and Q-switching regimes were presented. In both cases appropriate formulae enabling the optimization of such lasers were given and analysed. The numerical model of a quasi-three-level laser operating in a Q-switching regime including additional pump dependent losses, was elaborated to explain the properties of the developed actively Q-switched laser. The main difference in analysis of Q-switching in a quasi-three-level laser (compared to a four-level laser) consists of the effect of temperature on giant pulse parameters. Because of increase in temperature with pump power, the net inversion, additional reabsorption and diffraction losses significantly influence available pulse energy, peak power and pulse duration. The all above mentioned effects result in the fact, that giant pulse is generated for a considerable level of losses dependent on effective average heat power dissipated in the gain medium. The results of numerical modelling were confirmed in the experiments.
\n\t\t\t
To compare models with experiments we have presented the results of investigations of an efficient Tm:YLF laser end-pumped by 30-W fiber coupled laser diode bar. The incident pump density exceeded above 5 times the saturation pump density, thus the drawbacks of the quasi-three-level scheme have been mitigated. We have obtained the best output characteristics (slope and maximum power) for out-coupling losses of 20% evidencing the high roundtrip gain for maximum pump power. Above 7-W of output power for incident 26-W pump power in free running regime was achieved in the best case for a short 70-mm cavity. Above 3 W of output power was demonstrated for CW pumping for an elongated 220-mm cavity. The divergence angle was about 4.3 mrad and estimated parameter M2< 1.3. To improve the output characteristics in a free running regime, the optimisation of pump size in the gain medium, application of a longer rod and optimised cavity design should be applied.
\n\t\t\t
For the free-running and Q-switching regimes the output spectrum was centred at 1908-nm with linewidth less than 6 nm. For tuning the Lyot’s filter consisting of 2 quartz plates was deployed. The tuning range of 1845-1935 nm with less than 1-nm linewidth was demonstrated for the free-running regime. For the Q-switching regime the contrast of a deployed birefringent filter was too low to prevent oscillation on the strongest 1908-nm linewidth.
\n\t\t\t
In the experiments on active Q-switching by means of an acousto-optic modulator, up to 10-mJ output energy was demonstrated. Output energy was limited by damage of the laser elements. Nearly 0.5 MW peak power with pulse durations of 22 ns was achieved for a 10-Hz repetition rate with 10% duty cycle of the pumping regime. The 1.7-W of average power with 12 kW peak power and 1000 Hz repetition rate was demonstrated for the CW pumping regime. The developed laser could constitute the basis for development of the tunable, Q-switched laser source operating at a 2-μm wavelength. Moreover, it could be used as a pump source for Ho:YAG and Cr:ZnSe lasers operating in a gain switching regime for the longer ( > 2 μm) wavelengths.
\n\t\t
\n\t
Acknowledgments
\n\t\t\t
This work was supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education under projects 0T00A00330, NN515 423033, NN515 414834, NN515 345036.
\n\t\t
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/8404.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/8404.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8404",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8404",totalDownloads:3751,totalViews:278,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 1st 2010",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/8404",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/8404",book:{slug:"advances-in-solid-state-lasers-development-and-applications"},signatures:"Jan K. Jabczynski, Lukasz Gorajek, Waldemar Zendzian, Jacek Kwiatkowski, Helena Jelinkova, Jan Sulc and Michal Nemec",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Theoretical analysis of actively Q-switched thulium lasers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Model of quasi- three -level laser for CW pumping",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1.1 Optimisation of laser parameters",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2. The thermo-optic limitations of thulium lasers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3. Model of actively Q-switched Tm laser",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.3.1. Degnan’s analytical model ",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.3.2. Numerical modelling of an actively Q-switched Tm:YLF laser.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Experiments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.1. Laser head scheme",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2. Free running and tunablity characterisation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.3. Q-switching experiments for low duty cycle pumping",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.4. Q-switching experiments for CW pumping",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBarnes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDe Young\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009 Tm:germanate Fiber Laser for Planetary Water Vapor Atmospheric Profiling. The Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO)/The International Quantum Electronics Conference (IQEC) (Optical Society of America, Washington, DC, 2009 (JWA60 . Optical Society of America, Washington, DC, 2009\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBarry\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tParlange\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrommer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCunningham\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStagnitti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tAnalytical approximation for eal values of the LambertW function.\n\t\t\t\t\tMath and Computers in Simulation, 53\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t14\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBeach\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tCW Theory of quasi-three-level end-pumped laser oscillators.\n\t\t\t\t\tOptics Communications, 123\n\t\t\t\t\t385\n\t\t\t\t\t393\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B4",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBourdet\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tNew evaluation of ytterbium-doped materials for CW laser applications.\n\t\t\t\t\tOptics Communications, 198\n\t\t\t\t\t411\n\t\t\t\t\t417\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B5",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBourdet\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tTheoretical investigation of quasi-three-level longitudinally pumped continuous wave lasers.\n\t\t\t\t\tApplied Optics, 39\n\t\t\t\t\t966\n\t\t\t\t\t971 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B6",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBudni\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLemons\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMosto\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChicklis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tHigh-Power/High-Brightness Diode-Pumped 1.9-μm Thulium and Resonantly Pumped 2.1-μm Holmium Lasers\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE J. Sel. Top. Quant. Electron,\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t629\n\t\t\t\t\t634\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B7",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY. F.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tDesign Criteria for Concentration Optimization in Scaling Diode End-Pumped lasers to High Powers: Influence of Thermal Fracture.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics,\n\t\t\t\t\t35\n\t\t\t\t\t234\n\t\t\t\t\t239\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B8",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tClarkson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSabu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006 High-power fiber-bulk hybrid lasers. Proceedings SPIE, 6100\n\t\t\t\t\t61000A\n\t\t\t\t\t610001 -13\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B9",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDegnan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1989\n\t\t\t\t\tTheory of optimally coupled Q-switched laser.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 25\n\t\t\t\t\t214\n\t\t\t\t\t220\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B10",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDergachev\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWall\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMoulton\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tA CW Side-pumped Tm:YLF Laser.\n\t\t\t\t\tOSA TOPS, Advanced Solid State Lasers, ed. M.E. Ferman L.R. Marshall, 68\n\t\t\t\t\t343\n\t\t\t\t\t346\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B11",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEichhorn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\t First investigations on an Er3+:YAG SSHCL.\n\t\t\t\t\tAppl. Phys. B, 93\n\t\t\t\t\t817\n\t\t\t\t\t822\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B12",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEichhorn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\t High-Power Resonantly Diode-Pumped CW Er3+:YAG Laser.\n\t\t\t\t\tAppl. Phys. B, 93\n\t\t\t\t\t773\n\t\t\t\t\t778\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B13",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEichhorn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tQuasi-three-level solid-sate lasers in the near and mid infrared based on trivalent rare earth ions.\n\t\t\t\t\tAppl Phys B, 93\n\t\t\t\t\t269\n\t\t\t\t\t316\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B14",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEichhorn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJackson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tHigh-pulse-energy, actively Q-switched Tm3+-doped silica 2 m fiber laser pumped at 792 nm.\n\t\t\t\t\tOptics Letters, 32\n\t\t\t\t\t2780\n\t\t\t\t\t2782\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B15",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEichhorn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJackson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\t High-pulse-energy, actively Q-switched Tm3+,Ho3+-codoped silica 2 m fiber laser.\n\t\t\t\t\tOptics Letters, 33\n\t\t\t\t\t1044\n\t\t\t\t\t1046\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B16",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGaponenko\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDenisov\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKisel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMalyarevich\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhilin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOnushchenko\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tDiode-pumped Tm:KY(WO4)2 laser passively Q-switched with PbS-doped glass.\n\t\t\t\t\tAppl Phys B, 93\n\t\t\t\t\t787\n\t\t\t\t\t791\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B17",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGapontsev\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPlatonov\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMeleshkevich\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDrozhzhin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSergeev\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\t 415W single-mode CW thulium fiber laser in all-fiber format.\n\t\t\t\t\tCLEO Europe, 2007, paper. CP2-3-THU\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B18",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGodard\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tInfrared (2-12 μm) solid-state laser sources: a review.