\r\n\tDespite enormous efforts, crop production is compromised due to a number of biotic and abiotic factors hence, the crop demands more attention of breeders, geneticists, biotechnologies, and farmers to improve its sustainable production. Modern approaches like next-generation sequencing, proteogenomics, and genetic engineering provide a wider scope for breeders, geneticists, physiologists, biotechnologists, genomicists, and agronomists for genetic improvement, production, weed, pests, and disease management.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book will provide a broader platform to discuss issues, advancement in the technologies, and solutions to the problems of the sugarcane industry. Hence, the key features of the book that will broadly be, but not be limited to: \r\n\t * Production Technology and Advancements \r\n\t * Breeding and Molecular Breeding \r\n\t * Tissue Culture and propagation \r\n\t * Pests and Diseases and their Management \r\n\t * Genomics, Genetics, and Biotechnology \r\n\t * Whole-Genome Sequencing and QTL mapping \r\n\t * Genetic transformation and trait development, etc
",isbn:"978-1-83968-936-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-935-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-937-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7016e06fe42b55cf41818b7947bf9e5",bookSignature:"Prof. Muhammad Sarwar Khan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10364.jpg",keywords:"Sugarcane, Biotechnology, Production, Breeding, Genotyping, DNA-Based Molecular Markers, Salinity, Drought, Insects, Disease, Biotic and Abiotic Stress Management, DNA Markers",numberOfDownloads:30,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 27th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 26th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 16th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 15th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A leading plant biotechnologist who innovated expression of oxygen-loving green fluorescent protein (GFP) in plant chloroplasts and pioneered plastid transformation in rice and sugarcane. He earned his Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge, UK and he has published over 100 articles in high impact journals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"212511",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Sarwar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"muhammad-sarwar-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212511/images/system/212511.jpg",biography:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan is currently serving as Professor and Director at the Center of Agricultural Biochemistry and Biotechnology (CABB), University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan. He has earned his Bachelor's and Master's degrees in Horticulture with a major thesis on Citrus Tissue Culture. Mr. Khan earned his Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge, UK. 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1. Introduction
Climate change and the accompanying global warming are of concerns to science, engineering and political stakeholders. Particularly, the effects of climate change on the living and non-living species and the possible future impacts have led to global efforts at curtailing the emission of greenhouse gases. The current problem of global warming emanated from anthropogenic activities, mainly from excessive use of fossil fuel for energy as well as the degradation of natural carbon sinks, especially by deforestation [1, 2]. Emissions from fossil energy source have been shown to aggravate the climate change by forming a blanket of gases which accumulate at the lower part of the atmosphere, trapping the reflected radiation from the earth, thereby raising the surface temperature [2, 3]. According to DOE [4], 90% of world’s primary sources of energy still come from fossil fuel. As a result, the readiness to cut the reliance on this source of energy presents a daunting challenge. Continuous dependence of man on fossil fuel is based on the desire for an improvement in the standard of living, education, health care, and so on. These goals are directly related to energy consumption.
CO2 concentration in the atmosphere should be reduced to the maximum of 350 ppm in order to restore the planet to the similar level obtainable in the pre-industrial revolution era (200 to ~385 ppm) [5, 6]. To mitigate the problems of climate change, efforts are being made by scientists and many technologies are under investigations and implementations to curtail the emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. To reduce human dependence on fossil fuels, energy sources from wind and sun are being considered globally. However, carbon emissions will realistically persist till the near or foreseeable future owing to the derivations of many industrial and household products from crude oil. As a result, carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a viable route to check accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
CCS is providing methods and procedure to deal with the CO2 emitted from various emission sources. Advanced capture technologies have emerged from the development and discovery of novel solvents together with optimised capture procedures like pre and post-combustion capture techniques [7, 8]. CO2 can be stored in several natural media. These storage media include ocean and saline aquifers, unminable coal seams and depleted oil reservoirs [9, 10]. Storage of CO2 can also be made economical through its use to recover remnant oil in depleted oil reservoir [11]. Among the possible storage sites, geological carbon sequestration in saline aquifers is considered as the most viable option as it seems to have the largest carbon storage potential [12, 13]. The reasons for this include the stability and capacity of these geological media. Stable sedimentary basins are essential for dependable sequestration activities, and such basins are found in most continents [14] with estimated capacities of around 1000–100,000 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide [13]. Across the globe, Figure 1 shows the carbon sequestration projects that are either ongoing or completed.
Figure 1.
Carbon dioxide sequestration operations at pilot and commercial scales worldwide [15].
The current issues in the practice of geological carbon sequestration are those of safety of the process. There are concerns about the possible leakage of the CO2 back to the atmosphere. If this occurs, humans and plants are in danger. In the case of leakage, CO2 migrating through the subsurface may encounter potable water, with which it forms acid that can affect the plant and animal lives. In case the leakage gets into the atmosphere, at a concentration of CO2 above 4%, its inhalation produces fatal results in humans and animals [16]. Thus, there is a need for effective monitoring of CO2 movement and reactions at the geological sequestration site and the adjoining areas.
Many techniques for monitoring CO2 in the Earth’s surface are available. But, the effective monitoring of CO2 in the subsurface is still posing challenges. Meanwhile, it is important that we develop effective subsurface monitoring techniques in order to avert dangers to humans, animals and plants on the Earth, animals in the ocean as well as the potable water aquifers in the subsurface that might lie along the CO2 leakage path. For example, if CO2 leaks from the geological sequestration site as a result of fault in the cap rock or seismic effects, subsurface monitoring measures should be efficient enough to alert the monitoring team immediately in order to possibly curtail the movement of the plume before it contaminates the subsurface potable water aquifers or before it reaches the surface. In this scenario, humans and animals can be moved away from the leakage site on time. Effective monitoring will also provide the possibility of preparing for the plume before reaching the surface by making provisions for its containment.
This chapter examines the existing monitoring techniques for the CO2 activities in the geological carbon sequestration. The challenges inherent in these techniques are identified, and the implications of these challenges are discussed under different conditions and in different porous media.
2. CO2 leakage and characteristics
Several mechanisms guide the leakage of CO2 and its migration through the geological pore networks. For example, gravity override and viscous instability are phenomena that cause the CO2 to move to the top of the injection layer bypassing large quantities of brine [14, 17, 18]. Also, if the caprock has fault line that is permeable enough for the plume, this can cause favourable pathways via which CO2 could escape, thereby compromising the intention of the sequestration process. Also, gravity override together with viscous instability can create the vertical buoyant pressure, which the CO2 applied on the caprock. This pressure arises mainly as a result of difference in density between the formation water and the CO2, and the thickness of the carbon dioxide plume accumulation.
Monitoring technologies for CO2 in geological carbon sequestration are built upon the physico-chemical and electromagnetic properties of the CO2-water/brine and rock system or the identification of the reaction by-products and/or the coupled process effects such as micro-seismicity [19]. Monitoring can provide vital information for verification, accounting and risk assessment at storage site, and is fundamental to ensure that the effective containment of the gas has actually taken place. Monitoring also contributes to building public acceptance of the geologic storage as a viable method for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions [20]. Existing monitoring techniques include electromagnetic techniques [21], temperature signals [22] and infrared monitoring [23]. Some of these techniques have been widely demonstrated both in the laboratory and pilot applications. Electromagnetic techniques make use of the wide difference between the electrical/dielectric characteristics of CO2 and water/brine as well as those of other geological elements to create contrasts among the phases, which can then be used to monitor the migration of the CO2 in the aquifer or to understand the displacement of the aquifer brine by the injected CO2. Traditionally, this electromagnetic method is often employed in the monitoring and control of two-phase flow in porous media [1, 24, 25, 26].
For the temperature signal technique, the principle employed in its use includes the fact that the dissolution of CO2 in water is an exothermic process. As a result, the temperature of the solution is raised as CO2 dissolves in the brine/water. Also, the change of phase of CO2 from, for example, supercritical state to liquid or gas is accompanied by change in enthalpy. These effects are utilised in non-isothermal detection of CO2 presence in water/brine using the temperature signal method. But the dissolution of CO2 in water is limited. This confines the method to limited time and space because once the water/brine is equilibrated with CO2, detecting plume migration or other activities of the CO2 becomes difficult. Furthermore, CO2 is known to have characteristic infrared wave absorption property. This is harnessed in the infrared monitoring technique. How well these methods can be utilised in the subsurface and large-quantity monitoring of the gas in the subsurface still poses questions.
Monitoring the region around the storage aquifers should be coupled with near-surface and surface monitoring [1]. These regions of monitoring are important because migration or leakage of CO2 can extend to the atmospheric space. Near-surface monitoring techniques are well developed and are essential in the detection and monitoring of the gas emanating from different emission sources and even leakage from geological sequestration sites. Near-surface monitoring techniques involve the analysis of near-surface water, air and soil samples on a regular basis as CO2 leaks can acidify the water and create conspicuous contrast between the original and current soil and air compositions [19]. Also, on the surface, gravity method [27] can be employed based on the fact that CO2 is heavier than air and lighter than water. Thus, increase in air density and/or reduction in density of water may signify the presence of CO2. Remote sensing of air composition [28] and surface analysis of carbon content by inelastic neutron scattering (INS) [29] are techniques also known for the surface monitoring of CO2.
Among the monitoring methods described above, electromagnetic techniques like dielectric permittivity (εr), electrical resistivity (ρ) and conductivity (σ) as well as wave propagation are common in reservoir applications [1, 21, 24]. Also, tracers like SF6 are applied in the monitoring of fluid movement. To ensure safety in the case of advancing plume of CO2, the monitoring methods should extend several hundred metres beyond the injection region. This has the potential of protecting the potable water aquifers that lie in the possible path of migrating CO2. Apart from electrical parameters (e.g., ε, ρ and σ), capillary parameters are commonly employed in the study of two-phase flow, for example, oil and water, gas and water, and so on, and can as well be included in the monitoring techniques. This chapter is primarily concerned with the safety of the geological carbon sequestration and the techniques to ensure it. These techniques are expatiated in the following subsection.
3. CO2 monitoring techniques
Monitoring techniques can be classified according to the different mechanisms of operations and the principles as well as the environment of applications. The following classes are popular in the literature.
