Perception sensors used in the testbed.
\r\n\tEqually, the interlinkages that the adrenal gland has in the human body create the premises both for the description of the intimate mechanisms that induce adrenal diseases on other tissues and organs and also for strategic considerations when it comes to treatment.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book, which is aimed at both endocrinologists and practitioners in other medical fields, therefore offers an insight into the mysteries of adrenal disease and a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge of this gland, providing an easy-to-follow format that focuses on the most important developments in the field of etiopathogenesis, clinical and paraclinical diagnosis, and treatment of these conditions.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-687-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-686-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-688-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"86c26879d83ac24206ed5476b6cde7fd",bookSignature:"Dr. Diana Loreta Paun",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11853.jpg",keywords:"Cushing Syndrome, Etiopathogenesis, Diagnosis, Treatment, Minimally Invasive Technique, Adrenalectomy, Adrenal Diseases, Perioperative Management, Adrenal Cancer, Genetics, Adrenal Mass, Imaging",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Practitioner endocrinologist, associate professor, researcher, and manager of the National Institute of Endocrinology in Romania, coordinator of investment research and training projects, funded by European funds. Dr. Paun is a member of The Romanian Association of Clinical Endocrinology, member and president(2011-2012, 2017-2019) of The Romanian Chapter of the AACE (American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists). Dr. Păun was appointed State Advise (2015) and was appointed Presidental Advisor (2019).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"190860",title:"Dr.",name:"Diana Loreta",middleName:null,surname:"Paun",slug:"diana-loreta-paun",fullName:"Diana Loreta Paun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190860/images/system/190860.jpg",biography:"PĂUN DIANA LORETA, MD, PhD, FACE\r\nBorn on: February 1st, 1968 on Bucharest\r\nEmployed to: “Carol Davila”, University of Medicine and Pharmacy\r\nPosition: endocrinologist, Ph.D, Associate Professor of Endocrinology\r\nFellow of the American College of Endocrinology\r\nExperience: General Manager of “CI Parhon” Institute of Endocrinology, Bucharest, 2006-2015.\r\nMaster in Public Health\r\nQualifications in: Diabetology, Osteoporosis, Endocrine Ultrasonography, Public Health. Training in molecular biology laboratory techniques – Max-Planck-Institut für Psychiatrie, Dept. of Chemie u. Endokrinologie, München, 2002\r\nOccupational field: Clinical, Educational and Research activities, Management, Healthcare services.\r\nPostgraduate courses in: Informatics, Clinical Endocrinology, Infertility, Sexology, Public Health etc.\r\nProfessional career:\r\nChemistry-Biology High School graduated on 1986, Faculty of Medicine graduated on 1992, Th.Burghele Hospital doctor on probation during 1993–1994\r\nendocrinology resident to CI Parhon Institute of Endocrinology 1994-1998\r\nendocrinologist since 1998\r\nAssistant Professor, Lecturer, Associated Professor of Endocrinology, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucuresti, Romania\r\nPublications: papers presented on national and international meetings, articles publishised in well-known journals, author and coauthor in monographs and clinical guides book.\r\nParticipation on research projects and clinical trials: Director and member of the team in research projects and in clinical trials.",institutionString:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"455410",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Jusic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/455410/images/20500_n.jpeg",email:"dajana.j@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"72660",title:"Conversion of a Conventional Wheelchair into an Autonomous Personal Transportation Testbed",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93117",slug:"conversion-of-a-conventional-wheelchair-into-an-autonomous-personal-transportation-testbed",body:'\nTraveling autonomously from one place to another is an extremely important subject, which has been a dream for years and studied a lot in recent years. The research on the subject generally focuses on the autonomy of passenger cars going into traffic. The first serious results of the studies on this subject came from the race named Darpa Grand Challenge, which was organized by the organization “Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA),” which carries out the United States’ advanced technology defense projects, in 2004, and then continued in 2005 and 2007, respectively [1]. After DARPA competitions, lots of autonomous studies have been done all over the world such as in [2, 3, 4].
\nAutonomous traveling is possible and a serious need, not only in the way that passenger cars perform in traffic, but also in closed environments where the use of Global Positioning System (GPS) is not possible and where the density of people is high. People may prefer to go somewhere autonomously in a closed environment even if there is no walking disability. Wheelchairs are very suitable vehicles for this kind of personal transportation. Also, for some people with disabilities, wheelchairs are the only option to get from one place to another. Unfortunately, many people with disabilities lack the ability to safely use their wheelchairs. This situation poses serious risks for them, primarily for the people around them and other environmental elements. In line with all these needs, in this paper, design and development of a fully autonomous smart wheelchair is explained.