\n\t\t\t\t\tC.R. Physique, 8\n\t\t\t\t\t1100\n\t\t\t\t\t1128\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B19",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGorajek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJabczyński\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZendzian\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKwiatkowski\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJelinkova\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSulc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\t High repetition rate, tunable, Q-switched, diode pumped Tm:YLF laser.\n\t\t\t\t\tOpto-Electronics Rev.,\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t23\n\t\t\t\t\t35\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B20",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGrace\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNew\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFranch\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tSimple ABCD matrix treatment for transversely varying saturable gain.\n\t\t\t\t\tOptics Express, 26\n\t\t\t\t\t1776\n\t\t\t\t\t1778\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B21",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHonea\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBeach\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSutton\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpeth\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMitchell\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSkidmore\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\t115-W Tm:YAG Diode-Pumped Solid-State Laser.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics,\n\t\t\t\t\t33\n\t\t\t\t\t1592\n\t\t\t\t\t1600 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B22",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHuber\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDuczynski\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPeterman\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1988\n\t\t\t\t\tLaser pumping of Ho-Tm-, Er- doped garnet laser at room temperature.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 24\n\t\t\t\t\t920\n\t\t\t\t\t923 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B23",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJabczyński\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGorajek\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZendzian\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKwiatkowski\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJelinkova\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSulc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tHigh repetition rate, high peak power, diode pumped Tm:YLF laser.\n\t\t\t\t\tLaser Phys. Letters, 6\n\t\t\t\t\t109\n\t\t\t\t\t112\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B24",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJabczyński\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKwiatkowski\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZendzian\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tModeling of beam width in passively Q-switched end-pumped laser.\n\t\t\t\t\tOptics Express, 11\n\t\t\t\t\t552\n\t\t\t\t\t559\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B25",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJabczyński\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZendzian\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKwiatkowski\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJelinkova\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSulc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNemec\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tActively Q-switched diode pumped thulium laser.\n\t\t\t\t\tLaser Phys. Letters, 4\n\t\t\t\t\t863\n\t\t\t\t\t867\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B26",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKoechner\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tSolid-State Laser Engineering. Springer Verlag, 3-54060-237-2\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B27",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKudryashov\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKatsnelson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTer-Gabrielyan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDubinskii\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\t Room Temperature Power Scalability of the Diode-Pumped Er:YAG Eye-Safe Laser.\n\t\t\t\t\tCLEO-Baltimore, paper CWA2\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B28",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIzawa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tModeling of End-Pumped CW Quasi-Three-Lvele Lasers.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 38\n\t\t\t\t\t306\n\t\t\t\t\t311\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B29",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLisiecki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSolarz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDominiak-Dzik\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRyba-Romanowski\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSobczyk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCerny\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tet al.\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tComparative optical study of thulium-doped YVO4, GdVO4, and LuVO4 single crystals.\n\t\t\t\t\tPhys. Rev. B, 74\n\t\t\t\t\t035103\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B30",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMc Comb\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShah\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSims\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSudesh\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSzilagyi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRichardson,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\t Tunable Thulium Fiber Laser System for Atmospheric Propagation Experiments.\n\t\t\t\t\tConference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO)/The International Quantum Electronics Conference (IQEC) (Optical Society of America, Washington, DC, paper CthR5.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B31",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMirov\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFedorov\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMoskalev\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMartyshkin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tRecent Progress in Transistion-Metal-Dped II-VI Mid-IR Lasers.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 13\n\t\t\t\t\t810\n\t\t\t\t\t822\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B32",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPayne\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChase\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSmith\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKway\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKrupke\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1992\n\t\t\t\t\tInfrared Cross-Section Measurements for Crystals Doped with Er3+, Tm3+, and Ho3+.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 28\n\t\t\t\t\t2619\n\t\t\t\t\t2630\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B33",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRustad\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStenersen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tModeling of Laser-Pumped Tm and Ho Lasers Accounting for Upconversion and Ground-State Depletion.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 32, 1645\n\t\t\t\t\t1655 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B34",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSchellhorn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tHigh-power diode-pumped Tm:YLF laser.\n\t\t\t\t\tAppl. Phys. B, 91 pp. pp. 71-74\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B35",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSchellhorn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNgcobo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBollig\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tHigh-Power Diode-Pumped Tm:YLF slab laser.\n\t\t\t\t\tAppl. Phys. B, 94\n\t\t\t\t\t195\n\t\t\t\t\t198\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B36",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSchellhorn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEichhorn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKieleck\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHirth\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tHigh repetition rate mid-infrared laser source.\n\t\t\t\t\tC. R. Physique,\n\t\t\t\t\t8\n\t\t\t\t\t1151\n\t\t\t\t\t1161\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B37",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSetzler\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFrancis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYoung\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKonves\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChicklis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tResonantly pumped eyesafe erbium lasers.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE J. Sel. Top. Quant. Electron, 11\n\t\t\t\t\t645\n\t\t\t\t\t657\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B38",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMac\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKenzie. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShepherd\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tClarkson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBetterton\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGorton\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\t A power- scaling strategy for longitudinally diode-pumped Tm:YLF lasers.\n\t\t\t\t\tAppl. Physics B., 84\n\t\t\t\t\t389\n\t\t\t\t\t393\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B39",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSorokina\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVodopyanov\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tSolid-State Mid-Infrared Laser Sources.: Springer Verlag, 354000621\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B40",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJain\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\t 10-W-level diode-pumped compact 2.78 μm ZBLAN fiber laser.\n\t\t\t\t\tOpt. Letters, 32\n\t\t\t\t\t26\n\t\t\t\t\t28 .\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jan K. Jabczynski",address:"",affiliation:'