With the exception of the (3) in Table 1, most of the techniques are mainly suitable for shallow injection layer or atmosphere. Worldwide, monitoring technologies have been in operations at many pilot sites like in Nagaoka (Japan) [30], Frio (USA) [31] and Ketzin [32]. Several other projects under the USDOE were involved in the trial of the technologies (www.fossil.energy.gov/sequestration/partnerships/index.html). Multiple monitoring technologies applied in these pilot projects were able to track the CO2 plume in different subsurface geological environments [20].
S. No.
Classification/application environment
Techniques/parameters
1
Atmospheric CO2
Eddy covariance
2
Soil CO2
Soil accumulation chambers
3
Geophysical monitoring
Geoelectrical, seismic, ground penetrating radar, etc.
4
Biological stress
Multispectral image analysis of plants and microorganisms
It is conventional to perform monitoring operations in three stages. The first stage is the pre-injection monitoring where background data about the CO2 level as well as lithological parameters before injection of CO2 can be obtained. This gives the baseline data. The injection stage monitoring follows, where ongoing changes in the soil, water and surrounding space are recorded as CO2 is being released. Lastly, post-injection monitoring comes after the stop of the CO2 injection.
3.1. Geophysical techniques
Geophysical monitoring techniques involve the deployment of a variety of electromagnetic and electrical surveying methods to study subsurface CO2 activities and its interactions with the rock/soil, water/brine and other gases. These methods include geoelectrical, seismic, ground penetrating radar, gravity and electromagnetic assessment. These techniques make use of the electrical behaviours of the CO2, water and the surrounding geological materials.
To monitor CO2 sequestration at deep geological layer, electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is an effective technique. Following injection of CO2, increase will occur in the resistivity level of the bulk reservoir domain owing to the non-conductive nature of the gas. The resistivity profile may remain stagnant following steadiness in injection operation or after the stop of injection. In addition, after the stop of injection, there may occur a dip in the resistivity profile from the repeal of the contact surface of CO2/brine and subsequent inflow of brine into the near-wellbore area [33].
From the resistivity data, saturation of CO2 (SCO2) in the reservoir can be evaluated using inverse petrophysical relation [33] by assuming the applicability of Archie’s second law:
SCO2=1−ρoρ1/nE1
where ρo is the baseline resistivity and n is the saturation exponent.
ERT works effectively if properly calibrated and is well suitable to track dissolved and gaseous CO2 [34]. Application of electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) has been demonstrated at various pilot sites (see, e.g., [33, 34]) for detecting and tracking the CO2 and brine distribution and their migrations in the subsurface. ERT has the advantage of imaging the injection reservoir and the migration activities of the fluids. It consists of the array of borehole electrodes which can be arranged to serve as a permanent reservoir monitoring tool. It possesses the ability to map quantitative CO2 saturation in the subsurface. ERT has been found suitable for deep geological layer survey. Example of this technique in field application is found at Ketzin pilot site, Germany. The method was used to acquire data on resistivity changes with the injection of CO2. Also acquired was the CO2 saturation in the storage reservoir as well as imaging of CO2 induced resistivity change.
For near-surface measurement of CO2 activities in shallow aquifers, direct current geoelectric can be employed [20]. As CO2 passes through the water-filled and wetted pores, owing to dissolution and ionisation, carbonic acid is formed. This process activates the electrical characteristics of the system. The formation of acid promotes dissolution of minerals in the aqueous media which further enhances the electrical characteristics of the system. Thus, the determination of changes in resistivity of the domain will be of immense advantage in monitoring the presence and impact of CO2 and its subsurface movement. In pores saturated with water, migrating CO2 can displace part of the resident water to replace its position with the gas. In this case, resistivity will increase. This phenomenon of changing electrical characteristics which occurs with the displacement and replacement of water by CO2 was explained in the work of Abidoye and Bello [35]. They stated that for the scenario where the movement of the CO2 into the pore led to the displacement of the resident pore water, the bulk dielectric permittivity (εb) of the system decreases. if the pore water was not displaced by the migrating CO2, the presence of CO2 in the system increases the εb. Direct current geoelectric is currently being used at Ressacada Farm, Brazil. The method was used to acquire resistivity changes in the course of CO2 injection. The changes in resistivity are compared to the baseline values. At the Ressacada Farm, the resistivity value in the vicinity of the injection well increased by 50% in comparison with the baseline value. However, 8 days after the injection stopped, the resistivity change dropped to less than 14% [20].
Laboratory demonstrations and mathematical simulations of geoelectrical monitoring system were well demonstrated in the works of Abidoye and Das [36, 37], Abidoye and Bello [35], Rabiu et al. [38], Lamert et al. [39] and Dethlefsen et al. [40]. Abidoye and Das [36, 37] and Rabiu et al. [38] used unconsolidated porous media of silicate and carbonate soil samples in a sample holder of 10 cm diameter and 4 cm height. They performed simultaneous measurements of bulk relative permittivity (εb) and electrical conductivity (σb) measurements using three-pin time domain reflectometry probes (TDR probes), which was connected to the wave generator, TDR100 reflectometer (Campbell Scientific Ltd., Shepshed, UK). Using this system, the effects of pressure, temperature and salt concentration on bulk εb-S and σb-S relationships were investigated for carbonate (limestone) and silicate porous media (both unconsolidated domains) under dynamic and quasi-static supercritical CO2 (scCO2)-brine/water flow. Their results show that the εb in the silica sand sample decreases as the temperature rises in the scCO2-water system. For the carbonate porous medium, εb rises only slightly with temperature. The εb-S curve also rises as the domain pressure increases. Furthermore, the bulk electrical conductivity (σb), at any particular saturation for the scCO2-brine system rises as the temperature increases with a more significant increase found around full water saturation. These findings were corroborated by the work of Wraith and Or [41] where εb and σb values were found to be greater in the limestone than silica sand porous samples for similar porosity values. From their results, it can be inferred that the geoelectrical techniques are highly dependent on water saturation. Furthermore, Rabiu et al. [38] performed similar investigations with the inclusion of basalt as porous medium. Similar findings were recorded.
Field demonstrations of geoelectrical monitoring techniques were performed by Lamert et al. [39] as well as Dethlefsen et al. [40]. As in the work of Abidoye and Das [36, 37], time domain reflectometry method was used by Lamert et al. [39]. They Installed several copper electrodes at various depths up to 18.5 m below the ground level around the CO2 injection site in order to monitor the movement of injected CO2. They found the suitability of geoelectrical methods for monitoring injected CO2 and geochemically altered groundwater. Similar to the conclusion of Abidoye and Das [36, 37], they also found that the site-specific conditions influence the electrical characteristics.
Apart from the abovementioned methods, other geophysical tools exist with varying capacity to monitor subsurface gas activities. For example, ground penetrating radar (GPR) is another well-established tool that can be used in subsurface CO2 tracking. However, it has limited depth of penetration as compared to others. However, in the zone of CO2 leakage, it can give a deeper signal penetration [42]. GPR and other technologies like magnetic resonance sounding (MRS) have depth of penetration of <60 cm [43]. Logging tools like sonic, neutron and pulsed neutron techniques also offer some effectiveness in CO2 monitoring.
The abovementioned discussions show that myriads of geophysical monitoring techniques are in existence. But the parameters of measurements can be affected by operational conditions as well as the porous media characteristics. Monitoring strategies should, therefore, take these factors into consideration to minimise deviations of the results from the realities. This can be achieved by taking notes of site-specific characteristics that are key to effective prediction of the fate of CO2.
3.2. Membrane-sensor system
Membrane-sensor technique only assesses the presence of subsurface CO2 without considering its interactions with other elements of the sequestration domain. Selectively, permeable membrane having high selectivity for CO2 can be utilised. Coupling the membrane with sensor device, the system can accumulate gas like CO2 in its chamber which can then be quantified with signals from the sensor. Example is shown in Figure 2 from Abidoye and Das [44]. Methods of collecting CO2 into the gas chamber vary and depend on the convenience of the investigators. Abidoye and Das [44] demonstrated membrane-sensor technique in a laboratory experiment using a high-pressure experimental rig. The chapter shows how silicone membrane-sensor system can be employed in the monitoring of subsurface gases, especially in the leakage scenario. In their work, mass permeation, membrane resistance to gas permeation and the gas flux across the membrane are reported for two gases, namely, CO2 and N2. In their results, mass permeation of CO2 through the membrane was more than 10 times higher than that of N2, under similar conditions. It was also found to increase with the geological depths. The gas flux remains higher for CO2 as compared to N2. The authors established a simple criterion for distinguishing the presence of the different gases at various geological depths based on the rate at which the mass permeation of gas through the membrane occurs.
Figure 2.
Photographs of (A) the sample holder showing silica sand and pressure transducer (B) the pressure transducer and the silicone rubber sheet (metal cap not shown). Sample holder size: internal diameter=10cm, sample height=4cm [44].
Silicone was used by the authors due to its favourable selectivity for CO2 permeation. Other suitable membrane can, as well, be used. Silicone membrane is a non-porous flat sheet material. Gas permeates the membrane by diffusion under the influence of the driving force, for example, the pressure difference across the membrane. This membrane-sensor method is useful in the early detection of CO2 migration or leakage from geological reservoirs. Early detection at depth will allow for more time to prepare and plan for the CO2 plume before its arrival in shallow groundwater or the earth’s surface [45]. In application, alarm system can be triggered to signify the presence of CO2, if the mass permeation rate follows the power law model provided in Eq. (2). This equation can be used to program the membrane-sensor system.
y=10−8x1.0652E2
where y is the rate of mass permeation into the membrane-sensor chamber in kg/h and x is the geological depth in metre (m). The equation conforms to the profile of CO2 permeation curve through silicone membrane. Other gases will very likely deviate from the pattern.
The abovementioned analysis shows that the CO2 has unique mass permeation rate that is different from that of N2 and conceivably other gases found in the porous media. With the relation of the mass permeation rate to geological depth, using Eq. (2), the authors showed that the membrane-sensor system can be used to monitor gas leakage under different geological conditions. Thus, at any depth, the system can be applied to give unique indication of gas present. Membrane coupled with miniaturised sensor can be installed at depth to perform the monitoring operations.