\nIn literature, single-person autonomous/semi-autonomous vehicle studies are generally carried out on the wheelchair platform. The wheelchair named TetraNauta in [5] was developed at the University of Seville between 1998 and 2004, and it operates in a known map autonomously. The study shown in [6] explains the smart wheelchair project that started in 2004 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In this study, an efficient, socially acceptable autonomous tour-following behavior was developed. In another work about autonomous wheelchairs [7], RGB-D camera was used as the main perception sensor, and the map of the environment is constructed from this. Ref. [8] provides information on the development of a robot operating point (ROS)-based autonomous wheelchair that will work indoors. Ref. [9] mentions an autonomous wheelchair that uses only light detection and ranging (LIDAR) as its environmental measurement unit. This study is carried out using the ROS platform. In [10, 11], a semi-autonomous wheelchair was designed where the chair was controlled via head movements. In [12], the aim is to estimate the chair pose from video data by using machine learning methods using artificial neural networks. Another autonomous wheelchair study [12] provides the results about navigation in cluttered environments without explicit object detection and tracking.
\nAll these studies use autonomous/semi-autonomous wheelchairs, which are converted from a conventional wheelchair platform. They provide information about their wheelchairs’ autonomy but not deep information about the conversion itself. The conversion process of autonomous systems is explained in some papers for autonomous automobiles [13, 14] but not very detailed for wheelchairs. The dimensions, velocity capabilities, and differential drive architecture make wheelchairs different than standard automobiles. In this paper, we explain how to convert a conventional wheelchair into an autonomous one which is aimed to be used as a testbed for advanced autonomous algorithms. Besides, the results of localizing and mapping algorithms applied on this testbed are illustrated at the end of the work.
\nThe conventional wheelchair used in this work is a standard differential drive platform with 2 × 500 W electric motors and a 24 V-40 Ah lead acid battery. Its weight (without person) is 80 kg with the dimensions of 120 cm × 65cm × 100cm. After some effort, now it is able to be driven by the outputs of the autonomy algorithms. Figure 1 shows the conventional version of the wheelchair which is controlled by a joystick.
\nConventional electric wheelchair used as a base system for conversion.
The original electric motor driver on this wheelchair is communicating with the joystick via a non-standard protocol, and it was a black box for us since there is no information about how it operates. For this reason, as a first step toward a full autonomy, the motor drivers should be replaced by another one that is able to communicate via a standard protocol and well documented. Therefore, we replaced the motor driver of each motor with a standard brushed DC motor driver “Roboteq MDC2230,” which is a dual channel driver and is able to provide 50 A current continuously for each channel.
\nIn robotic applications, electric motors are generally used in “velocity control mode” instead of “torque mode.” For this reason, the motor driver needs to get the actual velocity value as a reference signal to be tracked. Hence, it is mandatory to measure the motor velocity for a feedback controller. For this reason, additional encoders (Atek-ARCB50360HPL33MY8FZ) for each electric motor are included to the system. The joystick is also removed since it is not necessary anymore in the autonomous concept. As a result, we mounted a motor driver that includes two separated drivers in the same box and two encoders. The motor driver box and one of the encoders are shown in Figure 2.
\nMotor driver, encoder, on-off, and emergency buttons mounted.
According to the motor driver’s data interface, the driver is able to communicate via serial port, which is suitable for our computational system. Since it is planned to use the robot operating system (ROS) [15] to develop and implement the autonomous algorithms, a ROS node is also written to convert ROS commands to serial port data packages using “Rosserial.” Rosserial is a protocol for wrapping standard ROS serialized messages and multiplexing multiple topics and services over serial port. As a result, by mounting additional components (two motor drivers and two encoders) and writing a ROS node, the wheelchair is converted to a drive-by-wire system, which means it can take reference velocity commands from ROS and applies it successfully.
\nFinally, we added an on-off button in order to open and shut down the whole system. In addition, an emergency button is mounted near the seat to be reached by the human easily. The emergency button is connected to the appropriate input of the motor driver which cuts down the energy to motors immediately when emergency signal comes. The on-off and emergency buttons are shown in Figure 2.
\nIt is planned to use the system as a research and development testbed at the end of the conversion. For this reason, several sensors and computational hardware with different characteristics are mounted to the chair. These devices will be used for performance comparison in the future. Tables 1 and 2 show the list of the sensors for perception and the computational hardware added to the autonomous wheelchair testbed. More information about these components is illustrated in the next subsections.
\nDevice | \nSummary | \n
---|---|
INTEL REAL-SENSE—D435i | \nRGB-Depth camera with 87° × 58° × 95° field of view and 10 m range | \n
SICK LMS151 | \n2D Lidar with field of view of 270° and maximum 50 m range. Scanning frequency is 25–50 Hz | \n
RPLIDAR-A2M6 | \n2D Lidar with field of view of 360° and maximum 18 m range. Scanning frequency is 5–15 Hz | \n
Perception sensors used in the testbed.