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"3710",title:"Advances in Solid State Lasers",subtitle:"Development and Applications",fullTitle:"Advances in Solid State Lasers Development and Applications",slug:"advances-in-solid-state-lasers-development-and-applications",publishedDate:"February 1st 2010",bookSignature:"Mikhail Grishin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3710.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4862",title:"Mr.",name:"Mikhail",middleName:null,surname:"Grishin",slug:"mikhail-grishin",fullName:"Mikhail Grishin"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"8400",title:"Concentration-Dependent Laser Performance of Yb:YAG Ceramics and Passively Q-switched Yb:YAG/Cr,Ca:YAG Lasers",slug:"concentration-dependent-laser-performance-of-yb-yag-ceramics-and-passively-q-switched-yb-yag-cr-ca-y",totalDownloads:4579,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Jun Dong, Ken-ichi Ueda, Hideki Yagi and Alexander A Kaminskii",authors:[null]},{id:"8401",title:"New Infrared Luminescence from Bi-doped Glasses",slug:"new-infrared-luminescence-from-bi-doped-glasses",totalDownloads:3477,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Yasushi Fujimoto",authors:[null]},{id:"8402",title:"Faraday Isolators for High Average Power Lasers",slug:"faraday-isolators-for-high-average-power-lasers",totalDownloads:3414,totalCrossrefCites:7,signatures:"Efim Khazanov",authors:[null]},{id:"8403",title:"Numerical Simulation of High-Power Operation of 2 µm Co-doped Tm,Ho Solid-State Lasers",slug:"numerical-simulation-of-high-power-operation-of-2-micro-m-co-doped-tm-ho-solid-state-lasers",totalDownloads:1748,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"O. A. Louchev, Y. Urata, M. Yumoto, N. Saito, and S. Wada",authors:[null]},{id:"8404",title:"Actively Q-switched Thulium Lasers",slug:"actively-q-switched-thulium-lasers",totalDownloads:3751,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Jan K. Jabczynski, Lukasz Gorajek, Waldemar Zendzian, Jacek Kwiatkowski, Helena Jelinkova, Jan Sulc and Michal Nemec",authors:[null]},{id:"8405",title:"Efficient Intracavity Beam Combining of Multiple Lasers in a Composite Cavity",slug:"efficient-intracavity-beam-combining-of-multiple-lasers-in-a-composite-cavity",totalDownloads:2102,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ming Lei",authors:[null]},{id:"8406",title:"Compact, High Brightness and High Repetition Rate Side-Diode-Pumped Yb:YAG Laser",slug:"compact-high-brightness-and-high-repetition-rate-side-diode-pumped-yb-yag-laser",totalDownloads:3739,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mikhail A. Yakshin, Viktor A. Fromzel, and Coorg R. Prasad",authors:[null]},{id:"8407",title:"In-line Typed High-Precision Polarization Lidar for Disaster Prevention",slug:"in-line-typed-high-precision-polarization-lidar-for-disaster-prevention",totalDownloads:2827,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Tatsuo Shiina",authors:[null]},{id:"8408",title:"Precision Dimensional Metrology Based on a Femtosecond Pulse Laser",slug:"precision-dimensional-metrology-based-on-a-femtosecond-pulse-laser",totalDownloads:3856,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Jonghan Jin and Seung-Woo Kim",authors:[null]},{id:"8409",title:"Micro-Solid-State Laser for Ignition of Automobile Engines",slug:"micro-solid-state-laser-for-ignition-of-automobile-engines",totalDownloads:5365,totalCrossrefCites:7,signatures:"Masaki Tsunekane, Takayuki Inohara, Kenji Kanehara and Takunori Taira",authors:[null]},{id:"8410",title:"High Gain Solid-State Amplifiers for Picosecond Pulses",slug:"high-gain-solid-state-amplifiers-for-picosecond-pulses",totalDownloads:3252,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Antonio Agnesi and Federico Pirzio",authors:[null]},{id:"8411",title:"Dynamics of Continuously Pumped Solid-State Regenerative Amplifiers",slug:"dynamics-of-continuously-pumped-solid-state-regenerative-amplifiers",totalDownloads:2525,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mikhail Grishin and Andrejus Michailovas",authors:[null]},{id:"8412",title:"Toward TW-Peak-Power Single-Cycle IR Fields for Attosecond Physics and High-Field Science",slug:"toward-tw-peak-power-single-cycle-ir-fields-for-attosecond-physics-and-high-field-science",totalDownloads:3172,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"O. D. Mücke, S. Ališauskas, A. J. Verhoef, A. Pugžlys, A. Baltuška, V. Smilgevičius, J. Pocius, L. Giniūnas, R. Danielius, and N. Forget",authors:[null]},{id:"8413",title:"Measurement and Control of Carrier-Envelope Phase in Femtosecond Ti:sapphire Laser",slug:"measurement-and-control-of-carrier-envelope-phase-in-femtosecond-ti-sapphire-laser",totalDownloads:5460,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Zhiyi Wei, Hainian Han, Wei Zhang, Yanying Zhao, Jiangfeng Zhu, Hao Teng and Qiang Du",authors:[null]},{id:"8414",title:"Pulse Measurement Techniques Using an Acousto-Optic Programmable Dispersive Filter",slug:"pulse-measurement-techniques-using-an-acousto-optic-programmable-dispersive-filter",totalDownloads:2538,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Nicolas Forget and Thomas Oksenhendler",authors:[null]},{id:"8415",title:"Pulse-Shaping Techniques Theory and Experimental Implementations for Femtosecond Pulses",slug:"pulse-shaping-techniques-theory-and-experimental-implementations-for-femtosecond-pulses",totalDownloads:4686,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"T. Oksenhendler and N. Forget",authors:[null]},{id:"8416",title:"Femtosecond Filamentation in Temperature Controlled Noble Gas",slug:"femtosecond-filamentation-in-temperature-controlled-noble-gas",totalDownloads:1706,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Zhenming Song, Yun Wei, Shiying Cao, Weipeng Kong, Dongqing Pang, Ruxin Li, Qingyue Wang and Zhigang Zhang",authors:[null]},{id:"8417",title:"Diffraction Gratings for the Selection of Ultrashort Pulses in the Extreme-Ultraviolet",slug:"diffraction-gratings-for-the-selection-of-ultrashort-pulses-in-the-extreme-ultraviolet",totalDownloads:2590,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Luca Poletto, Paolo Villoresi and Fabio Frassetto",authors:[null]},{id:"8418",title:"High-Harmonic Generation",slug:"high-harmonic-generation",totalDownloads:6654,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Kenichi L. Ishikawa",authors:[null]},{id:"8419",title:"High-Order Harmonic Generation from Low-Density Plasma",slug:"high-order-harmonic-generation-from-low-density-plasma",totalDownloads:2833,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Tsuneyuki Ozaki, Rashid Ganeev, Masayuki Suzuki and Hiroto Kuroda",authors:[null]},{id:"8420",title:"An Attosecond Soft x-ray Nanoprobe: New Technology for Molecular Imaging",slug:"an-attosecond-soft-x-ray-nanoprobe-new-technology-for-molecular-imaging",totalDownloads:1640,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Sarah L Stebbings, Jeremy G Frey and William S Brocklesby",authors:[null]},{id:"8421",title:"Relativistic Nonlinear Thomson Scattering: Toward Intense Attosecond Pulse",slug:"relativistic-nonlinear-thomson-scattering-toward-intense-attosecond-pulse",totalDownloads:2031,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Kitae Lee, Sang-Young Chung, and Dong-Eon Kim",authors:[null]},{id:"8422",title:"Radiation Dynamics from the Ultra-Intense Field Ionization of Atoms",slug:"radiation-dynamics-from-the-ultra-intense-field-ionization-of-atoms",totalDownloads:1847,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Isaac Ghebregziabher and Barry Walker",authors:[null]},{id:"8423",title:"Laser-based Particle Acceleration",slug:"laser-based-particle-acceleration",totalDownloads:4335,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Hans-Peter Schlenvoigt, Oliver Jäckel, Sebastian M. Pfotenhauer, and Malte C. Kaluza",authors:[null]},{id:"8424",title:"Laser-Driven Proton Acceleration Research and Development",slug:"laser-driven-proton-acceleration-research-and-development",totalDownloads:3304,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Alexander S. Pirozhkov, Hiroyuki Daido, Mamiko Nishiuchi and Koichi Ogura",authors:[null]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1505",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3305b759b0efc22e8ed16e9048818817",slug:"scanning-electron-microscopy",bookSignature:"Viacheslav Kazmiruk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1505.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"100815",title:"Dr.",name:"Viacheslav",surname:"Kazmiruk",slug:"viacheslav-kazmiruk",fullName:"Viacheslav Kazmiruk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"30890",title:"Gaseous Scanning Electron Microscope (GSEM): Applications and Improvement",slug:"variable-pressure-and-environmental-sem-vp-sem-applications-and-improvement-",signatures:"Lahcen Khouchaf",authors:[{id:"102248",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Khouchaf",fullName:"Khouchaf",slug:"khouchaf"}]},{id:"30891",title:"Interactions, Imaging and Spectra in SEM",slug:"interactions-imaging-spectra-in-sem",signatures:"Rahul Mehta",authors:[{id:"105072",title:"Prof.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Mehta",fullName:"Rahul Mehta",slug:"rahul-mehta"}]},{id:"30892",title:"In Situ Experiments in the Scanning Electron Microscope Chamber",slug:"in-situ-experiments-in-the-scanning-electron-microscope-chamber",signatures:"Renaud Podor, Johann Ravaux and Henri-Pierre Brau",authors:[{id:"108327",title:"Dr.",name:"Renaud",middleName:null,surname:"Podor",fullName:"Renaud Podor",slug:"renaud-podor"},{id:"135682",title:"Mr.",name:"Johann",middleName:null,surname:"Ravaux",fullName:"Johann Ravaux",slug:"johann-ravaux"},{id:"135696",title:"Mr.",name:"Henri-Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Brau",fullName:"Henri-Pierre Brau",slug:"henri-pierre-brau"}]},{id:"30893",title:"Some Applications of Electron Back Scattering Diffraction (EBSD) in Materials Research",slug:"some-applications-of-electron-back-scattering-diffraction-ebsd-in-materials-research",signatures:"Zhongwei Chen, Yanqing Yang and Huisheng Jiao",authors:[{id:"103685",title:"Prof.",name:"Yanqing",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Yanqing Yang",slug:"yanqing-yang"}]},{id:"30894",title:"Dopant Driven Electron Beam Lithography",slug:"dopant-driven-electron-beam-lithography",signatures:"Timothy E. Kidd",authors:[{id:"101947",title:"Prof.",name:"Timothy",middleName:null,surname:"Kidd",fullName:"Timothy Kidd",slug:"timothy-kidd"}]},{id:"30895",title:"Palmtop EPMA",slug:"palmtop-epma",signatures:"Jun Kawai, Yasukazu Nakaye and Susumu Imashuku",authors:[{id:"117815",title:"Prof.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Kawai",fullName:"Jun Kawai",slug:"jun-kawai"}]},{id:"30896",title:"Adhesive Properties",slug:"adhesive-properties",signatures:"Anna Rudawska",authors:[{id:"110857",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Rudawska",fullName:"Anna Rudawska",slug:"anna-rudawska"}]},{id:"30916",title:"Contribution of Scanning Electron Microscope to the Study of Morphology, Biology, Reproduction, and Phylogeny of the Family Syllidae (Polychaeta)",slug:"contribution-of-scanning-electron-microscope-to-the-study-of-morphology-biology-reproduction-and-phy",signatures:"Guillermo San Martín and María Teresa Aguado",authors:[{id:"101204",title:"Prof.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"San Martín",fullName:"Guillermo San Martín",slug:"guillermo-san-martin"}]},{id:"30917",title:"Diversity of Lips and Associated Structures in Fishes by SEM",slug:"diversity-of-lips-and-associated-structures-in-fishes-by-sem",signatures:"Pinky Tripathi and Ajay Kumar Mittal",authors:[{id:"101825",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinky",middleName:null,surname:"Tripathi",fullName:"Pinky Tripathi",slug:"pinky-tripathi"},{id:"115916",title:"Prof.",name:"Ajay Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Mittal",fullName:"Ajay Kumar Mittal",slug:"ajay-kumar-mittal"}]},{id:"30918",title:"Effects of Er:YAG Laser Irradiation on Dental Hard Tissues and All-Ceramic Materials: SEM Evaluation",slug:"effects-of-laser-irradiation-on-dental-hard-tissues-and-dental-materials-sem-evaluation-",signatures:"Bülent Gökçe",authors:[{id:"99319",title:"Prof.",name:"Bülent",middleName:null,surname:"Gökçe",fullName:"Bülent Gökçe",slug:"bulent-gokce"}]},{id:"30919",title:"The Application of Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) to Study the Microstructure Changes in the Field of Agricultural Products Drying",slug:"the-application-of-scanning-electron-microscope-sem-to-study-the-microstructure-changes-in-the-field",signatures:"Hong-Wei Xiao and Zhen-Jiang Gao",authors:[{id:"28871",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhenjiang",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",fullName:"Zhenjiang Gao",slug:"zhenjiang-gao"},{id:"103506",title:"Dr.",name:"Hong-Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Xiao",fullName:"Hong-Wei Xiao",slug:"hong-wei-xiao"}]},{id:"30920",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy Imaging of Bacteria Based on Nucleic Acid Sequences",slug:"scanning-electron-microscope-imaging-of-bacteria-based-on-nucleic-acid-sequences",signatures:"Takehiko Kenzaka and Katsuji Tani",authors:[{id:"109193",title:"Dr.",name:"Takehiko",middleName:null,surname:"Kenzaka",fullName:"Takehiko Kenzaka",slug:"takehiko-kenzaka"},{id:"109194",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsuji",middleName:null,surname:"Tani",fullName:"Katsuji Tani",slug:"katsuji-tani"}]},{id:"30921",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effect on Morphology of PLLA: PCL Blends and on Their Composite with Coconut Fiber",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effect-on-the-morphology-of-plla-pcl-blends-and-on-their-composite-with-coconut-f",signatures:"Yasko Kodama and Claudia Giovedi",authors:[{id:"108474",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasko",middleName:null,surname:"Kodama",fullName:"Yasko