Field applications of similar monitoring method were performed by Zimmer et al. [45]. They demonstrated the applicability of silicone rubber as a membrane in the detection of gases present in the underground and boreholes. Investigations by Zimmer et al. [45] were connected to the geological carbon sequestration project (CO2SINK) in Ketzin, Germany. They successfully demonstrated the detection of the CO2 front at observation wells, located at different distances to the injection well, using the gas membrane sensor that includes the silicone rubber. However, the analyses of the gases through the device rely on the mass spectrometer located on the ground surface.
3.3. Gas accumulation chamber
Measuring subsurface gas and monitoring its movement can be used for the delineation of fault zones and for the characterisation of migration process dynamics [20]. According to Chiodini et al. [46], such measurements have been used for environmental research in geothermal and volcanic areas to determine CO2 flux rates. Oliva et al. [20] used the technique of gas accumulation chamber to measure CO2 emissions, soil temperature and moisture on PVC collars arranged in a square grid with 1 m spacing centred on the injection well. They performed the measurements before CO2 injection, during the whole injection period and 7 days after the injection stopped. Field application of this method was demonstrated at the Ressacada Farm, Brazil, where parameter like CO2 flux rate was collected. The authors were able to establish relationship between resistivity changes in injection aquifer to the CO2 flux rates in the same area.
3.4. Geochemical measurement technique
Geochemical monitoring techniques for subsurface CO2 activities are aimed at acquiring information about interactions and reactions of CO2 with rock, soil, water and other gases in the subsurface. Products of such interactions and reactions are often the main targets in the monitoring and measurements. Following dissolution of CO2 in the aquifer water, carbonic acid is produced, which makes the solution acidic and lowers the pH. Furthermore, increase in acid level may lead to the dissolution of rock minerals, thus, raising the concentration of major and trace minerals in the solution. Dethlefsen et al. [40] stated that the most significant geochemical processes, which occur during the CO2 contamination of potable water are the changes in the pH and the resultant changes in the electrical conductivity (σ) of the fluid–fluid-porous media system (i.e., CO2-water-porous media system). Popular mineral dissolution that occurs includes carbonates, sulphides, iron oxy-hydroxide minerals and surface reactions such as adsorption/desorption and ion exchange [20].
Geochemical monitoring techniques involve the use of chemical parameters and their appropriate sensors to detect the interactions of CO2, water, soil/rock and the subsurface gases. Oliva et al. [20] performed geochemical monitoring of CO2 activities in shallow well by sampling multilevel wells installed in the vicinity of the injection well. From such observatory wells, groundwater samples can be collected before, during and after the injection periods at intermittent schedules. Measurements of temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, oxidation–reduction, salinity and dissolved oxygen can be performed in-situ. Indicator parameters like alkalinity, acidity, ferrous iron (Fe2+) and anions bromide (Br−), chloride (Cl−), nitrate (NO3−), nitrite (NO2−) phosphate (PO43−), sulphate (SO42−) and acetate (CH3COO−) can be obtained from such measurements.
Geochemical activities of CO2 can vary based on the chemical characteristics of the domain rock/soil. That was why Abidoye and Das [37] performed geochemical monitoring of CO2 activities in silicate and carbonate porous minerals, to investigate the characteristics of the water-saturated porous media contaminated by CO2, in the laboratory. They used pH measurements, silicone rubber membrane in the monitoring of CO2 diffusion in the porous media and the geoelectrical measurement techniques for the determination of the bulk dielectric constant (εb) and the bulk electrical conductivity (σb) of the CO2-water-porous media system.
Their results showed three stages in the profile of pH change with time as CO2 dissolved and diffused in water-saturated silica sand. The initial stage was characterised by quick fall in the pH value from the start of the experiment. This behaviour was connected with quick dissolution of CO2 and the formation of carbonic acid along with bicarbonate. At the second stage, there was a short rise in pH value. This was explained to be owing to the reverse reaction, which resulted into the formation of aqueous and gaseous CO2 and water. At the last stage, static equilibrium has been attained in the system which was marked by constant pH value, which remained unchanged till the end of the experiment. During these stages, the bulk electrical conductivity (σb) changed in accordance with the fluctuation of the pH values. Since ionic species are formed during the dissolution, σb increased accordingly. According to the authors, the rise in σb coincided with the initial stage of the change in the pH of the system. The σb was higher in limestone than silica sand, and it increased with depth or domain pressure. Furthermore, the authors provided a mathematical relationship showing that σb is dependent on the pH and its initial value, σbi. This is shown in Eq. (3):
σbr=3.87σbi0.42pHr−0.4E3
The equation has a regression value of 0.997 and SSE of 0.0023. σb is the bulk electrical conductivity in S/m. σbi is the value of the σb in the domain before the injection of CO2. σbr is the ratio of the steady state to the initial values of the σb (i.e., value of σb, when the pH is at the steady state, divided by the value of σb, before the injection of CO2). pHr is the ratio of the steady-state value to the initial value of the pH.
3.5. Capillarity-based monitoring technique
Capillary pressure (Pc) and relative permeability (Kr) for wetting (water) and non-wetting phases (CO2) are parameters of key importance in modelling the two-phase flow processes encountered during transport of immiscible phases in the underground [47] and they constitute critical parameters used to history match and design field-scale injection projects using reservoir simulators [48]. On two-phase flow, several publications exist concerning capillary pressure-saturation relationship (Pc-S) [49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55] while several others are based on the Kr-S relationship [56, 57, 58, 59].
In the context of geological carbon sequestration, flow of supercritical CO2-water (scCO2-water) can be considered as a two-phase system. Characterisation of such flow can be performed with capillary pressure–saturation-relative permeability relationships (Pc-S-Kr) [1]. This is because CO2 is only slightly soluble in brine. The solubility occurs briefly, and afterwards CO2 continues as separate phase in the porous medium.
Injected CO2 moves through permeable pore networks of the storage reservoir. This movement determines its distribution and stability within reservoirs used for carbon sequestration (Tokunaga and Wan 2013), and this process is dependent on capillary interactions with the displaced brine [60, 61]. Multiphase flow models are powerful tools to understand and predict the capillary activity and trapping of supercritical-CO2 (scCO2) in deep saline geologic formations. The constitutive relationship between capillary pressure (Pc) and saturation (Sw) is the essential input parameter into these multiphase models. Reliable predictions of CO2 storage require understanding the capillary behaviour of supercritical CO2 [62].
However, capillary pressure measurements are influenced by the sand and fluid properties. During injection, the distribution of CO2 and brine in the pore space varies with distances from the well, and is controlled by the drainage Pc-Sw relation of the reservoir. After the stop of CO2 injection or relaxation of injection pressure, the displaced brine attempts to reoccupy original position by displacing some of the CO2. This is referred to as imbibition and is also described by reverse cycle of Pc-Sw curve. The incomplete rewetting or incomplete displacement of the CO2 by the imbibing brine will lead to major storage mechanism- capillary trapping, which relies on the path- and history-dependent saturation characteristics to control distributions of multiphase fluid flow in pore spaces [63, 64, 65].
Routine measurements of Pc-Sw relationship include by porous plate, mercury injection or centrifuge methods. Plug et al. [26] measured drainage and imbibition relations in quartz sand packs of different grain sizes using CO2 and water with the porous plate technique. They determined the drainage and imbibition cycles of the Pc-Sw relationship and were able to determine residual trapped CO2 saturation (Snwr,CO2). The parameter, Snwr,CO2, is key to determining the success of the storage process because it indicates the amount of the CO2 that is permanently immobilised. Tokunaga et al. [62] also used drainage and imbibition processes to determine Pc-Sw relationship on quartz sand for scCO2-brine at pressures of 8.5 and 12.0 MPa (45°C). They also determined Snwr,CO2. Their results show that scCO2 will easily enter silica-rich reservoirs and be stored through capillary trapping at fairly high Snwr,CO2.
In relation to field applications of Pc-Sw technique, the work of Pini et al. [66] report Pc-Sw relationship for consolidated media, namely, the Berea and Arqov sandstone samples. Discussing the relation in reference to temperature, the curves for the Berea sandstone showed that capillary pressure decreases as temperature reduces, and this behaviour was attributed to an increase in CO2 dissolution as the temperature decreases reducing the interfacial tension. Thus, Pc-Sw relationship curve can be influenced by subsurface conditions, reservoir characteristics and fluid properties. Complex dependence of Pc-Sw behaviour on fluid properties, porosity, pore geometry and tortuosity, pore size distribution, wettability, reservoir mineralogy, geochemistry, and surface chemistry make the relationship difficult to predict [65].
Field applications of these techniques involve coring of rock samples from the injection reservoir. On these samples, core-flooding operations are performed often in the laboratory. Capillary pressure, relative permeability and residual gas saturations are often the targeted parameters for measurement. The techniques have been used to assess safety and performances of geological carbon sequestration in the UK and Australia [66] and at Ketzin pilot site in Germany [67].
4. Conclusion
Myriads of techniques are currently in existence to detect and monitor CO2 interactions with water/brine, rock/soil and other gases as well as its migration through complex pore networks. These techniques utilise the physico-chemical and electromagnetic properties of the CO2-water/brine and rock/soil system as well as the induced events such as micro-seismicity. However, prior to the full-scale deployment of the monitoring technologies, it is necessary to understand the principles of operations and limitations of the adopted technologies as well as obtain experimental and practical information from them. Some of them are suitable for deep geological layer while many are appropriate at the shallow aquifers.
Among the monitoring technologies, geophysical tools have gained more grounds in monitoring pilot sequestration projects across the globe. Techniques like seismic method, electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) offered good promise, especially at deeper levels in the scale of hundred metres to kilometres, while the likes of direct current geoelectric and ground penetration radar (GPR) are only good for monitoring at near-surface or shallow storage reservoirs. However, in order to effectively assess the potential effects of CO2 leakage for any of the methods, a pre-injection baseline is critical followed by critical assessments during the storage process and post-injection period.
Among the challenges in the majority of the field applications are the accuracy in leakage quantification and the myriads of factors that can influence the outputs of the measurement techniques, making them non-unique. Accuracy in leakage quantification is often due to the offset in background natural variability and the detection limits of the techniques currently available. Factors that can influence the results of these technologies include pressure, temperature, initial salinity level, initial pH level, porosity, fluid properties, porosity, pore geometry and tortuosity, pore size distribution, wettability, reservoir mineralogy, geochemistry and surface chemistry.