Device | \nSummary | \n
---|---|
JETSON-TX2 | \nGPU 256 NVIDIA CUDA cores CPU Dual-Core NVIDIA Denver 2 64-Bit CPU Quad-Core ARM® Cortex®-A57 MPCore | \n
AAEON Upboard | \nIntel® Atom™ ×5 Z8350 Processor (Cherry Trail) of 64 bits up to 1.92 GHz | \n
ST B-F446E-96B01A | \nBased on the STM32F446 microcontroller, including 9-axis accelerometer/gyroscope/magnetometer | \n
Computational hardware used in the testbed.
In this study, we have three main perception sensors: one RGB-Depth camera (Intel Real Sense—D435i) that provides point cloud data with 87° × 58° × 95° field of view and 10 m range; one industrial relatively expensive 2D Lidar (SICK LMS151) that has 270° field of view, maximum 50 m range, and 50 Hz scan rate; and one low-cost Lidar (RPLIDAR-A2M6) that has 360° field of view, maximum 18 m range, and 15 Hz scan rate.
\nThe aim is to analyze the performance of these different characteristic sensors on global mapping, local mapping, tracking, and localization. Some of these sensors can be removed from the system or can be used together depending on their perception performance. The angle of RGB-D camera can be adjusted manually. Figure 3 shows these sensors that are mounted on the chair, using appropriate mechanical parts which are designed for the chair specifically.
\nPerception sensors on wheelchair.
In our design, three computational subsystems are added to the system where two of them are planned for autonomous driving algorithms based on ROS platform. The first option is an embedded computer JETSON-TX2 from Nvidia. This low power consumption board is built around NVIDIA Pascal™-family graphics processing unit (GPU) and very suitable for matrix operations used in deep learning. Another option is a low power consumption small size embedded computer, AAEON Upboard. It has Intel® Atom™ x5 Z8350 Processor (Cherry Trail) of 64 bits up to 1.92 GHz. The final computational board is going to be used as a real-time low-level controller if the performance of the motor drivers’ velocity control is not enough. This embedded board is B-F446E-96B01A from ST and is based on the STM32F446 microcontroller, including 9-axis accelerometer/gyroscope/magnetometer. Similar to the aim of using different perception sensors, finding the optimum combination of computational hardware for autonomous algorithms is another objective for the project. Since it is not possible to know the computational power requirements before the decision of autonomous driving algorithms, we will analyze the performance of each hardware. At the end, one of these boards can be removed from system or can be used together depending on their performance. Figure 4 illustrates the computational hardware mounted in a drawer, which is designed for the chair specifically. The gray protection boxes for Jetson TX2 and Upboard, which are produced by 3D printer, can be seen from Figure 4.
\nComputational hardware of autonomous wheelchair (drawer is open).
The main energy source of the system consists of two serial connected lead acid batteries. The main voltage level for the traction motors is 24 V. On the other hand, there are several other components for autonomous operation. In order to provide the appropriate voltage level for each sensor and computational hardware, DC/DC converters are used. Figure 5 illustrates the power distribution scheme, including voltage levels, of the wheelchair components. An additional electric circuit is designed for power distribution using appropriate connectors fuses. DC/DC converters and the designed circuit can be seen from Figure 4.
\nPower distribution of autonomous wheelchair.
Until now, all the electronic components have been shown and their purpose of use has been explained. In order to use all these devices properly, a secure communication network needs to be constructed. Each component has different interface in the system. For this reason, there are five different communication protocols such as Ethernet, USB 2.0, RS232, USB 3.1, and analog signals. Figure 6 illustrates the overall communication architecture of the developed autonomous wheelchair.
\nOverall communication architecture of the system.
The final requirement for the autonomous wheelchair is a user interface that allows the human user to send the desired goal point on map. After this selection, the wheelchair plans its trajectory and tracks the path continuously. Instead of providing only the goal point, the user can set the waypoints to be tracked, by touching the desired coordinates on the map. Additional features of this interface are to send an emergency signal to the chair and to see the critical information such as wheelchair’s velocity and actual position on map. The interface software is designed on a touchable tablet PC. Assembled form of the tablet on wheelchair and a screenshot from the designed interface software are shown in Figure 7.
\nRear view of autonomous wheelchair and screenshot of the human-machine.
After the modifications mentioned previously, now, we have a testbed that is being used for testing the autonomous driving algorithms such as simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM), trajectory planning, trajectory tracking, and low-level controllers. Until now, using the designed testbed, the map of the test environment is constructed using “gmapping” library [16] in ROS development environment. Figure 8 shows a part of the environment where the mapping and localization algorithms are tested.
\nReal test environment.