Kodama",slug:"yasko-kodama"},{id:"110225",title:"Dr.",name:"Cláudia",middleName:null,surname:"Giovedi",fullName:"Cláudia Giovedi",slug:"claudia-giovedi"}]},{id:"30922",title:"Study of Helminth Parasites of Amphibians by Scanning Electron Microscopy",slug:"study-of-helminth-parasites-of-amphibians-by-scanning-electron-microscopy",signatures:"Cynthya Elizabeth González, Monika Inés Hamann and Cristina Salgad",authors:[{id:"104099",title:"Dr.",name:"Cynthya",middleName:"Elizabeth",surname:"González",fullName:"Cynthya González",slug:"cynthya-gonzalez"},{id:"108603",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika Inés",middleName:null,surname:"Hamann",fullName:"Monika Inés Hamann",slug:"monika-ines-hamann"},{id:"108606",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Salgado",fullName:"Cristina Salgado",slug:"cristina-salgado"}]},{id:"30923",title:"Pathogenic Attributes of Non-Candida albicans Candida Species Revealed by SEM",slug:"pathogenic-attributes-of-non-candida-albicans-candida-species-revealed-by-sem",signatures:"Márcia Cristina Furlaneto, Célia Guadalupe Tardeli de Jesus Andrade, Luciana Furlaneto-Maia, Emanuele Júlio Galvão de França and Alane Tatiana Pereira Moralez",authors:[{id:"101952",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcia Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Furlaneto",fullName:"Marcia Cristina Furlaneto",slug:"marcia-cristina-furlaneto"},{id:"109069",title:"Dr.",name:"Célia Guadalupe Tardeli De Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Célia Guadalupe Tardeli De Jesus Andrade",slug:"celia-guadalupe-tardeli-de-jesus-andrade"},{id:"109070",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Furlaneto-Maia",fullName:"Luciana Furlaneto-Maia",slug:"luciana-furlaneto-maia"},{id:"109071",title:"MSc.",name:"Emanuele Julio Galvão",middleName:null,surname:"França",fullName:"Emanuele Julio Galvão França",slug:"emanuele-julio-galvao-franca"},{id:"128748",title:"MSc.",name:"Alane Tatiana",middleName:null,surname:"Moralez",fullName:"Alane Tatiana Moralez",slug:"alane-tatiana-moralez"}]},{id:"30934",title:"Multimodal Microscopy for Ore Characterization",slug:"multimodal-microscopy-for-ore-characterization",signatures:"Otávio da Fonseca Martins Gomes and Sidnei Paciornik",authors:[{id:"99055",title:"Dr.",name:"Otavio",middleName:"Da Fonseca Martins",surname:"Gomes",fullName:"Otavio Gomes",slug:"otavio-gomes"},{id:"109691",title:"Prof.",name:"Sidnei",middleName:null,surname:"Paciornik",fullName:"Sidnei Paciornik",slug:"sidnei-paciornik"}]},{id:"30935",title:"SEM Analysis of Precipitation Process in Alloys",slug:"sem-analysis-of-precipitation-process-in-alloys",signatures:"Maribel L. Saucedo-Muñoz, Victor M. Lopez-Hirata and Hector J. Dorantes-Rosale",authors:[{id:"76298",title:"Dr.",name:"Víctor Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"López-Hirata",fullName:"Víctor Manuel López-Hirata",slug:"victor-manuel-lopez-hirata"},{id:"103382",title:"Prof.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Saucedo-Muñoz",fullName:"Maribel Saucedo-Muñoz",slug:"maribel-saucedo-munoz"},{id:"107864",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Dorantes-Rosales",fullName:"Hector Dorantes-Rosales",slug:"hector-dorantes-rosales"}]},{id:"30936",title:"Cutting Mechanism of Sulfurized Free-Machining Steel",slug:"cutting-mechanism-of-sulfurized-free-machining-steel",signatures:"Junsuke Fujiwara",authors:[{id:"105232",title:"Dr.",name:"Junsuke",middleName:null,surname:"Fujiwara",fullName:"Junsuke Fujiwara",slug:"junsuke-fujiwara"}]},{id:"30937",title:"Catalyst Characterization with FESEM/EDX by the Example of Silver-Catalyzed Epoxidation of 1,3-Butadiene",slug:"catalyst-characterization-with-fesem-edx-by-the-example-of-the-epoxidation-of-1-3-butadiene-",signatures:"Thomas N. Otto, Wilhelm Habicht, Eckhard Dinjus and Michael Zimmerman",authors:[{id:"114899",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Otto",fullName:"Thomas Otto",slug:"thomas-otto"}]},{id:"30938",title:"Fractal Analysis of Micro Self-Sharpening Phenomenon in Grinding with Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN) Wheels",slug:"fractal-analysis-of-self-sharpening-phenomenon-in-grinding-with-cubic-boron-nitride-cbn-wheel-",signatures:"Yoshio Ichida",authors:[{id:"105836",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshio",middleName:null,surname:"Ichida",fullName:"Yoshio Ichida",slug:"yoshio-ichida"}]},{id:"30939",title:"Evolution of Phases in a Recycled Al-Si Cast Alloy During Solution Treatment",slug:"evolution-of-phases-in-a-recycled-al-si-cast-alloy-during-solution-treatment",signatures:"Eva Tillová, Mária Chalupová and Lenka Hurtalová",authors:[{id:"23964",title:"Prof.",name:"Mária",middleName:null,surname:"Chalupová",fullName:"Mária Chalupová",slug:"maria-chalupova"},{id:"100623",title:"Prof.",name:"Eva",middleName:null,surname:"Tillova",fullName:"Eva Tillova",slug:"eva-tillova"},{id:"135822",title:"Dr.",name:"Lenka",middleName:null,surname:"Hurtalová",fullName:"Lenka Hurtalová",slug:"lenka-hurtalova"}]},{id:"30940",title:"Strength and Microstructure of Cement Stabilized Clay",slug:"strength-and-microstructure-of-cement-stabilized-clay",signatures:"Suksun Horpibulsuk",authors:[{id:"103519",title:"Prof.",name:"Suksun",middleName:"-",surname:"Horpibulsuk",fullName:"Suksun Horpibulsuk",slug:"suksun-horpibulsuk"}]},{id:"30948",title:"FE-SEM Characterization of Some Nanomaterial",slug:"fe-sem-characterization-of-some-nanomaterials-",signatures:"A. Alyamani and O. M. Lemine",authors:[{id:"99805",title:"Dr.",name:"O.Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Lemine",fullName:"O.Mohamed Lemine",slug:"o.mohamed-lemine"},{id:"120388",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmaed",middleName:null,surname:"Alyamani",fullName:"Ahmaed Alyamani",slug:"ahmaed-alyamani"}]},{id:"30949",title:"A Study of the Porosity of Activated Carbons Using the Scanning Electron Microscope",slug:"a-study-of-the-porosity-of-activated-carbons-using-the-scanning-elctrom-microscope",signatures:"Osei-Wusu Achaw",authors:[{id:"107889",title:"Dr.",name:"Osei-Wusu",middleName:null,surname:"Achaw",fullName:"Osei-Wusu Achaw",slug:"osei-wusu-achaw"}]},{id:"30950",title:"Study of Structure and Failure Mechanisms in ACA Interconnections Using SEM",slug:"study-of-structure-and-failure-mechanisms-in-aca-interconnections-using-sem",signatures:"Laura Frisk",authors:[{id:"110630",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Frisk",fullName:"Laura Frisk",slug:"laura-frisk"}]},{id:"30951",title:"Exploring the Superconductors with Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)",slug:"exploring-the-superconductors-with-scanning-electron-microscopy-sem-",signatures:"Shiva Kumar Singh, Devina Sharma, M. Husain, H. Kishan, Ranjan Kumar and V.P.S. Awana",authors:[{id:"105419",title:"Mr.",name:"Shiva",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Singh",fullName:"Shiva Kumar Singh",slug:"shiva-kumar-singh"},{id:"109865",title:"Prof.",name:"Mushahid",middleName:null,surname:"Husain",fullName:"Mushahid Husain",slug:"mushahid-husain"},{id:"109866",title:"Dr.",name:"V. P. S.",middleName:null,surname:"Awana",fullName:"V. P. S. Awana",slug:"v.-p.-s.-awana"},{id:"137474",title:"MSc.",name:"Devina",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",fullName:"Devina Sharma",slug:"devina-sharma"},{id:"137475",title:"Dr.",name:"H.",middleName:null,surname:"Kishan",fullName:"H. Kishan",slug:"h.-kishan"},{id:"143941",title:"Dr.",name:"Ranjan",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Ranjan Kumar",slug:"ranjan-kumar"}]},{id:"30952",title:"Morphological and Photovoltaic Studies of TiO2 NTs for High Efficiency Solar Cells",slug:"morphological-and-photovoltaic-studies-of-tio2-nanotubes-for-high-efficiency-solar-cells",signatures:"Mukul Dubey and Hongshan He",authors:[{id:"107873",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongshan",middleName:null,surname:"He",fullName:"Hongshan He",slug:"hongshan-he"},{id:"107874",title:"Mr.",name:"Mukul",middleName:null,surname:"Dubey",fullName:"Mukul Dubey",slug:"mukul-dubey"}]},{id:"30953",title:"Synthesis and Characterisation of Silica/Polyamide-Imide Composite Film for Enamel Wire",slug:"synthesis-and-characterization-of-spherical-silica-polyamide-imide-composite-film-for-enamel-wire",signatures:"Xiaokun Ma and Sun-Jae Kim",authors:[{id:"105601",title:"Prof.",name:"Sun-Jae",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Sun-Jae Kim",slug:"sun-jae-kim"},{id:"107938",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaokun",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Xiaokun Ma",slug:"xiaokun-ma"}]},{id:"30954",title:"Scanning Electron Microscope for Characterising of Micro- and Nanostructured Titanium Surfaces",slug:"scanning-electron-microscope-for-characterising-of-micro-and-nanostructured-titanium-surfaces-",signatures:"Areeya Aeimbhu",authors:[{id:"99729",title:"Dr.",name:"Areeya",middleName:null,surname:"Aeimbhu",fullName:"Areeya Aeimbhu",slug:"areeya-aeimbhu"}]},{id:"30955",title:"Application of Scanning Electron Microscopy for the Morphological Study of Biofilm in Medical Devices",slug:"application-of-scanning-electron-microscopy-for-the-morphological-study-of-biofilm-in-medical-device",signatures:"R. M. Abd El-Baky",authors:[{id:"103658",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab Mahmoud",middleName:null,surname:"Abd El-Baky",fullName:"Rehab Mahmoud Abd El-Baky",slug:"rehab-mahmoud-abd-el-baky"}]},{id:"30956",title:"Interrelated Analysis of Performance and Fouling Behaviors in Forward Osmosis by Ex-Situ Membrane Characterizations",slug:"interrelated-analysis-of-performance-and-fouling-behaviors-in-forward-osmosis-by-ex-situ-membrane-ch",signatures:"Coskun Aydiner, Semra Topcu, Caner Tortop, Ferihan Kuvvet, Didem Ekinci, Nadir Dizge and Bulent Keskinler",authors:[{id:"109299",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Coskun",middleName:null,surname:"Aydiner",fullName:"Coskun Aydiner",slug:"coskun-aydiner"}]},{id:"30957",title:"Biodegradation of Pre-Aged Modified Polyethylene Films",slug:"biodegradation-of-pre-aged-modified-polyethylene-films",signatures:"Bożena Nowak, Jolanta Pająk and Jagna Karcz",authors:[{id:"103087",title:"Dr.",name:"Bożena",middleName:"Danuta",surname:"Nowak",fullName:"Bożena Nowak",slug:"bozena-nowak"},{id:"108409",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",middleName:null,surname:"Pająk",fullName:"Jolanta Pająk",slug:"jolanta-pajak"},{id:"108412",title:"Dr.",name:"Jagna",middleName:null,surname:"Karcz",fullName:"Jagna Karcz",slug:"jagna-karcz"}]},{id:"30958",title:"Surface Analysis Studies on Polymer Electrolyte Membranes Using Scanning Electron Microscope and Atomic Force Microscope",slug:"surface-analysis-studies-on-polymer-electrolyte-membranes-using-scanning-electron-microscope-and-ato",signatures:"M. Ulaganathan, R. Nithya and S. Rajendran",authors:[{id:"102326",title:"Dr.",name:"M",middleName:null,surname:"Ulaganathan",fullName:"M Ulaganathan",slug:"m-ulaganathan"},{id:"102329",title:"Prof.",name:"S",middleName:null,surname:"Rajendran",fullName:"S Rajendran",slug:"s-rajendran"}]},{id:"30959",title:"Characterization of Ceramic Materials Synthesized by Mechanosynthesis for Energy Applications",slug:"characterization-of-ceramic-materials-synthesized-by-mechanosynthesis-for-energy-applications",signatures:"Claudia A. Cortés-Escobedo, Félix Sánchez-De Jesús, Gabriel Torres-Villaseñor, Juan Muñoz-Saldaña and Ana M. Bolarín-Miró",authors:[{id:"39070",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Bolarin-Miro",fullName:"Ana Maria Bolarin-Miro",slug:"ana-maria-bolarin-miro"},{id:"106669",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"Cortés-Escobedo",fullName:"Claudia Alicia Cortés-Escobedo",slug:"claudia-alicia-cortes-escobedo"},{id:"107412",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Munoz-Saldana",fullName:"Juan Munoz-Saldana",slug:"juan-munoz-saldana"},{id:"107419",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez-De Jesus",fullName:"Felix Sanchez-De Jesus",slug:"felix-sanchez-de-jesus"},{id:"124602",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Torres-Villasenor",fullName:"Gabriel Torres-Villasenor",slug:"gabriel-torres-villasenor"}]},{id:"30960",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Environmental SEM: Suitable Tools for Study of Adhesion Stage and Biofilm Formation",slug:"scanning-electron-microscopy-sem-and-environnmental-sem-suitable-tools-for-study-of-adhesion-stage-a",signatures:"Soumya El Abed, Saad Koraichi Ibnsouda, Hassan Latrache and Fatima Hamadi",authors:[{id:"102518",title:"Dr.