Finally, it is encouraging that important instruments and tools for laboratory and shallow aquifer monitoring techniques are readily available and may be affordable by intended users. However, the cost of the deployment of full-scale monitoring technique for deep geological layer sequestration remains a challenge. Thus, focus should be on bringing down the cost by encouraging price competition among potential manufactures while governments should also make necessary fund available.
\n',keywords:"CO2, sequestration, leakage, two-phase flow, geophysical technologies membrane",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/62470.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/62470.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62470",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62470",totalDownloads:461,totalViews:101,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"January 15th 2018",dateReviewed:"June 4th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 12th 2018",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Monitoring technologies for CO2 in geological carbon sequestration are based upon the physico-chemical and electromagnetic properties of the CO2-water/brine and rock system as well as the induced events such as micro-seismicity. As CO2 migrates in the subsurface, its interactions with elements like rock, water/brine can be used to track its presence and direction. For deep subsurface storage of CO2, methods like electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), seismicity, capillary pressure and relative permeability as well as geochemical measurements can be reliably employed in monitoring CO2. Other methods like membrane-sensor technique and gas accumulation chamber are mainly suitable for shallow geological sequestration. However, prior to the full-scale deployment, it is necessary to understand the principles of operations and limitations of the adopted technologies as well as obtain experimental and practical information from them. In the field application, pre-injection baseline assessment is necessary followed by critical assessments during the storage process and post-injection period. Accuracy in leakage quantification and identification of sinks are also important. Factors that can influence the results of these technologies include fluctuations of pressure, temperature, initial salinity level, initial pH level, porosity, fluid properties, porosity, tortuosity, pore size distribution, wettability, reservoir mineralogy and surface chemistry.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/62470",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/62470",book:{slug:"carbon-capture-utilization-and-sequestration"},signatures:"Luqman Kolawole Abidoye and Diganta Bhusan Das",authors:[{id:"241382",title:"Dr.",name:"Luqman",middleName:null,surname:"Abidoye",fullName:"Luqman Abidoye",slug:"luqman-abidoye",email:"kluqman2002@yahoo.co.uk",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. CO2 leakage and characteristics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. CO2 monitoring techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Geophysical techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Membrane-sensor system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Gas accumulation chamber",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4. Geochemical measurement technique",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5. Capillarity-based monitoring technique",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Abidoye LK, Das DB, Khudaida K. Geological carbon sequestration in the context of two-phase flow in porous media: A review. Journal of Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. 2015;45(11):1105-1147'},{id:"B2",body:'Karl TR, Melillo JM, Peterson TC. Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2009'},{id:"B3",body:'Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tignor M, Miller HL, editors. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 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Drainage and imbibition relative permeability relationships for supercritical CO2/brine and H2S/brine systems in intergranular sandstone, carbonate, shale, and anhydrite rocks. SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering. 2008;11(3):487-496'},{id:"B58",body:'Lenormand R, Delaplace P, Schmitz P. Can we really measure the relative permeabilities using the micropore membrane method? Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering. 1998;19(1-2):93-102'},{id:"B59",body:'Water M, Abaci S, Whittaker N. Relative permeability measurements for two phase flow in unconsolidated sands. Mine Water and the Environment. 2006;26(2):12-26'},{id:"B60",body:'Benson SM, Cole DR. CO2 sequestration in deep sedimentary formations. Elements. 2008;4(5):325-331'},{id:"B61",body:'IPCC. Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage. In: Metz B, Davidson O, de Coninck H, Loos M, Meyer L, editors. UK: Cambridge University Press; 2005. pp. 431'},{id:"B62",body:'Tokunaga TK, Wan J, Jung J-W, Kim TW, Kim Y, Dong W. Capillary pressure and saturation relations for supercritical CO2 and brine in sand: High-pressure pc(Sw) controller/meter measurements and capillary scaling predictions. Water Resources Research. 2013;49:4566-4579. DOI: 10.1002/wrcr.20316'},{id:"B63",body:'Haines WB. Studies in the physical properties of soil: V. The hysteresis effect in capillary properties, and the modes of moisture distribution associated therewith. The Journal of Agricultural Science. 1930;20:97-116'},{id:"B64",body:'Raeesi B, Morrow NR, Mason G. Capillary pressure hysteresis behavior of three sandstones measured with a multistep outflow–inflow apparatus. Vadose Zone Journal. 2014;13(3)'},{id:"B65",body:'Wang S, Tokunaga TK. Capillary pressure–saturation relations for supercritical CO2 and brine in limestone/dolomite sands: Implications for geologic carbon sequestration in carbonate reservoirs. Environmental Science & Technology. 2015;49(12):7208-7217'},{id:"B66",body:'Pini R, Krevor SCM, Benson SM. Capillary pressure and heterogeneity for the CO2/water system in sandstone rocks at reservoir conditions. Advances in Water Resources. 2012;38:48-59'},{id:"B67",body:'Class H, Mahl L, Ahmed W, Norden B, Kuhn M, Kempka T. Matching pressure measurements and observed CO2 arrival times with static and dynamic modelling at the Ketzin storage site. Energy Procedia. 2015;76(2015):623-632'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Luqman Kolawole Abidoye",address:"abidoye.luqman@uniosun.edu.ng",affiliation:'
Civil Engineering Department, Osun State University, Nigeria
Chemical Engineering Department, Loughborough University, United Kingdom
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1. Introduction
The purpose of this study is to understand how Islam assesses creativity—specifically, to determine if an Islamic framework for assessing creativity can be identified. Islam does not provide a framework for assessing creativity, yet Islamic scholars assess creativity. The research question is: How is creativity assessed in Islam?
Prior to this study, there has been research conducted examining how creativity is effective in Islam [1]. However, that research did not focus on how Islam assesses creativity. It does not look at the required support of ulemas and the application of Islamic reasoning to determine effective and approved creativity in Islam. It also does not examine how creativity is rejected in Islam. The need for this study was due to gaps in other studies. This study will explore the stage of Islamic creative thinking, legal reasoning, and deductive reasoning in Islam, creating a creative framework that has not yet been established.
This study was conducted with the assistance of seven informants from seven leading Islamic traditions based in the UK. Each informant provided unique insight into their understanding and interpretations of Islamic scriptures and texts in relation to creativity and its assessment. This study demonstrates how perceptions and practices of differing Islamic traditions compare with each other.1
The uniqueness of creativity research in Islam is the explorative nature of this research lends itself to qualitative study such as religious ethnography and discourse analysis will form two key approaches [2]. Religious ethnography will assist in eliciting responses from each informant, and discourse analysis will be used to identify different perspectives [3].
2. Objective
The objectives are:
To understand if Islam promotes or limits creativity in its followers;
To understand if it is the differing interpretation of the sacred scriptures and laws in Islam that is restricting creativity among its followers;
To understand the application of Quran to the assessment of creativity;
To understand the application of Ahadith to the assessment of creativity;
To understand the application of Sunnah to the assessment of creativity;
To understand the application of Shariah Law to the assessment of creativity;
To produce a framework for measuring creativity in Islam; and
To establish the extent to which the framework will assist differing interpretations and Islamic traditions in producing new creative ideas in Islam.
3. Literature review
3.1 Creativity and innovation: The Quran (recitation)
Islam came at a time when there was prevalent ignorance in pre-Islamic Arabia. The Quran guided Muslims to be creative and to use their creativity for the benefit of humanity and in accordance with Sharia law and Islamic principles [4]. The Quran promoted creativity by providing examples of creativity to inspire and make Muslims understand in a greater depth. The Quran created a system that allowed Muslims to become focused with helping people and societies by being inventors of new theories and ideas. Science, math, biology, languages, culture, geography, psychology, sociology, algorithms, and many other areas began to take shape, assisting and creating new building blocks that lead to the great Islamic civilisations that followed.
Allah is the Creator of the universe; therefore, a question sometimes arises about whether the phrase “to create” or the Arabic word “khalq” should be used to refer to human beings as creators. It is a consensus (ijma) among scholars that Allah is the Creator of all creation but it is sometimes debated that can Muslims or people be referred to as a creator? However, the Quran uses the word “khalq” when addressing and referring to the people; it states, “You only worship idols besides Allah and you create (khalq) a lie.” [5] This lends assists te premise that the Arabic word “khalq” can be used to refer to human invention and creativity as Allah has used it to highlight the lies created2 [6].
The Quran is seen as a creative miracle, as it holds accounts of the past and the future and cannot be duplicated by human beings. Allah, knowing this, provides three creative challenges to all of creation, including Muslims, to display creative intellect. In the first challenge, He states, “Say: ‘If all mankind and the jinn would come together to produce the like of this Quran, they could not produce it’s like even though they exerted all and their strength in aiding one another.’” [7] Knowing that they have failed in their creativity, He challenges them again to become creative by issuing a second challenge. He states, “Or do they say that he has invented it? Say (to them), ‘Bring ten invented chapters like it, and call (for help) on whomever you can besides God, if you are truthful.’” [8] When the humans and the jinn are unable to successfully provide ten chapters, Allah further challenges them, lowering the degree of the challenge to a single chapter. He states, “And if you all are in doubt about what I have revealed to My servant, bring a single chapter like it, and call your witnesses besides God if you are truthful” [9]. Allah in His three challenges challenged the whole of creation to create a chapter as He has done in the Quran. Allah’s challenge was also for those that spoke Arabic eloquently; they too were unable to successfully produce a chapter like that in the Quran. This is an example of Islam promoting creativity and asking people to become innovators, even asking the whole of creation to challenge Islam together. This challenge threatens the very fabric of Islamic existence but remains open to the whole mankind to participate in it.
3.2 Creativity and innovation: the Sunnah of prophet Muhammad (pbuH)
Prophet Muhammad (pbuH) understood that all answers can be obtained from the Quran and that if any matters that required clarification then Muslims could go to Islamic scholars who are learned in the Quran, Ahadith, and Sunnah. The Prophet (pbuH) required Muslims to be learned and acquire knowledge throughout their lifetime. It is important to explain that many sects—including Salafi, Deobandi, and Wahabi—do not believe in Ahadith and Sunnah but rely solely on the Quran. They believe that any individual can translate the Quran. The Sunni, Sufi, Shia, and Berelvi sects believe the contrary. Such debates have led to segregation between the sects, causing difficulties for dialogue and rapport3 [10].