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"El Abed",fullName:"Soumya El Abed",slug:"soumya-el-abed"},{id:"135701",title:"Prof.",name:"Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Koraichi Ibnsouda",fullName:"Saad Koraichi Ibnsouda",slug:"saad-koraichi-ibnsouda"},{id:"135703",title:"Prof.",name:"Latrache",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",fullName:"Latrache Hassan",slug:"latrache-hassan"},{id:"135704",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamadi",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",fullName:"Hamadi Fatima",slug:"hamadi-fatima"}]},{id:"30961",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy Study of Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Nanocomposites",slug:"scanning-electron-microscopy-study-of-fiber-reinforced-polymeric-nanocomposites",signatures:"Mohammad Kamal Hossain",authors:[{id:"104713",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",fullName:"Mohammad Hossain",slug:"mohammad-hossain"}]},{id:"30962",title:"Preparation and Characterization of Dielectric Thin Films by RF Magnetron-Sputtering with (Ba0.3Sr0.7)(Zn1/3Nb2/3)O3 Ceramic Target",slug:"preparation-and-characterization-of-dielectric-thin-films-by-rf-magnetron-sputtering-with-ba0-3sr0-7",signatures:"Feng Shi",authors:[{id:"24821",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Shi",fullName:"Feng Shi",slug:"feng-shi"}]},{id:"30963",title:"Microstructural and Mineralogical Characterization of Clay Stabilized Using Calcium-Based Stabilizers",slug:"microstructural-and-mineralogical-characterization-of-clay-stabilized-using-calcium-based-stabilizer",signatures:"Pranshoo Solanki and Musharraf Zaman",authors:[{id:"20942",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranshoo",middleName:null,surname:"Solanki",fullName:"Pranshoo Solanki",slug:"pranshoo-solanki"},{id:"20945",title:"Prof.",name:"Musharraf",middleName:null,surname:"Zaman",fullName:"Musharraf Zaman",slug:"musharraf-zaman"}]},{id:"30964",title:"The Use of ESEM in Geobiology",slug:"the-use-of-esem-in-geobiology",signatures:"Magnus Ivarsson and Sara Holmström",authors:[{id:"109413",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Ivarsson",fullName:"Magnus Ivarsson",slug:"magnus-ivarsson"},{id:"135734",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Holmström",fullName:"Sara Holmström",slug:"sara-holmstrom"}]},{id:"30965",title:"How Log Interpreter Uses SEM Data for Clay Volume Calculation",slug:"how-log-interpreter-uses-sem-data-to-estimate-a-reservoir-clay-volume-",signatures:"Mohammadhossein Mohammadlou and Mai Britt Mørk",authors:[{id:"103154",title:"PhD.",name:"Mohammadhossein",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadlou",fullName:"Mohammadhossein Mohammadlou",slug:"mohammadhossein-mohammadlou"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"68520",title:"Lipedema: A Painful Adipose Tissue Disorder",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88632",slug:"lipedema-a-painful-adipose-tissue-disorder",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Loose connective tissue disorders include lipedema, Dercum’s disease (DD), familial multiple lipomatosis (FML) and multiple symmetric lipomatosis (MSL). All these disorders share many similarities with lipedema including painful lipomas, obesity, fibrosis, a risk of developing lymphedema and difficulty in losing the abnormal fat through diet and exercise. There are clinical characteristics specific for lipedema, including the onset of the disease, fat location and associated health issues (\nTable 1\n) [1, 2].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Characteristic
\n
Lipedema
\n
DD
\n
MSL
\n
FML
\n
MSL
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Abnormal fat location
\n
Legs, arms, abdomen
\n
Global
\n
Upper; can be global
\n
Arms, thighs, trunk, abdomen
\n
Upper; can be global
\n
\n
\n
Diet-resistant fat
\n
Yes
\n
Yes
\n
Yes
\n
Yes
\n
Yes
\n
\n
\n
Lipomas
\n
Yes
\n
Common
\n
Common in men
\n
Common
\n
Common in men
\n
\n
\n
Time fat change
\n
Puberty; 3rd decade
\n
Child-adult
\n
Adult; child rare
\n
Child-adult
\n
Adult; child rare
\n
\n
\n
Painful fat
\n
Yes
\n
Yes
\n
Not usually
\n
Lipoma
\n
Not usually
\n
\n
\n
Sex predominance
\n
Female
\n
Female
\n
Male
\n
Male = female
\n
Male
\n
\n
\n
Lymphatic dysfunction
\n
Yes
\n
Yes
\n
Yes
\n
Yes
\n
Yes
\n
\n
\n
Prevalence
\n
Possibly common
\n
Possibly common
\n
Rare
\n
Rare
\n
Rare
\n
\n
\n
Associated conditions
\n
Lymphedema
\n
Autoimmune; diabetes
\n
Neuropathy
\n
Moles; neuropathy
\n
Neuropathy
\n
\n
\n
Inheritance pattern
\n
Autosomal dominant; incomplete penetrance
\n
Autosomal dominant; sex-specific influence
\n
Autosomal dominant or recessive
\n
Autosomal dominant
\n
Autosomal dominant or recessive
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Characteristics of loose connective tissue disorders.
Lipedema is often misdiagnosed as lifestyle-induced obesity that affects ~10% of women of European descent as well as other populations [3, 4]. Although both disorders are considered inflammatory diseases due to the presence of increased macrophages and hypertrophic adipocytes, there are significant differences between the two disorders. Among these is the location of the fat, primarily abdominal or spread widely over the body in obesity compared to the symmetric distribution in the lower extremities in lipedema, the texture of the skin (thin and soft in lipedema and thicker in obesity), easy bruising and pain upon the introduction of pressure in lipedema [5, 6].
\n
The focus of this review will be on the disease of lipedema, different stages and types, diagnosis and treatment, pathogenesis and current research in the field.
\n
\n
\n
2. Lipedema
\n
Lipedema also referred to as lipedema, is a painful loose connective tissue disorder first described in 1940 by Allen and Hines [7]. Lipedema is characterized by symmetric enlargement of the buttocks, hips and legs due to deposition of loose connective tissue that includes fascia, adipocytes, immune cells and other structures; arms are also affected in 80% of patients [3, 4]. Feet are typically spared, but ankle cuffs are often noted in advanced stages of lipedema where the risk of lymphedema is also high [8, 9]. Patients with lipedema experience mobility issues, psychosocial distress, anxiety, eating disorders, sleep apnea and depression [1, 10].
\n
Lipedema is considered a hormone-related disorder affecting almost exclusively women during puberty, childbirth or menopause. Case reports of men with lipedema have been described in literature. Men with lipedema have elevated estrogen level and low to absent testosterone levels resulting in cirrhosis, gynecomastia and hypogonadism [11, 12, 13]. While the exact etiopathogenesis of this disease is unknown [10, 14], many studies have demonstrated that inflammatory cells, hypertrophic adipocytes, abnormal blood vessels and lymphatic dysfunction are associated with tissue damage and development of a fibrotic disease [14, 15, 16, 17].
\n
\n
2.1 Stages of lipedema
\n
Lipedema consists of three stages characterized by the texture of skin and tissue formation. Stage 1 involves smooth skin over pearl-sized nodules in a hypertrophic fat layer; Stage 2 has skin indentations over a hypertrophic fat structure of pearl-to-apple-size masses; and Stage 3 includes pearl-sized nodules and much larger fat masses causing lobules of skin and fat to form mainly on the hips, thighs, and around the knees. Lymphedema, causing fluid accumulation in the limbs, may develop during any stage of lipedema and is referred to as lipo-lymphedema [1, 3, 10, 18, 19].
\n
Healthcare providers often misdiagnose women with lipedema as they do not take into account the disproportionate size of the legs compared to trunk especially in Stage 1 and 2 along with the inability to lose fat from areas affected by lipedema. It is possible to confuse women with Stage 3 lipedema as having lifestyle-induced obesity due to fat involving more areas of the body.
\n
\n
\n
2.2 Types of lipedema
\n
In addition to stages of lipedema, lipedema is also characterized by types determined by the area of the body that is affected. There are five types of lipedema; types I, II, and III are the most common. In Type I, fat is deposited in the areas of the buttocks and hips resembling saddle bags. In Type II, fat extends to the knees from the buttocks area with the formation of folds of fat around the inside of the knee. In Type III, fat spreads all over the lower body from the hips to the ankles. In Type IV, upper arms are affected causing difficulty in lifting the arm and stress on the shoulder. In Type V, fat is restricted to the lower legs. It is worth noting that patients with lipedema can clinically present with a mixture of types [3, 10].
\n
\n
\n
2.3 Signs and symptoms
\n
Pain, tenderness, bruising easily, symmetrical swelling of the legs, heaviness of affected limbs, burning sensations in the skin and fat, soft skin, negative stemmer’s sign and hypermobile joints are among the common symptoms observed in lipedema patients [2, 3, 6, 13]. Hypermobility in women with has been reported to contribute to joint damage and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease as seen in Ehlers Danlos Syndrome-Hypermobility Type (EDS-HT) with Beighton score higher than 5 [2, 3, 20, 21]. Thus, hypermobility causes structural changes in lipedema tissue resulting in increased fibrosis, dysfunction of blood vessels and accumulation of interstitial fluid.
\n
Women with lipedema also experience emotional symptoms due to unexplained weight gain including embarrassment, anxiety and depression that impact their overall quality of life [22, 23]. Symptoms may progress in advanced stages of lipedema that might be associated with increased cardiovascular and renal diseases. A study conducted by Herbst el al. in 2015 provides a detailed list of symptoms experienced by lipedema patients [3].
\n
\n
\n
2.4 Diagnosis and treatment of lipedema
\n
Diagnosis of lipedema involves a comprehensive physical exam based on the criteria listed by Wold and colleagues in 1951, [4] medical and surgical history, list of medications that might affect weight or fluid retention and family history. A physical examination includes assessment of the enlarged lower extremities carefully noting the texture of the affected areas such as velvety soft skin that can be found in hypermobility, nodular fat, pain when applying pressure, tenderness upon palpation and accumulation of fluid such as pitting or non-pitting edema which may indicate lymphedema [18, 24]. Bruising caused by increased capillary fragility [6], spider veins and telangiectasia showing on the surface of the skin due to venous insufficiency are also observed in lipedema patients [4, 10].
\n
Although, there is no cure for lipedema, treatments like liposuction (tumescent and water jet) [25], complete decongestive therapy that includes manual lymphatic drainage [26, 27], compression garments, a healthy diet, physical activity, medications and supplements (statins, selenium, diosmin, amphetamines and butcher’s broom) have been shown to reduce pain, improve lymphatic function, decrease leakage from blood vessels, lessen inflammation and fibrosis and maintain a healthy gut [24, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
\n
Liposuction is by far the most effective treatment to decrease the fibrotic lipedema fat and thereby maintain mobility which is essential for the welfare of women living with lipedema [35, 36, 37]. Water jet-assisted liposuction has been proven to be as effective as tumescent liposuction. Damage to the lymph vessels has not been show as evidenced in a histological study conducted by Stutz et al. on lipoaspirates collected from lipedema patients [32]. Nevertheless, special care should be taken with lipo-lymphedema patients, where accumulated lymph and or fibrotic tissue should be removed first. Furthermore, follow-up and compression therapy are advised for successful and effective treatment.
\n
Deep tissue massage has also been demonstrated to improve the quality of subcutaneous adipose tissue by decreasing pain, fibrosis and fat tissue in women with lipedema [29, 38].
\n
Additionally, a healthy non-inflammatory diet is highly recommended, even though it will not reduce the lipedema tissue, but it might slow the progression of the disease by reducing inflammation and pain, lessen the swelling and ultimately improve quality of life. No one plan works for everyone but a ketogenic diet with low processed carbohydrate and mild physical exercises like walking, swimming, Pilates, yoga and other home excise programs are suggested by lipedema specialists. These activates will help the function of lymphatic pump and maintain a normal metabolism.
\n
Finally, it is very important to detect and treat lipedema at early stages thus preventing the complications that might occur due to the progression of disease. These complications comprise eating disorders, sleep apnea, diabetes mellitus, arthritis, hypertension, cellulitis, cardiac and renal disease.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Lipedema versus lymphedema
\n
There are distinctive criteria for lipedema which are absent in lymphedema including a negative Stemmer’s sign, minimal pitting edema, thin skin, easy bruising, tenderness and pain [14, 39, 40]. Although lymphatic microaneurysms might develop in the later stages of lipedema leading to secondary lymphedema, imaging techniques like high-resolution cutaneous ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging showed no defects in the lymphatic system in early stages [24, 41, 42, 43]. Other methods have also been successfully used to differentiate lipedema from lymphedema which includes tissue dielectric constant and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry techniques [44, 45, 46, 47, 48].
\n
Dysfunction of lymphatic vessels results in accumulation of interstitial fluid (edema) in adipose tissues triggering inflammation by the recruitment of macrophages resulting in fibrosis and difficulty with weight loss. As a consequence, adipose tissue loses its elasticity suggesting that lipedema might be a connective tissue disorder [15, 49]. Studies have also indicated that edema might induce growth of lipedema fat as well as hypoxia resulting in adipocyte cell death [50].
\n
Further, morphologic changes in lymphatic vessels and accumulation of interstitial fluid are present in some women with lipedema, with no change in transport of lymphatic fluid, which suggests these individuals might have a higher risk of progressing to lipo-lymphedema especially in advanced stages of lipedema [15, 51]. Accurate diagnosis of lipedema in association with lymphedema is essential for treating and following up of lipedema patients.
\n
\n
\n
4. Pathophysiology of the disease
\n
Hormones, genetic factors, leaky blood vessels, dysfunctional lymphatics system, inflammation, hypertrophic adipocytes and interstitial thickening are among the factors that contribute to the pathogenesis of lipedema [10, 12, 15].
\n
\n
4.1 Hormones
\n
Hormones play an essential role in the etiology of the lipedema, but how they affect the metabolism and function of adipocytes function is still unknown. Studies have shown that hormones, like estrogen and progesterone, have a direct effect on lipogenesis, insulin levels and adipose tissue distribution in the body. Dysregulation of hormonal levels lead to fat dysregulation, impairment of the lipogenesis-lipolysis mechanism, hypertension, insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia [13, 52, 53]. Hormones might also have an impact on the nervous system which might explain the pain experienced by lipedema patients. Szél et al. hypothesized that alteration in estrogen (or estrogen receptors) maybe involved in the pathogenesis of lipedema by suggesting a link between accumulation of adipose tissue, imbalanced estrogen levels and inflammation of the peripheral and sympathetic nerves of the disease [13].
\n
\n
\n
4.2 Adipocytes, immune cells and blood vessels
\n
Lipedema fat tissue is characterized by hypertrophic adipocytes, inflammatory immune cells, dilation of subdermal blood and lymphatic vessels. We and others have shown a high number of infiltrating macrophages in lipedema adipose tissue detected by the CD68 marker and observed as around blood vessels or as crown-like structures surrounding necrotic adipocytes. In addition to macrophages, mast cells and T-lymphocytes were detected in hyper-vascular areas mainly around blood vessels in lipedema fat tissue which might contribute to capillary permeability and accumulation of interstitial fluid [15, 16, 54].
\n
An article published in 2004 by Taylor et al. showed that accumulation of mast cells in lipedema tissue contributed to increased interstitial fluid, deterioration of adipocytes and potentially elastic fiber fragmentation due to the release of elastase [55], confirming that lipedema is a connective tissue disorder. Adding to that, direct cell-cell interaction between hypertrophic adipocyte and macrophages as well as secreted paracrine factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a marker of angiogenesis, previously reported in the blood of women with lipedema [56] might be associated with increase in the number of blood vessels, dilation of capillaries, hypoxia, inflammation and tissue fibrosis found in lipedema patients [15, 18, 57].
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Is there a role of adipose-derived stem cells (ASC) in lipedema?
\n
Adipose tissue-derived stem cells are widely studied for their immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, anti-fibrotic, anti-apoptotic and pro-angiogenic effects [58, 59, 60], but how ASCs contribute to the development of lipedema has not been investigated yet. Due to their high therapeutic potential, ASCs are now considered an indispensable tool in regenerative medicine [61, 62, 63, 64]. Studies have shown the successful treatment with ASCs for many disease including graft-versus-host disease [65], wound healing [66], cardiovascular [67], inflammatory bowel disease [68], diabetes mellitus [69] and several injuries including kidney and spinal cord [70], bone and craniofacial reconstruction [71, 72], liver cirrhosis [73], multiple sclerosis [74]. In addition to their self-renewal ability, ASCs have the ability to differentiate into multiple lineages, including adipocytes, osteoblasts, chondrocytes, and endothelial cells [75, 76]. Thus, ASCs might play a role in lipedema adiposity by inducing the expansion and differentiation of progenitor adipose-derived stem/progenitor cells (pre-adipocytes) into mature adipocytes (hyperplasia). Suga el at. have shown an increase in proliferation of adipose-derived stem/progenitor cell proliferation using Ki67 and CD34 markers suggesting an increase in adipogenesis, hypoxia, and adipocyte necrosis, at least in one case [16].
\n
Adding to that, inflammatory cytokines secreted by hypertrophic adipocytes and factors in the interstitial fluid could stimulate ASC differentiation into mature adipocytes. Alternatively, ASCs produce a plethora of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines that might contribute to angiogenesis and inflammation resulting in leaky and fragile blood vessels [77, 78]. Priglinger et al. have characterized lipedema ASCs isolated from liposuction samples and showed an increasing number of endothelial/pericytic cells using CD146 marker in lipedema patients compared to healthy individuals proposing that this increase might be a marker of repair of leaky blood and lymphatic vessels in lipedema tissues [54].
\n
Although, ASCs might induce adipogenesis in lipedema an in-depth characterization of ASCs is required to confirm this theory. Otherwise, if ASCs prove to have anti-inflammatory, anti-fibrotic or pro-angiogenic effects, then they might be used to lessen tissue damage caused by leaky vessels; hence autologous treatment might be a promising tool for lipedema patients.
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusion
\n
Lipedema is a painful fat disease that should be differentiated from obesity and lymphedema. It is the responsibility of the healthcare provider to determine the accurate diagnosis of the disease for successful treatment and management. Liposuction, hands-on therapy, exercise, and a healthy eating plan are recommended for lipedema patients. Although the etiology of lipedema is complicated, hypertrophic adipocytes, inflammatory cytokines, and macrophages, hypoxia, leaky vessels and accumulation of interstitial fluid contribute to the pathogenesis of the disease and may also help guide treatment.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This work was funded by a grant from the Lipedema Foundation.