In relation to the Sunnah, the Quran states, “Your companion (Muhammad) is neither astray nor being misled. Nor does he speak of his own desire. It is (only) the revelation with which he is inspired” [11]. Therefore Muslims are required to believe that the Quran and Sunnah go hand in hand together as their sources of legislated law. The confusion between the sects’ relation to Ahadith and Sunnah is just a misunderstanding.
To understand the importance of knowledge in Islam from which creativity is derived, it is important to examine the first revelation to Prophet (pbuH) which was: “Read in the name of your Lord Who created. He created man from a clot. Read and your Lord is Most Honorable, Who taught (to write) with the pen. Taught man what he knew not” [12].
This is a very important revelation as the first revelation in Islam is asking the Prophet (pbuH) to read. For humans, reading is an essential tool to understanding which to gain knowledge leading to new ideas and creativity. Allah is then saying, “He created man from a clot;” “Who taught (to write) with the pen” and “Taught man what he knew not.” This is important, as Allah is telling the Prophet (pbuH) His creative nature. He is telling the Prophet (pbuH) that He taught man and provided knowledge and creativity to man as “pen” is a creative idea, another example of Islam promoting creativity.
The Prophet (pbuH) wanted Muslims to gain knowledge, and through knowledge Muslims would obtain a creative imagination (khayal), for the betterment of society. A Muslim imagination cannot become an automatic creation; therefore, creative ideas are within the confinement of Islam even at the very beginning. The Quran states, “Allah will raise in rank those of you who believe and those who have been given knowledge” [13]. The only source that can answer a question is the Prophet (pbuH), whose statements and practices have been recorded in the Ahadith and Sunnah. The Prophet (pbuH) said, “The seeking of knowledge is obligatory for every Muslim” [14]. The Prophet (pbuH) also said, “One who treads a path in search of knowledge has his path to Paradise made easy by God” [15, 16]. The Prophet (pbuH) is clearly indicating that knowledge is important for Muslims and is telling them that if they go in search of knowledge then their path to paradise will be made easy.
3.3 Bida’h, Ijtihad, and Ijma
Muslims have been faced with great difficulties due to religious interpretations of the terms bid’ah (innovation), ijtihad (critical legal thinking), kufr (disbelief or denial), and shirk (avoid or neglect in the Oneness of Allah). Each will be examined in turn.
3.4 “Bid’ah” (innovation)
The word bid’ah has two meanings: the act of creating something new and the act of innovating. When bid’ah is used to counter creativity and innovation, the famous Ahadith is used to back up the argument opposing creativity: “Every bid’ah is misguidance and every path of misguidance goes to hell” [17]. To take this Hadith literally, it can be said that Prophet (pbuH) opposed all forms of bid’ah. However, the Prophet (pbuH) states, “If somebody innovates something which is not in harmony with the principles of our religion, that thing is rejected” [18]. Therefore, the Prophet (pbuH) permitted bid’ah and only opposed it when it was not in harmony with Islam. Furthermore, this Hadith confirms that introduction of new innovations or ideas are welcomed if they conform to Islam.
The Prophet (pbuH) further states: “He who introduced some good practice in Islam which was followed after him (by people) he would be assured of reward like one who followed it, without their rewards being diminished in any respect. And he who introduced some evil practice in Islam which had been followed subsequently (by others), he would be required to bear the burden like that of one who followed this (evil practice) without theirs being diminished in any respect” [19]. If a Muslim introduces a new practice or a good practice, then he will be rewarded for it. This Hadith is promoting creativity and innovation.
Allah states, “And whoever opposes the Messenger after guidance has become clear to him and follows other than the way of the believers. We will give him what he has taken and drive him into Hell, and evil it is as a destination” [20]. Allah is giving a warning that if any believer separates from the Prophet (pbuH) guidance, which includes the Prophet (pbuH)‘s guidance on bid’ah, then his abode will be hell4 [21].
The Prophet (pbuH) states, “The best speech is that which is embodied in the Book of Allah, the Al Quran; and the best guidance is the guidance given by me, Mohamed. The most evil affairs are the innovations (bid’ah), and every innovation (bid’ah) is an error” [22, 23, 24, 25, 26]. The reference to bid’ah here is relating to the creation of statements that oppose what has already been clarified in the Quran and explained by the Prophet (pbuH). It is therefore permissible to innovate that which benefits the religion and that which complies with Sharia law. This is where confusion stems between Muslims5 [19].
3.5 “Ijtihad” (critical legal thinking)
Ijtihad is a wide topic; for the purpose of this study, it will only relate to innovation (bid’ah). The term ijtihad is derived from the word “juhd,” which means to “endeavour” or “attempt” to achieve zann (presumption) regarding hukm (law) of Sharia law [27]. Ijtihad is used by Ulema when Muslims presume that an argument (dalil) is based on Sharia law or if they believe it may not be. Islam does not allow the reliance on presumption or conjecture but rather requires reason and evidence, as the Quran states, “O you who have believed, avoid much [negative] assumption (zann)” [28]. It further states, “And most of them follow not except assumption. Indeed, assumption avails not against the truth at all. Indeed, Allah is Knowing of what they do” [29]. Therefore, hukm (laws) can only be validated if they are certain in their arguments and methods and can have the backing of Sharia law; otherwise, they are deemed not permissible.
Ijtihad is similar to another creative process of thinking; namely, qiyas [30]. This is a process of analogical reasoning whereby the Quran, the Sunnah, and Hadith may be used to solve or provide a creative solution to a new problem. Ijtihad or even qiyas may be used as arguments in favour of innovation and opposing the concepts behind bid’ah, but this would require an Islamic scholarly consensus (ijma).
3.6 Ijma (consensus)
The Arabic term “ijma” refers to a consensus between Muslims on a particular topic. Muslim scholars to uphold the validity of ijma cite the following Hadith from the Prophet (pbuH): “Allah will never allow my Ummah to unite upon misguidance and incorrect beliefs” [31].
3.7 Sharia law and creative thinking
Muslims have been faced with great difficulties due to religious interpretations of the terms bid’ah (innovation), ijtihad (critical legal thinking), kufr (disbelief or denial), and shirk (avoid or neglect in the Oneness of Allah) when addressing the topic of creativity or innovation. These interpretations prevent an open dialogue about creativity in the Islamic world. The importance of Quranic exegesis, Hadith, and jurisprudence (fiqh) are important when addressing Sharia law, but for any argument to be valid in Islam it must have the backing of and be compliant with Sharia law and Sunnah, or the interpretation has no validity.
3.8 Islamic sharia
Sharia law refers to sacred laws in Islam. Sharia law is a concept of rule of law that applies to the whole of the ummah (brotherhood of Islam), covering family disputes, neighbours, business, finance, war, the community, and many other areas. Muslims are to adhere to and are subject to the punishments of Sharia law should a violation of Sharia law be committed. Non-Muslims are not subject to Sharia law or punishments.
The primary objective of Sharia law is rahmah (mercy). We have already examined how Quran and Sunnah are intertwined with one another. Allah states, “And We have not sent you, [O Muhammad], except as a mercy to the worlds.” [32]. The Prophet (pbuH) states, “Those who are merciful will be shown mercy by the Most Merciful. Be merciful to those on the earth and the One above the heavens will have mercy upon you” [33]. Allah and the Prophet (pbuH) have clearly defined the need for mercy and the Islamic scholars (ulemas) have agreed (ijma) that rahmah (mercy) is the objective of Sharia law.
To obtain an Islamic ruling in Sharia law, an examination takes place by the ulema against al-ʾaḥkām al-khamsa (the five statuses), which form part of fiqh (jurisprudence), when deciding a particular matter. They are as follows.
Recommended (mandub) ruling: a Muslim is not punished for not doing something recommended but is rewarded if he does do it;
Obligatory (wajib/fard) ruling: a Muslim is obligated to do something, does not do it, and is punished in the next life for not doing it;
Offensive/disliked (makruh) ruling: where a act is offensive/disliked and required not to be carried out;
Unlawful (haram) ruling: a Muslim does an act which is forbidden by Allah and therefore will be punished in this world and in the hereafter; and
Permissible (mubah) ruling: the Muslim is neither forbidden nor recommended to do something.. In Islamic jurisprudence this stage is used as an approval (ahkam) for matters that are not forbidden nor recommended in Islam, therefore it is a choice.
Sharia law plays an integral part in determining if issues or matters fall into the al-ʾaḥkām al-khamsa and if they are approved by Sunnah. To determine if creativity, innovation (bid’ah), or al-tafkir al-ibda’l (creative thinking) are compliant with Sharia law, a ruling would have to be provided in any of the above five statuses.
4. Methodology
4.1 Data collection and methodologies
Religious ethnography will be used in this research to examine the responses [34] of seven informants belonging to seven separate traditions of opposing Islamic thinking and interpretations. It focuses on the religious believer, what he has been taught, the spiritual connection, his connection with the religious scriptures and texts and his ability to interpret them.
In-depth interviews are a method of collecting data from informants which will allow the identification of knowledge and processes of interpretation which are often invisible when they are embedded within a cohesive religious belief like Islam. The interviews provides the opportunity to find out the informants responses to questions making it easier to ask more complex questions and follow-up questions leading to a stronger interview and the ability to compare answers.
Currently, there are seventy-two different interpretations of the Quran therefore a strong possibility that there are seventy-two different definitions of Islamic creativity. Religious ethnography enables the researcher to make explicit the tacit and differing interpretations of Islamic creativity that would be difficult to elicit from reading scriptures and religious texts.
4.2 Interviews
There will be face-to-face and one-to-one interaction between the researcher and the Informants which will be audio taped. The researcher will have the audio data transcribed and placed in a document clearly demonstrating each Informant’s response to each question. Using these complete texts, interpretative methodology derived from religious ethnography and discourse analysis will be undertaken to examine the language used or what the Informant or traditions accomplishes using such language.
Using complete texts from the recorded interviews and incorporating interpretative methodology derived from religious ethnography, discourse analysis will be used to examine the language used or what the Informant or faction accomplishes using this language [34]. This will allow the study to examine the responses of the informants allowing the researcher to apply the responses by identifying relationships within the data via a Grounded Theory approach to discover a new theory or framework to Islamic creativity. This is a unique study; therefore, the chance of this research or data replicating any prior theory is minimal, as no such theory exists [35].
4.3 Observation of informants
The study is likely to employ additional ethnographic tools of inquiry such as observation and examination of relevant document to aid the interpretation of the Informant’s discourses; determine the informant’s nuances of the moment; the informants strategy in maintaining and managing involvement when interacting with the researcher, at the time of recording of the interviews; how meaning is constructed; the context (e.g. situational and background knowledge), and the researcher’s own interpretation and observations [2].
4.4 Review of documents
The study examines the Quran, Sunnah, Ahadith and Shariah Law to determine how Islam assesses creativity and how the informants interpret such scriptures and texts.
4.5 Sampling criteria
The sampling criteria used to identify and recruit the Informants is as follows:
at least 2 years’ experience as a qualified Islamic Scholar; and
understanding in Islamic Tafsir [36] (‘interpretation’ of the Quran); and
understanding in Ahadith (‘sayings of the Prophet pbuh’); and
understanding in Fiqh [37] (‘Islamic Jurisprudence and Islamic Law); and
provide sermons to the Muslim community and/or lead a congregation; and
understanding in Sunnah (‘practices of the Prophet pbuh’).
The Informants will belong to the following seven traditions:
Sunni;
Shia;
Wahabi;
Salafi;
Barelvi;
Sufi
Deobandi
4.6 Data analysis
Upon collecting the qualitative data (via interviews and observations), data analysis will be used to uncover a more interpretive analysis to examine the responses provided by the informants. The responses will then be categorised and indexed to highlight important features, patterns and similarities. The research will explore patterns and link similar responses to construct a theory that establishes an Islamic Creativity Framework.
A Grounded Theory will then be used to look for relationships within the data which may lead to establishing a creative framework [38].
4.7 Questions to ask informants
The Informants are located in their respective Mosques and establishments in the UK, and their research interviews will be based around the following semi-structured questions:
In Islam, what is creativity?
Do different traditions have different perceptions on creativity in Islam?
Does Islam promote creativity?
How do you view creativity?
Does Islam limit creativity?
Does Islamic Law block the expansion of creativity in Islam due to its stringent rules on ethics?
Do you believe Islam should have a greater contribution to creativity?
What is the process of determining creativity in Islam in the absence of any guidelines that one can follow?
What would you say has been the biggest prevention in the rise of Islamic creativity?
Interviews will be conducted in Urdu, Punjabi, English or Arabic. Materials used to gather research will be a digital voice recorder along with two microphones for better voice quality.
Discourse analysis will examine how meaning is constructed and the power of Islamic interpretation that limits or expands Islamic creativity in society. Qualitative methodology will assist by categorising responses into patterns making it easier to organise and report results. The emphasis of a qualitative approach using ethnographic tools of inquiry is on context (e.g. situational and background knowledge context) and the researcher’s interpretation of the context observed. The approach aims to gain contextualised and naturalistic data for analysis.
5. Analysis and interpretation
This study examined how Islam assesses creativity. Seven interviews were carried out with ulemas from seven different sects: Imam Nasar (Sunni), Imam Alvi (Shia), Imam Chisti (Barelvi), Imam Rasab (Sufi), Imam Dawud (Salafi), Imam Younas (Wahabi), and Imam Huzayf (Deobandi). The themes the study examined are:
What creativity (bid’ah) is in Islam;
Differing perceptions of creativity in Islam;
Islam promoting creativity;
Islam limiting creativity;
Sharia law and creativity in Islam; and
Mechanisms needed to assess creativity in Islam.
5.1 What creativity (“Bid’ah”) is in Islam
Islam is a religion that was revealed to Prophet Muhammad (pbuH) and that incentivises the seeking of any knowledge for its believers.6 It is important to note that Islam views knowledge as a base of human intelligence and creativity as a branch of that intelligence. Therefore, when Islam refers to knowledge it is sometimes referring to creativity too. Islam provides rewards in the hereafter to Muslims for any knowledge gained in this world. Islam also incentivises the thought process of creativity, the journey and the destination of accumulating knowledge and creativity, and those rewards are rewarded separately at each stage. Islam makes it lucrative for Muslims to seek any knowledge, and as the Prophet (pbuH) states, “The best of people are those that bring most benefit to the rest of mankind”7 [40]. Islam uses itself as a mechanism, providing a platform to Muslims to bounce ideas by using the Quran in which Allah openly challenges mankind to do better than what He has done.8
Islam places great importance on creativity and innovation to create an ummatan wasatan, a “Middle Ummah” and a balanced society that avoids extravagance. Islam requires its followers to be moderate in belief (aqidah), in acts of worship (ibadah), in their understanding of Islamic law (Sharia law), and in morals and manners (akhlaq). Being moderate will allow Muslims to see both the liberal side of society and the extreme side of society, making it a fair religion that is able to view the whole of society. Therefore, its creativity will then assist the whole of society.
The interviews indicate that all informants understood what bid’ah meant in Islam. Imam Nasar (Sunni) explained that the definition of bid’ah means to create and that Islam is not against bid’ah. Imam Alvi (Shia) highlighted that even though bid’ah has controversy surrounding it, it does not mean it does not exist in Islam. He indicated that Muslims are not implementing bid’ah. Imam Chisti (Barelvi) interpreted the word bid’ah to come from the word badah, which means something new in Islam. Imam Rasab (Sufi), like Imam Chisti (Barelvi), explained that it is something new. Imam Dawud (Salafi) provided his interpretation of bid’ah, which is what was accepted at the time of the Prophet (pbuH). He explained that there is good bid’ah and bad bid’ah. Imam Younas (Wahabi) explained that it is something new to Islam and Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) described bid’ah as something not at the time of the Prophet (pbuH). The responses of Imam Dawud (Salafi) and Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) placed a negative outlook upon their understanding of bid’ah, as things have changed since the time of the Prophet (pbuH).
5.2 Islam promoting creativity
Imam Nasar (Sunni) explained that Islam does promote creativity, but only that which is not against Islam. He provided an example that the translation of the Quran was a new creative idea after the demise of the Prophet (pbuH). He stated that this benefits people and does not go against Islam. He also stated that some technologies that benefit people are allowed under Islam. Imam Alvi (Shia) agreed that Islam promotes creativity. He explained that Islam has asked Muslims to obtain knowledge even if they must go to China. He explained that the word “China” was never said by the Prophet (pbuH) but as knowledge was so important people just accepted that He (pbuH) may have said it. He described that currently people may feel that to be creative one must obtain Western knowledge or knowledge from people that follow a religion other than Islam. He also responded that Muslims have a right over knowledge and should go where knowledge is, even to other religions. Imam Chisti (Barelvi) believes that Islam allows all forms of creativity unless a form of creativity is wrong. He highlighted that if Islam views something as wrong, that thing will not be praised. Imam Rasab (Sufi) emphasised that Islam promoted creativity and it is divided into two categories: the good and bad bid’ah.9
5.3 Differing perceptions of creativity in Islam
On the question of different perceptions of bid’ah in Islam, Imam Nasar (Sunni) explained that some people have a complete ban on bid’ah. He further explained that in Sunni sect there are limitations on creativity definition but never a complete ban. He indicated that if Islam was against innovation then things that have been invented under Islam would not have been created. He suggested that Islam does not ban creativity but seeks its progression.
Imam Chisti (Barelvi) explained that there is one interpretation, but different schools of thought have taken control of this issue from different angles. Imam Chisti suggested that due to this control Muslims are not able to be creative. Imam Chisti in his response to those that attempt to control the explanations of bid’ah provided an example of Sahih Al Bukahri a collection of Ahadith; and asked if they were a good thing or a bad thing, as they came after the time of the Prophet (pbuH), indicating that bid’ah has benefits.
Imam Rasab (Sufi) said that there are different explanations, but the definition is the same. He provided his own examples of Arabic grammar, the book version of the Quran, the prayer timetable, and even the mobile phone. He said that these developments are a benefit and are accepted in Islam. The response of Imam Dawud (Salafi) was that there are different perceptions of bid’ah in Islam and that some practiced shirk. Imam Dawud (Salafi) emphasised that some sects fall outside the limits Islam has set. Imam Younas (Wahabi) and Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) both agreed with Imam Chisti (Barelvi) that there is one interpretation but different meanings.
There are many different interpretations of the Quran and AHadith relating to bid’ah by Scholars, but Allah states, “And whoever opposes the Messenger after guidance has become clear to him and follows other than the way of the believers. We will give him what he has taken and drive him into Hell, and evil it is as a destination” [20]. Allah is giving a warning that if any believer separates from the guidance of the Prophet (pbuH), which includes guidance on bid’ah, then his abode will be hell. Despite this clear warning, many Muslim ulemas—specifically, those in the Salafi, Deobandi, and Wahabi sects—take the literal meaning of the Hadith: “The most evil affairs are the innovations (bid’ah), and every innovation (bid’ah) is an error” [22, 23, 24, 25, 26]. These sects have reservations to the Ahadith due to the word “Ahadith” not appearing in the Quran. Their position then becomes contradictory, as they rely upon a Hadith despite having reservations to their authenticity as a source of guidance. However, Sunni, Shia, Sufi, and Barelvi are more open to the idea of relying on the Ahadith; and despite the word not appearing in the Quran, they believe that the Ahadith are the guidance from the Prophet (pbuH) and that that is what Allah refers to when He states: “And whoever opposes the Messenger after guidance has become clear.”
5.4 Islam limiting creativity
Imam Nasar (Sunni) believes that there are limitations on creativity in Islam. Muslims must comply with the rule or obligations of Islam, and creativity should not contradict Islamic principles or else it will be rejected. Imam Alvi (Shia) stated that Islam has not provided people with freedom but rather has asked them to remain within the Islamic guidelines. Imam Chisti (Barelvi) explained that if there is no Quranic injunction against it or any injunction against it, or if there is no Hadith against it, then Islam will promote that creativity. However, he explained that if there is solid proof or Quranic injunction or creativity goes against the Hadith then Islam will reject that creative idea.
Imam Rasab (Sufi) explained that if Sunnah and Quran are complied with then it is good bid’ah and Islam will not restrict it. Imam Dawud (Salafi) explained that Islam rejects bid’ah in its entirety. He explained that Prophet (pbuH) stated that if it is not of the way of the Prophet (pbuH), then it is rejected. Imam Younas (Wahabi) explained that there is a complete ban on bid’ah and that it has no place in Islam. He stated that Islam is complete and there is no room for new innovations to be brought about within Islam. Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) stated that Islam does limit creativity, but as there is good bid’ah and bad bid’ah it must fall into the statuses set out in Sharia law such as permitted, obligatory, recommended, unlawful, and offensive/disliked.