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"lipedema, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, blood vessels, lymphatics",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68520.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68520.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68520",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68520",totalDownloads:1368,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"May 9th 2019",dateReviewed:"July 17th 2019",datePrePublished:"August 20th 2019",datePublished:"November 6th 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Lipedema is a painful fat disease of loose connective tissue usually misdiagnosed as lifestyle-induced obesity that affects ~10% of women of European descent as well as other populations. Lipedema is characterized by symmetric enlargement of the buttocks, hips, and legs due to increased loose connective tissue; arms are also affected in 80% of patients. Lipedema loose connective tissue is characterized by hypertrophic adipocytes, inflammatory cells, and dilated leaky blood and lymphatic vessels. Altered fluid flux through the tissue causes accumulation of fluid, protein, and other constituents in the interstitium resulting in recruitment of inflammatory cells, which in turn stimulates fibrosis and results in difficulty in weight loss. Inflammation and excess interstitial substance may also activate nerve fibers instigating the painful lipedema fat tissue. More research is needed to characterize lipedema loose connective tissue structure in depth, as well as the form and function of blood and lymphatic vessels. Understanding the pathophysiology of the disease will allow healthcare providers to diagnose the disease and develop treatments.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68520",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68520",signatures:"Sara Al-Ghadban, Karen L. Herbst and Bruce A. Bunnell",book:{id:"8797",title:"Adipose Tissue",subtitle:"An Update",fullTitle:"Adipose Tissue - An Update",slug:"adipose-tissue-an-update",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8797.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"304521",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ghadban",fullName:"Sara Al-Ghadban",slug:"sara-al-ghadban",email:"sara.ghadban@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"309616",title:"Prof.",name:"Bruce",middleName:null,surname:"Bunnell",fullName:"Bruce Bunnell",slug:"bruce-bunnell",email:"bbunnell@tulane.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"Tulane Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"309617",title:"Dr.",name:"Karen",middleName:null,surname:"Herbst",fullName:"Karen Herbst",slug:"karen-herbst",email:"karenherbst@deptofmed.arizona.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Arizona Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Lipedema",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Stages of lipedema",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Types of lipedema",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Signs and symptoms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Diagnosis and treatment of lipedema",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Lipedema versus lymphedema",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Pathophysiology of the disease",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Hormones",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2 Adipocytes, immune cells and blood vessels",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Is there a role of adipose-derived stem cells (ASC) in lipedema?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nHerbst KL. Rare adipose disorders (RADs) masquerading as obesity. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica. 2012;33(2):155-172\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nBeltran K, Herbst KL. Differentiating lipedema and Dercum’s disease. International Journal of Obesity. 2017;41(2):240-245\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nHerbst KL et al. Lipedema fat and signs and symptoms of illness, increase with advancing stage. Archives of Medicine. 2015;7:1-8\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nWold LE, Hines EA, Allen EV. Lipedema of the legs; a syndrome characterized by fat legs and edema. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1951;34(5):1243\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nForner-Cordero I et al. Lipedema: An overview of its clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment of the disproportional fatty deposition syndrome—Systematic review. Clinical Obesity. 2012;2(3-4):86-95\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nSzolnoky G et al. Measurement of capillary fragility: A useful tool to differentiate lipedema from obesity? Lymphology. 2017;50(4):203\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nWold LE, Hines EA, Allen EA. Lipedema of the legs: A syndrome characterised by fat legs and orthostatic edema. Proceedings of the Staff Meetings. Mayo Clinic. 1940;15:184-187\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nShin BW et al. Lipedema, a rare disease. Annals of Rehabilitation Medicine. 2011;35(6):922\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nSzolnoky G, Kemeny L. Lipoedema: From clinical presentation to therapy. Further aspects. The British Journal of Dermatology. 2010;162(4):889-889\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nTorre YS-DL et al. Lipedema: Friend and foe. Hormone Molecular Biology and Clinical Investigation. 2018;33(1). DOI: 10.1515/hmbci-2017-0076\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nChen S-G et al. Painful fat syndrome in a male patient. British Journal of Plastic Surgery. 2004;57(3):282-286\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nChild AH et al. Lipedema: An inherited condition. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A. 2010;152(4):970-976\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nSzél E et al. Pathophysiological dilemmas of lipedema. Medical Hypotheses. 2014;83(5):599-606\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nBuck DW, Herbst KL. Lipedema: A relatively common disease with extremely common misconceptions. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. Global Open. 2016;4(9):e1043\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nAl-Ghadban S et al. Dilated blood and lymphatic microvessels, angiogenesis, increased macrophages, and adipocyte hypertrophy in lipedema thigh skin and fat tissue. Journal of Obesity. 2019;2019:8747461\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nSuga H et al. Adipose tissue remodeling in lipedema: Adipocyte death and concurrent regeneration. Journal of Cutaneous Pathology. 2009;36(12):1293-1298\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nLohrmann C, Foeldi E, Langer M. MR imaging of the lymphatic system in patients with lipedema and lipo-lymphedema. Microvascular Research. 2009;77(3):335-339\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nFife EC, Maus AE, Carter JM. Lipedema: A frequently misdiagnosed and misunderstood fatty deposition syndrome. Advances in Skin & Wound Care. 2010;23(2):81-92\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nPascucci A, Lynch PJ. Lipedema with multiple lipomas. Dermatology Online Journal. 2010;16(9):4\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nStrunk RG, Pfefer MT, Dube D. Multimodal chiropractic care of pain and disability for a patient diagnosed with benign joint hypermobility syndrome: A case report. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine. 2014;13(1):35-42\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nBeighton P, Grahame R, Bird H. Assessment of Hypermobility. London: Springer London; 2012. pp. 11-26\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nAlwardat N et al. The effect of lipedema on health-related quality of life and psychological status: A narrative review of the literature. Eat Weight Disorder. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-019-00703-x\n\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nDudek JE et al. Depression and appearance-related distress in functioning with lipedema. Psychology. Health & Medicine. 2018;23(7):846-853\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nPeled AW, Kappos EA. Lipedema: Diagnostic and management challenges. International Journal of Women’s Health. 2016;8:389\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nSchmeller W, Hueppe M, Meier-Vollrath I. Tumescent liposuction in lipoedema yields good long-term results. British Journal of Dermatology. 2012;166(1):161-168\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nSzolnoky G et al. Complete decongestive physiotherapy with and without pneumatic compression for treatment of lipedema: A pilot study. Lymphology. 2008;41(1):40\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nSzolnoky G et al. Complex decongestive physiotherapy decreases capillary fragility in lipedema. Lymphology. 2008;41(4):161\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nOkhovat J-P, Alavi A. In: Rerkasem K, editor. Lipedema: A Review of the Literature. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Journals; 2015. pp. 262-267\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nHerbst KL, Ussery C, Eekema A. Pilot study: Whole body manual subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) therapy improved pain and SAT structure in women with lipedema. Hormone Molecular Biology and Clinical Investigation. 2017;33(2). DOI: 10.1515/hmbci-2017-0035\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nChuck Ehrlich EI, Herbst KL, Kahn L-A, Sears DD, Kenyon M, McMahon E. Lymphedema and Lipedema Nutrition Guide. Foods, Vitamins, Minerals, and Supplements. San Francisco: Lymph Notes; 2015\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nBeninson J, Edelglass JW. Lipedema—The non-lymphatic masquerader. Angiology. 1984;35(8):506\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nStutz J, Krahl D. Water jet-assisted liposuction for patients with lipoedema: Histologic and immunohistologic analysis of the aspirates of 30 lipoedema patients. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery. 2009;33(2):153-162\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nPortillo-Soto A et al. Comparison of blood flow changes with soft tissue mobilization and massage therapy. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine (New York, N.Y.). 2014;20(12):932\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nMacdonald JM, Sims N, Mayrovitz HN. Lymphedema, lipedema, and the open wound: The role of compression therapy. Surgical Clinics of North America. 2003;83(3):639-658\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nDadras M et al. Liposuction in the treatment of lipedema: A longitudinal study. Archives of Plastic Surgery. 2017;44(4):324-331\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nBrorson H. Liposuction normalizes—In contrast to other therapies—Lymphedema-induced adipose tissue hypertrophy. Handchirurgie, Mikrochirurgie, Plastische Chirurgie. 2013;44(06):348-354\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nBaum S et al. Treatment of lipoedema using liposuction: Results of our own surveys. Phlébologie. 2015;44(3):121-132\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nIbarra M et al. Subcutaneous adipose tissue therapy reduces fat by dual X-ray absorptiometry scan and improves tissue structure by ultrasound in women with lipoedema and Dercum disease. Clinical Obesity. 2018;8(6):398-406\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nShavit E, Wollina U, Alavi A. Lipoedema is not lymphoedema: A review of current literature. International Wound Journal. 2018;15(6):921-928\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nRudkin G, Miller TA. Lipedema—A clinical entity distinct from lymphedema. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 1994;94(6):841-847\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nLangendoen SI et al. Lipoedema: From clinical presentation to therapy. A review of the literature. British Journal of Dermatology. 2009;161:980-986\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nFonder MA, Loveless JW, Lazarus G. Lipedema, a frequently unrecognized problem. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2007;57(2):S1-S3\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nAmann-Vesti B, Franzeck UK, Bollinger A. Microlymphatic aneurysms in patients with lipedema. Lymphology. 2001;34(4):170-175\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nDimakakos PB et al. MRI and ultrasonographic findings in the investigation of lymphedema and lipedema. International Surgery. 1997;82(4):411\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nNaouri M et al. High-resolution cutaneous ultrasonography to differentiate lipoedema from lymphoedema. British Journal of Dermatology. 2010;163(2):296-301\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nBräutigam P et al. Analysis of lymphatic drainage in various forms of leg edema using two compartment lymphoscintigraphy. Lymphology. 1998;31(2):43\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nTuğral A, Bakar Y. An approach to lipedema: A literature review of current knowledge of an underestimated health problem. European Journal of Plastic Surgery. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00238-019-01519-9\n\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nBirkballe S. Can tissue dielectric constant measurement aid in differentiating lymphoedema from lipoedema in women with swollen legs? British Journal of Dermatology. 2014;170(1):96-103\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nWilliams A, Macewan I. Accurate diagnosis and self-care support for women with lipoedema. Practice Nursing. 2016;27(7):325-332\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nMartin S, Edward MC, Peter C. Lymph makes you fat. Nature Genetics. 2005;37(10):1023\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nBilancini S et al. Functional lymphatic alterations in patients suffering from lipedema. Angiology. 1995;46(4):333-339\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nVan Pelt R et al. Acute modulation of adipose tissue lipolysis by intravenous estrogens. Obesity. 2006;14(12):2163-2172\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nMayes JS, Watson GH. Direct effects of sex steroid hormones on adipose tissues and obesity. Obesity Reviews. 2004;5(4):197-216\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nPriglinger E et al. The adipose tissue: Derived stromal vascular fraction cells from lipedema patients: Are they different? Cytotherapy. 2017;19(7):849-860\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nTaylor NE et al. Tumefactive lipedema with pseudoxanthoma elasticum-like microscopic changes. Journal of Cutaneous Pathology. 2004;31(2):205-209\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nSiems W et al. Anti- fibrosclerotic effects of shock wave therapy in lipedema and cellulite. BioFactors. 2005;24(1-4):275-282\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nSun K et al. Fibrosis and adipose tissue dysfunction. Cell Metabolism. 2013;18(4):470-477\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nGimble MJ, Katz JA, Bunnell AB. Adipose-derived stem cells for regenerative medicine. Circulation Research. 2007;100(9):1249-1260\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nGimble JM et al. Concise review: Adipose-derived stromal vascular fraction cells and stem cells: Let’s not get lost in translation. 2011: p. 749-754\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nUccelli A, Moretta L, Pistoia V. Mesenchymal stem cells in health and disease. Nature Reviews Immunology. 2008;8:726\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nFrese L, Dijkman PE, Hoerstrup SP. Adipose tissue-derived stem cells in regenerative medicine. Transfusion Medicine and Hemotherapy. 2016;43(4):268-274\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nKonno M et al. Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells and. Regenerative Medicine. 2013;55:309-318\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nOng WK, Sugii S. Adipose-derived stem cells: Fatty potentials for therapy. The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology. 2013;45(6):1083\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nSchneider S. Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells from liposuction and resected fat are feasible sources for regenerative medicine. European Journal of Medical Research. 2017;22(1):17\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nAmorin B et al. Mesenchymal stem cell therapy and acute graft-versus-host disease: A review. Human Cell. 2014;27:137-150\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nLi P, Guo X. A review: Therapeutic potential of adipose-derived stem cells in cutaneous wound healing and regeneration. Stem Cell Research & Therapy. 2018;9(1)\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nWhite IA et al. Mesenchymal stem cells in cardiology. Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.). 2016;1416:55\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nDe Francesco F et al. The role of adipose stem cells in inflammatory bowel disease: From biology to novel therapeutic strategies. Cancer Biology & Therapy; 2016. pp. 889-898\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nTakahashi H et al. Regenerative and transplantation medicine: Cellular therapy using adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells for type 1 diabetes mellitus. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2019;8(2):249\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nCrigna A et al. Stem/stromal cells for treatment of kidney injuries with focus on preclinical models. Frontiers in Medicine. 2018;5:179\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nPaduano F et al. Adipose tissue as a strategic source of mesenchymal stem cells in bone regeneration: A topical review on the most promising craniomaxillofacial applications. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2017;18(10):2140\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nCiuffi S, Zonefrati R, Brandi ML. Adipose stem cells for bone tissue repair. Clinical Cases in Mineral and Bone Metabolism: The Official Journal of the Italian Society of Osteoporosis, Mineral Metabolism, and Skeletal Diseases. 2017;14(2):217\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nKwak K-A et al. Current perspectives regarding stem cell-based therapy for liver cirrhosis. Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 2018;2018. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4197857\n\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nBowles AC et al. Adipose stromal vascular fraction attenuates T1 cell-mediated pathology in a model of multiple sclerosis. Journal of Neuroinflammation. 2018;15(1):77\n'},{id:"B75",body:'\nBourin P et al. Stromal cells from the adipose tissue-derived stromal vascular fraction and culture expanded adipose tissue-derived stromal/stem cells: A joint statement of the International Federation for Adipose Therapeutics and Science (IFATS) and the International Society for Cellular Therapy (ISCT). Cytotherapy. 2013;15(6):641\n'},{id:"B76",body:'\nBunnell BA et al. Adipose-derived stem cells: Isolation, expansion and differentiation. Methods. 2008;45(2):115-120\n'},{id:"B77",body:'\nGnecchi M et al. Paracrine mechanisms of mesenchymal stem cells in tissue repair. Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.). 2016;1416:123\n'},{id:"B78",body:'\nRehman JJ et al. Secretion of angiogenic and antiapoptotic factors by human adipose stromal cells. Circulation: Journal of the American Heart Association. 2004;109(10):1292-1298\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Sara Al-Ghadban",address:"sara.ghadban@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Center for Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, USA
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Karen L. Herbst",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Medicine and TREAT Program, College of Medicine, University of Arizona, USA
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Bruce A. Bunnell",address:null,affiliation:'
Center for Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, USA
Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Tulane University, USA
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8797",title:"Adipose Tissue",subtitle:"An Update",fullTitle:"Adipose Tissue - An Update",slug:"adipose-tissue-an-update",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8797.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"196944",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Myeongsang",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",email:"into88msl@korea.ac.kr",fullName:"Myeongsang Lee",slug:"myeongsang-lee",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Structure-Property Relationship of Amyloidogenic Prion Nanofibrils",slug:"structure-property-relationship-of-amyloidogenic-prion-nanofibrils",abstract:"The structure and its property for the prion nanofibrils, which exhibit self-assembled steric zipper, amyloid fibrils, are described in this chapter. There is the belief of origin for the infectiousness of the prion can be its molecular structure. It is due to the amyloid toxicity, which is related to its beta sheet rich molecular structure and self-aggregated long fibrils. There is evidence that the difference between PrPc and PrPsc is transitioned beta sheet from alpha helix to self-assemble and then to the amyloidogenic fibrils. Therefore, the scope of this chapter is the amyloidogenic structural characteristics of prion fibrils and its relationship to the property. The molecular structural characteristics can be changed by properties such as affinity, toxicity, infectivity, and so on, so this is a key factor to understand the origin of prion disease and develop the therapeutic strategy. One of the main properties of amyloid fibrils that we want to describe here is mechanical property such as dynamic property and material property for prion nanofibrils. This chapter can shed light on understanding the infectious characteristics of prion and the relationship of its molecular structures.",signatures:"Myeongsang Lee, Hyunsung Choi, Jae In Kim, Gwonchan Yoon and\nSungsoo Na",authors:[{id:"192090",title:"Dr.",name:"Gwonchan",surname:"Yoon",fullName:"Gwonchan Yoon",slug:"gwonchan-yoon",email:"gwonchanyoon@gmail.com"},{id:"196944",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Myeongsang",surname:"Lee",fullName:"Myeongsang Lee",slug:"myeongsang-lee",email:"into88msl@korea.ac.kr"},{id:"196945",title:"Prof.",name:"Sungsoo",surname:"Na",fullName:"Sungsoo Na",slug:"sungsoo-na",email:"nass@korea.ac.kr"},{id:"197178",title:"Mr.",name:"Hyunsung",surname:"Choi",fullName:"Hyunsung Choi",slug:"hyunsung-choi",email:"blacktosel@gmail.com"},{id:"197179",title:"Dr.",name:"Jae In",surname:"Kim",fullName:"Jae In Kim",slug:"jae-in-kim",email:"jay414@korea.ac.kr"}],book:{title:"Prion",slug:"prion-an-overview",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"155973",title:"Prof.",name:"Masahiro",surname:"Kawahara",slug:"masahiro-kawahara",fullName:"Masahiro Kawahara",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Musashino University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"191907",title:"Prof.",name:"Pamela",surname:"Skinner",slug:"pamela-skinner",fullName:"Pamela Skinner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Minnesota",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"192182",title:"Dr.",name:"Davis",surname:"Seelig",slug:"davis-seelig",fullName:"Davis Seelig",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"192409",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Reidy",slug:"michael-reidy",fullName:"Michael Reidy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institutes of Health",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"192691",title:"Prof.",name:"Gianluigi",surname:"Zanusso",slug:"gianluigi-zanusso",fullName:"Gianluigi Zanusso",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Verona",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"192803",title:"Dr.",name:"Michele",surname:"Fiorini",slug:"michele-fiorini",fullName:"Michele Fiorini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Verona",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"193152",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken-Ichiro",surname:"Tanaka",slug:"ken-ichiro-tanaka",fullName:"Ken-Ichiro Tanaka",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"193350",title:"Dr.",name:"Suzanne",surname:"Sindi",slug:"suzanne-sindi",fullName:"Suzanne Sindi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"195584",title:"Dr.",name:"Matilde",surname:"Bongianni",slug:"matilde-bongianni",fullName:"Matilde Bongianni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"195993",title:"Dr.",name:"Dai",surname:"Mizuno",slug:"dai-mizuno",fullName:"Dai Mizuno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"order-print-copies",title:"Order Print Copies",intro:'
Our books are published online and are accessible for free. However, if you are interested in ordering your hardcover copy, you can do so by contacting our Print Sales Department at orders@intechopen.com. All IntechOpen books are printed on demand in full-colour and delivered in signature packaging through free DHL Express delivery. A selection of our books in soft cover is also available through Amazon.
',metaTitle:"Order Print Copies",metaDescription:"Our books are published online and are accessible for free. However, if you are interested in ordering your printed copy, you can do so by contacting our Print Sales Department at orders@intechopen.com.\n\nOur hardcover books are carefully designed and printed on wood-free premium quality paper.\n\nThe paper size is 155 mm x 225 mm (6.1 X 8.8 inches).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/order-print-copies",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
InTechOpen contributors can order print books at a special price ranging from:
\\n\\n
55-90 GBP for Hardcover full-colour books
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Discounts are granted for orders of 10 copies and more.
\\n\\t
All library orders receive a 20% discount.
\\n\\t
There is no minimum or maximum threshold on the quantity of book orders.
\\n
\\n\\n
For a quote please contact us directly at orders@intechopen.com The quote will be sent to you within 1-2 business days.
\\n\\n
All of the books and chapters can be browsed online. To obtain InTechOpen's full book catalogue in PDF, please contact us.
Books and offprints printed specifically for your order
\\n\\t
Ordered, printed, and shipped in 12-20 business days
\\n\\t
Available for purchase at any time
\\n\\t
No minimum or maximum threshold on book order quantity
\\n
\\n\\n
IntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
\\n\\n
Representatives
\\n\\n
Print copies of our publications are most often purchased as individual purchases by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions. Our books are available at our direct Print Sales Department and through selected representatives throughout the world.
\\n\\n
India - CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Representative for: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Iran, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunis, United Arab Emirates and Yemen
\\n
\\n\\n
ASEAN - Books International
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Representative for: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam
*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax of 5%. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
Books and offprints printed specifically for your order
\n\t
Ordered, printed, and shipped in 12-20 business days
\n\t
Available for purchase at any time
\n\t
No minimum or maximum threshold on book order quantity
\n
\n\n
IntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
\n\n
Representatives
\n\n
Print copies of our publications are most often purchased as individual purchases by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions. Our books are available at our direct Print Sales Department and through selected representatives throughout the world.
\n\n
India - CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
\n\n
\n\t
Representative for: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Iran, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunis, United Arab Emirates and Yemen
\n
\n\n
ASEAN - Books International
\n\n
\n\t
Representative for: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam
*The price does not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax of 5%. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing us with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"160349",title:null,name:null,middleName:null,surname:null,slug:"",fullName:null,position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"25887",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Abbasi",slug:"abbasi",fullName:"Abbasi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"161332",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Abu-El Hassan",slug:"abu-el-hassan",fullName:"Abu-El Hassan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"212347",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Abubakar",slug:"abubakar",fullName:"Abubakar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"93806",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Adani",slug:"adani",fullName:"Adani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"158756",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Adler",slug:"adler",fullName:"Adler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"63002",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Agius",slug:"agius",fullName:"Agius",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"34637",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"ahmed",fullName:"Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"118228",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"ahmed",fullName:"Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"89784",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Ai",slug:"ai",fullName:"Ai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"158339",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Akahoshi",slug:"akahoshi",fullName:"Akahoshi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"158540",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Al-Jumaily",slug:"al-jumaily",fullName:"Al-Jumaily",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5682},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5165},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1682},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10206},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117097},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"12"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10590",title:"Humic Substance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"85786eb36b3e13979aae664a4e046625",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Abdelhadi Makan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10590.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"247727",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhadi",surname:"Makan",slug:"abdelhadi-makan",fullName:"Abdelhadi Makan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10758",title:"Sustainable Development of Lakes and Reservoirs",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"478fd03f02a98452a4a56ed2a6c85dbd",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10758.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10760",title:"Steppe Biome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"982f06cee6ee2f27339f3c263b3e6560",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10760.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10765",title:"Environmental Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e5ba02fedd7c87f0ab66414f3b07de0c",slug:null,bookSignature:" John P. Tiefenbacher",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10765.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10766",title:"Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a0a54a9ab661e4765fee76ce580cd121",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10766.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10844",title:"Protected Areas Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5b85cf581ee89c6c1457aefdb0bc495a",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10844.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10845",title:"Marine Ecosystems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b369ac809068d2ebf1f8c26418cc6bec",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10845.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10846",title:"Stormwater",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9bfae8caba192ce3ab6744c9cbefa210",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10846.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:8},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5128},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-health",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1221",title:"Biomechanics",slug:"optics-and-lasers-biomechanics",parent:{title:"Optics and Lasers",slug:"optics-and-lasers"},numberOfBooks:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:0,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"optics-and-lasers-biomechanics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[],booksByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"optics-and-lasers-biomechanics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/196944/myeongsang-lee",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"196944",slug:"myeongsang-lee"},fullPath:"/profiles/196944/myeongsang-lee",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var t;(t=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(t)}()