Bid’ah only has legal standing if it complies with Sharia law and the Sunnah of the Prophet (pbuH). Bid’ah is being used as a tool to prevent free thinking of ideas. This affects and the ijtihad process of the Muslims due to the substantial opposition to those that commit good bid’ah.
In response to those that oppose good bid’ah the following Hadith states, “He who introduced some good practice in Islam which was followed after him (by people) he would be assured of reward like one who followed it, without their rewards being diminished in any respect. And he who introduced some evil practice in Islam which had been followed subsequently (by others), he would be required to bear the burden like that of one who followed this (evil practice) without theirs being diminished in any respect” [19]. Sects such as Deobandi, Salafi, and Wahabi provide limitations that go far beyond the limitations required by Islam, preventing their followers from being creative by propagating the understanding that innovation is wrong. Sunni, Shia, Barelvi, and Sufi are utilising this Hadith to spread and promote creativity in Islam.
The difficulties due to religious interpretations or applications of bid’ah, qiyas, ijtihad, kufr, and shirk when addressing the topic of creativity or innovation are based on peer pressure, ignorance, and lack of knowledge in Islamic teachings. This leads to a schism, preventing an ijma to finally put these matters to rest. In the absence of an ijma, however, Muslims need only look at the inventions and creative thoughts of Muslims that have had a positive impact on Western civilization to reach the conclusion that Islam does not prevent or limit creativity [3].
5.5 Islamic law (sharia law) and creativity in Islam
Imam Nasar (Sunni) disagreed that Sharia law blocks creativity on the basis of ethics. He stated that if a Muslim follow the rules of Islam and Islam will not stop you. He explained that there are certain rules that permit people to do certain things and which are not against Islam. Imam Alvi (Shia) stated that Islam has rules that must be followed, and if creativity benefits people then Sharia law will not block it. Imam Chisti (Barelvi) explained that Islam does not block bid’ah and that if the bid’ah is beneficial to Muslims then Sharia law will not inhibit it. Sharia law will only block the expansion of bid’ah if it seems that the bid’ah is taking people away from the right path. Imam Rasab (Sufi) explained that Sharia law does not block bid’ah if it agrees with the Quran and the Sunnah and if it is a good thing.
There are guidelines that need to follow Sharia law. Imam Dawud (Salafi) explained that everything in worldly life is permissible unless we have sacred text prohibiting it. Imam Younas (Wahabi) proposed that a mufti be approached to seek an answer to this question. Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) said Sharia law does not block bid’ah and explained the need to look at the categories of Sharia law to seek compliance with it. These interpretations, however, prevent an open dialogue about creativity in the Islamic world. The importance of Quranic exegesis, Ahadith, and jurisprudence (fiqh) are important to when addressing Sharia law, but for any argument to be valid in Islam it must have the backing of, and be in compliant with, Sharia law and the Sunnah, or else the interpretation has no validity.
An Islamic ruling under Sharia law against al-ʾaḥkām al-khamsa, which forms part of fiqh when deciding bid’ah, declares that Islam does not prevent innovation unless it attempts to change the religious ideology or religious framework that covers the principles of Islam, as then that would be unlawful. The al-ʾaḥkām al-khamsa under Sharia law are: the obligatory, recommended, unlawful, offensive/disliked, and permissible. Out of the these only the “unlawful” status prevents certain bid’ah against the Islamic principles from taking place. As a result, Muslims can validate their creative ideas and innovations from the four remaining statuses in Islam. Sharia law propagates al-tafkir al-ibda’l (creative thinking) by making it a law that all Muslims to be creative thinkers.
5.6 Mechanisms needed to assess creativity in Islam
All informants believed that the guidelines to follow when addressing creativity in Islam must include either all or some of the following stages: the intention (of the creator), the Quran, the Sunnah, the Hadith, Sharia law, and the ulema. This study provides an Islamic Creativity Framework with reliance on the Quran, the Hadith, and the Sunnah, which embed authority in Islam and provides clear guidance and direction to Muslims to be creative. Abd-Allah, in his study Innovation and Creativity in Islam, does not provide a methodology to assess creativity in Islam but provides one to promote creativity. He also uses the methodology of ijtihad to further the promotion of creativity in Islam but does not provide a connection or a process linking ijtihad to the Quran, Sunnah, the Ahadith, and qiyas [43].
Al-Karasneh and Jubran then rely upon ijtihad (and Sharia law as a secondary source) as a good methodology to reach creative ideas and new solutions. They then rely upon Quranic verses [44]. The difficulty with their research is that some verses of the Quran cannot be taken in their literal form. The Quran requires an interpretation which is found within the Ahadith and Sunnah and explained by ulemas. Al-Karasneh and Jubran have not done this. They have attempted to translate the Quran without any authority and as a result have not actually explained anything, as there is no interpretation to back up the verses of the Quran that they have cited. This study has cited the Quranic verses and backed them up with Sunnah and the Ahadith.
5.7 Conclusion
Having examined the responses from the informants, it is evident that for any new creative product to be accepted in Islam it must go to the ulema, who will decide if the creative product complies with the Quran and Sunnah. If the creative product is not compliant with the Quran and Sunnah, it will be rejected. If the creative product is compliant with the Quran and Sunnah it will pass this stage and then go to the five statuses of Sharia law. If a judgement is passed that the creative product is unlawful, then the creative product will be rejected by the ulema. However, if a judgement is passed that the creative product is permissible, lawful, obligatory, or offensive/disliked but is acceptable, then the creative product will be accepted.
If the creative product is something new that does not have a reference in the Quran or Sunnah, then the matter will enter qiyas. In this process of deductive analysis, if it is decided that the creative product is beneficial then it will proceed to the five statuses of Sharia law, as explained above. If the qiyas process is not accepted, it will be passed on to the elite ulema, who will apply ijtihad to determine its suitability in Islam. Once the ijtihad process is carried out and the judgement is passed that ijtihad supports the creative product, then it will pass to the five stages of Sharia law. If the judgement is that it is not supported by ijtihad, it will be rejected. The diagram below sets out this process (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
The Islamic creativity framework.
6. “Al-tafkir al-ibda’l” (creative thinking)
When bid’ah is used to counter creativity and innovation the famous Hadith is used to back up the argument opposing creativity: “Every bid’ah is misguidance and every path of misguidance goes to hell” [17]. To take this Hadith literally, it can be said that Prophet (pbuH) opposed all forms of bid’ah. Before examining this Hadith with the assistance of Sharia law, it is important to first show examples of independent acts of bid’ah using personal ijtihad in the presence of the Prophet (pbuH), who did not object to them.
In the Ahadith, it is stated that the “Prophet (pbuH) said to Bilal, “Bilal, tell me which of your acts in Islam you are most hopeful about, for I have heard the footfall of your sandals in paradise’, and he replied, “I have done nothing I am more hopeful about than the fact that I do not perform ablution at any time of the night or day without praying with that ablution whatever has been destined for me to pray.”10 As the Prophet (pbuH) did not object to Bilal using personal ijtihad and creating a new act, it is regarded as permissible that a Muslim can reach a new act of innovation and rely upon personal ijtihad. The Sunni and Shia view this as an argument in favour of bid’ah, whereas Wahabi, Salafi, and Deobandi view this as being part of prayer and not bid’ah.11
7. Conclusion
The definition of bid’ah has been misunderstood by Muslims. The word bid’ah has two: meanings “to create something new” and “the act of innovating.” It can also be categorised into two groups: good bid’ah and bad bid’ah. The Prophet (pbuH) stated that “Every bid’ah is misguidance and every path of misguidance goes to hell” [17]. To take this Hadith literally as sects such as Deobandi, Salafis and Wahabi do, it can be said that the Prophet (pbuH) opposed all forms of bid’ah.12 The Sunni, Shia, Barelvi, and Shia sects all accept that creativity is acceptable in Islam and that this AHadith cannot be taken literally as Islam has had substantial advancement in the world. There are teachings among some sects namely Deobandi, Salafi and Wahabi that all bid’ah is bad and even the compiling of the Quran into a book would have some sects having reservations regarding that, considering the above AHadith.
The Prophet (pbuH) states, “If somebody innovates something which is not in harmony with the principles of our religion, that thing is rejected” [18]. The Prophet (pbuH) also states, “If a question relates to your worldly matters you would know better about it, but if it relates to your religion then to me it belongs” [47]. The Prophet (pbuH) has confirmed that Muslims know better when it comes to their worldly affairs. However, the Prophet (pbuH) only opposed creativity if it appeared to damage, change or not be in harmony with Islamic principles. It can be taken from the above Hadith that if a creative idea or product does not intend to do that then Islam will accept it and praise it.
The Quran, Ahadith, Sunnah and Sharia law are the mechanisms needed to assess creativity in Islam, and these all are authorities that Muslims follow. Islam does not seek to reject a creative product or idea even if the Quran or Sunnah has no guidance relating to it but rather proceeds to the stages of qiyas and if needed ijtihad, to determine the benefit of a creative product or idea before it is deemed accepted or rejected under Islam. This symbolises that Islam will exhaust all possible options before declaring a creative product or idea non-compliant within Islam.
The Islamic Creativity Framework has considered the responses, guidance, and input from seven informants belonging to seven sects. The importance of Islamic Creativity Framework is that all sects can accept that creativity is important in Islam, that reliance on sacred scriptures is significant, and that the seven sects can work together to reach a solution where all sects can agree on. Furthermore, the Islamic Creativity Framework provided in this study would under Islam be deemed as “good bid’ah” or “good creativity,” as it seeks to bring Muslims together and looks to advance knowledge and creativity among Muslims to overcome the misunderstandings that have existed between different Muslim sects for centuries.
\n',keywords:"Islam, tolerance, creativity and identity",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73747.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73747.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73747",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73747",totalDownloads:164,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 1st 2020",dateReviewed:"September 18th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 27th 2020",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"October 27th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The purpose of this study is to understand how Islam assesses creativity—specifically, to determine if an Islamic framework for assessing creativity can be identified. Islam does not provide a framework for assessing creativity, but Islamic scholars continue to assess creativity in the absence of this framework. This study was conducted with the assistance of seven informants from seven leading Islamic traditions based in the UK. 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Literature review",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Creativity and innovation: The Quran (recitation)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Creativity and innovation: the Sunnah of prophet Muhammad (pbuH)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Bida’h, Ijtihad, and Ijma",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 “Bid’ah” (innovation)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 “Ijtihad” (critical legal thinking)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.6 Ijma (consensus)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.7 Sharia law and creative thinking",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.8 Islamic sharia",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.1 Data collection and methodologies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.2 Interviews",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.3 Observation of informants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.4 Review of documents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.5 Sampling criteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.6 Data analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.7 Questions to ask informants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"5. Analysis and interpretation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"5.1 What creativity (“Bid’ah”) is in Islam",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.2 Islam promoting creativity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"5.3 Differing perceptions of creativity in Islam",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"5.4 Islam limiting creativity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"5.5 Islamic law (sharia law) and creativity in Islam",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"5.6 Mechanisms needed to assess creativity in Islam",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"5.7 Conclusion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28",title:"6. “Al-tafkir al-ibda’l” (creative thinking)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_29",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'U. F. Abd-Allah, (2006) Innovation and Creativity in Islam. Burr Ridge, IL: Nawawi Foundation. See also S. M. Karasneh and A. M. J. Saleh (2010). Islamic Perspective of Creativity: A Model for Teachers of Social Studies as Leaders. Innovation and Creativity in Education, Social and Behavioral Sciences. No. 2. Pages 412-26; A. V. Kharkhurin and S. N. Samadpour Motalleebi.(2008). The Impact of Culture on the Creative Potential of American, Russian and Iranian College Students. Creativity Research Journal 20. No. 4: 404-416'},{id:"B2",body:'J. W. Creswell. Third Edition. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. London: SAGE Publications. K. M. Eisenhardt. (1989). Building Theories from Case Study Research. Academy of Management Review 14. No. 4. Page 539. T. N. A. Z. Ariff, (2012). Ethnographic Discourse Analysis: Conversion to Islam Ceremony. Discourse and Communication 6. No. 3. Pages 295-322'},{id:"B3",body:'S. T. S. Salim and E. Woodcock. (2006) 1001 Inventions: Islamic Heritage in Our World. London: FSTC Publisher'},{id:"B4",body:'Z. M. Al-Mazeidy, Moqaddimah fi Manhaj Al-Ibda’: Ro’yah Islamiyyah. (1993). An Introduction to the Methodology of Creativity: An Islamic Point of View. Egypt: Dar Al-Wafa’ Littiba’a wa Al-Nashr: 306'},{id:"B5",body:'The Holy Quran 29:17'},{id:"B6",body:'The Holy Quran 23:14'},{id:"B7",body:'The Holy Quran 17:88'},{id:"B8",body:'The Holy Quran 11:13'},{id:"B9",body:'The Holy Quran 2:23'},{id:"B10",body:'Sahih Bukhari, vol. 1, book 3, hadith no. 56 and 98'},{id:"B11",body:'The Holy Quran 53:2-4'},{id:"B12",body:'The Holy Quran 96:1-5'},{id:"B13",body:'The Holy Quran 58:11'},{id:"B14",body:'Al-Tirmidhi, hadith no. 74'},{id:"B15",body:'Riyadh us-Saleheen, book 13, hadith no. 6'},{id:"B16",body:'Sunan Abu Dawood, book 19, hadith no. 3656'},{id:"B17",body:'Salim Al-Hilali, State of the Ummah, The: In the Light of the Prophecies of the Prophet. Sunnahonline.com, http://sunnahonline.com/library/contemporary-issues/317-state-of-the-ummah-the-in-the-light-of-the-prophecies-of-the-prophet'},{id:"B18",body:'Sahih Bukhari, book 49, vol. 3, hadith no. 861'},{id:"B19",body:'Sahih Muslim, book 34, hadith no. 6466'},{id:"B20",body:'The Holy Quran 4:115'},{id:"B21",body:'The Holy Quran 4:136'},{id:"B22",body:'Sahih Al-Bukhari, hadith no 4.667'},{id:"B23",body:'Sahih Al-Bukhari, hadith no 8.217'},{id:"B24",body:'Sahih Al-Bukhari, hadith no. 4.712'},{id:"B25",body:'Sahih Muslim, hadith no. 1885'},{id:"B26",body:'Sunan of Abu-Dawood, hadith no. 4515'},{id:"B27",body:'Imam Ali bin Muhammad al-Aamadi, Al-Ihkam Fi Usul al-ahkam, vol. 4, Dar al-Kotob Al-Ilmiyah: 218'},{id:"B28",body:'The Holy Quran 49:12'},{id:"B29",body:'The Holy Quran 10:36'},{id:"B30",body:'Imam Ali bin Muhammad al-Aamadi, Al-Risalah, Kitab al-Risāla Fī Uṣūl al-Fiqh, n.p: 477'},{id:"B31",body:'Sunan Al Tirmizi/Tirmidhi, Hadith Collection, vol. 2, p. 39'},{id:"B32",body:'The Holy Quran 21:107'},{id:"B33",body:'Sunan At-Tirmidhi, hadith no. 1924'},{id:"B34",body:'Ariff, T. N. A. Z. (2012). Ethnographic discourse analysis: Conversion to Islam ceremony. Discourse & Communication, 6(3). Pages 295-322'},{id:"B35",body:'Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building Theories from Case Study Research. Academy of Management Review. 14(4). Pages 532-550 and page 545'},{id:"B36",body:'Pirzada, M. I. H. (2015). Tafsir Imdad Al Karam, Volume 1-5, Nottinghamhire, Al Karam Publications'},{id:"B37",body:'Kamali, M. H. Third Edition. (2002). Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence. The Islamic Text Society Publishers'},{id:"B38",body:'Glaser, B. G. and Strauss, A. L. (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research, Chicago: Aldine De Gruyter'},{id:"B39",body:'The Holy Quran 18:22'},{id:"B40",body:'Al Daraqutni, Sunan al-Daraqutni, al-Mutalif wa-l-Mukhtalif, Ilal al-Hadit, and at-Tatabbu'},{id:"B41",body:'The Holy Quran 6:125'},{id:"B42",body:'The Holy Quran 6:117'},{id:"B43",body:'Abd-Allah, U. F. (2006). Innovation and Creativity in Islam. Burr Ridge, IL: Nawawi Foundation: 7'},{id:"B44",body:'Al-Karasneh, S. M., and A. M. J. Saleh. (2010). Islamic Perspective of Creativity: A Model for Teachers of Social Studies as Leaders. Innovation and Creativity in Education, Social, and Behavioral Sciences 2, no. 2: 412-26'},{id:"B45",body:'Sahih Bukhari, vol. 3, book 49, hadith no. 861'},{id:"B46",body:'The Holy Quran 4:80'},{id:"B47",body:'Sahih Muslim or Musnad Ahmad, hadith no. 12086'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"There are approximately seventy-two different Islamic followings and traditions, all with different interpretations of the Quran, Sunnah, and the Ahadith."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"Another example, where Allah describes His creativity and also identifies creativity of the people in the Quran, is in the verse: “Then We made the seed a clot, then We made the clot a lump of flesh, then We made (in) the lump of flesh bones, then We clothed the bones with flesh, then We caused it to grow into another creation, so blessed be Allah, the best of the creators” [6]."},{id:"fn3",explanation:'For example, the Prophet (pbuH) states, “O Abu Huraira! I have thought that none will ask me about it before you as I know your longing for the (learning of) Ahadith” [10]. It was reported in the same hadith that Umar bin Abdul Aziz wrote to Abu Bakr bin Hazm, who stated, "Look for the knowledge of hadith and get it written, as I am afraid that religious knowledge will vanish and the religious learned men will pass away (die)" [10].'},{id:"fn4",explanation:"Allah further clarifies that believing in Allah and not in the guidance of the Prophet (pbuH) is the same as disbelieving everything."},{id:"fn5",explanation:"Bid’ah only has legal standing if it complies with Sharia law and the Sunnah of the Prophet (pbuH). Bid’ah is used as a as a tool to prevent free thinking of ideas which affects and withers away the critical legal thinking (ijtihad) process of the Muslims due to the substantial opposition to those that commit good bid’ah."},{id:"fn6",explanation:"The Prophet (pbuH) states, “If anyone acquires knowledge of things by which Allah’s good pleasure is sought, but acquires it only to get some worldly advantage, he will not experience the arf, i.e. the odour, of Paradise.” [16, 19]"},{id:"fn7",explanation:"[7, 8, 9, 39]"},{id:"fn8",explanation:"[17, 15, Quran 2:23 Challenge to produce a chapter in the Quran [9], challenge to produce the Quran [7], guidance and motivation to reach the skies [41] and providing guidance for ideas [42]."},{id:"fn9",explanation:"Imam Dawud (Salafi) explained that people create bid’ah; Islam does not. Imam Younas (Wahabi) explained in terms of deen (Islam) that there is no creativity. We must follow things which are already set for us, in terms of creativity and duniyah (world). We create things in this world but must make sure we remain within the guidelines of Islam. Imam Huzayf (Deobandi) described that there are two types of bid’ah, the good bid’ah and bad bid’ah. Imam Dawud (Salafi) comments that promoting creativity vesting in humans and not Islam creates the possibility that Salafi may have negative reflections upon what bid’ah is, as Islam promotes creativity."},{id:"fn10",explanation:"Sahih Bukhari, vol 2, book 21, hadith no. 30 reported by Abu Huraira (Allah be pleased with him)."},{id:"fn11",explanation:"The Prophet (pbuH) states, “If somebody innovates something which is not in harmony with the principles of our religion, that thing is rejected.” [45]. Therefore, if things are good bida’h then they are allowed and if they are bad bida’h they are not. The Prophet (pbuH) permitted bida’h, but only opposed it when it was not in harmony with Islam. Furthermore, this hadith confirms that introduction of innovation or ideas are welcomed if they conform to Islam [46]."},{id:"fn12",explanation:"The teachings of Abdul Wahab, the leader of the Wahabi school of thought, has led his followers to believe in the strict, literal, or unsupported interpretation of Islamic teachings."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Cameron Iqbal",address:"cameroniqbal@hotmail.com",affiliation:'
The Islamic College, London, UK
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
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