\nFigure 9 illustrates the real map of the environment which is drawn using AutoCAD® software using accurate manual measurements and the constructed map drawn by the autonomous wheelchair using SLAM. The famous SLAM package of ROS named as “gmapping” is used for map construction. The map is based on SICK LMS-151 Lidar and the odometry information. As it is seen from Figures 10 and 11, the constructed map and the real map are almost same. Since the office doors are closed in the AutoCAD version, the constructed map for comparison is prepared in the same condition. According to the structural similarity index method (SSIM) [17], when the window size is taken as 5 × 5 pixels, the similarity of two maps is 94%.
\nReal map drawn using AutoCAD® software (left) and constructed map by SLAM (right).
Adaptive particle filter localization application (blue arrows: particle poses, yellow: real pose).
Localization performance of the wheelchair.
Another application is global localization of the wheelchair. In order to plan a path and track it, an autonomous agent must be aware of its pose in the map. Adaptive Monte Carlo Localization (AMCL), which is based on particle filter, is used for pose estimation. The localization algorithm is run separately after the map construction. This time we use a map that was constructed when the doors are open since the localization tests were done in open-door condition. Figure 10 shows the poses of particles (blue) and the real pose (yellow) during wheelchair’s motion. It should be noted that the wheelchair is driven manually for both mapping and localization.
\nIn Figure 10, the figure in the left shows the beginning phase, and all the particles are scattered into environment uniformly. No prior information is provided as initial pose. The figure in the middle illustrates that the particles concentrated on places coherent with the Lidar and odometry measurements. Finally in the right figure, it is shown that particles are gathered around the real position of the wheelchair after 9 seconds. The real position of the wheelchair is calculated by the manual measurements from the wheelchair.
\n\nFigure 11 shows the localization performance of the wheelchair in the same real environment. It is observed that the average localization error after the points are converged is below 10 cm, which is acceptable for our future studies.
\nIn this study, the conversion procedure of a conventional electric wheelchair into an autonomous personal transportation testbed is described in detail. The conversion process is investigated under two main sections. The first part is by-wire conversion that allows the wheelchair to be controlled via digital commands. The second part includes the studies on the sensors, computational system and human-machine interface. Sensors and computational hardware that have different characteristics are included in the system for comparison and optimization of their performance in the future. The platform was tested using SLAM and AMCL algorithms for mapping and localization successfully. It is observed that the constructed map using industrial LIDAR and odometry data is almost the same with the real map and localization performance is acceptable for the next studies.
\nIn the future, we plan to use the wheelchair as a research platform to further improve the autonomous personal transportation algorithms that will be used in narrow and cluttered environments. Comparison of localization and mapping performance of different methods and sensors in such environments will be studied as well.
\nThis work was supported by the Turkish Scientific and Technological Research Council (TUBITAK) under project no. 118E809.
\nNeglected tropical diseases (NTDs) include a collection of chronic, disabling, and physically disfiguring infectious diseases that usually affect dwellers of poor rural populations in tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world [1]. Apart from their negative impact on the health of victims, NTDs exert an immense socio-economic burden on the society as a result of the social stigma and physical disabilities associated with them. These interrelated negative outcomes perpetuate a cycle of poverty and unproductivity resulting in a consistent decline in economic growth [2]. As a major element of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), much effort is being put in for the elimination of the NTDs [3].
Among the NTDs, helminth infections especially soil-transmitted helminthiasis (STHs) and schistosomiasis are among the most prevalent afflictions of humans [4]. About 2 billion people are estimated to suffer from helminth infections worldwide, out of whom 300 million suffer from severe morbidity [5]. The negative impact of helminth infections on human growth and development (including cognitive development in childhood and nutritional status), pregnancy and work performance cannot be overemphasized. Though considered as acute health problems in some developed parts of the world, chronic parasitic infections are common and recurrent in poor communities and usually result in long-lasting complications making them a significant health threat to the populations who are continuously at risk for infection [6].
Over the years, many highly effective chemotherapeutic agents have been developed for treating helminth infections. Unfortunately in the setting of rural poverty where these diseases are mostly prevalent, access to healthcare facilities and the cost of medications are a challenge [7, 8]. Additionally, environmental factors and unavoidable domestic or occupational exposures, strongly favor the process of re-infection even after a successful therapy [9, 10]. Given that these infections also require lengthy treatment regimens with related costs which cannot be afforded by the affected victims, many patients seek for alternative treatment options especially the use of herbal medicines which are readily available and less expensive [9, 11].
Herbal extracts have been used in traditional medicines since ancient times for the effective treatment of human diseases [12]. Ethnobotanical studies in various regions of the world have documented medicinal plants used for the treatment of various parasitic infections. Scientific investigations of selected plants have also revealed remarkable activity of medicinal plants against specific human parasites [13, 14]. In Ghana, numerous medicinal plants play an important role in the healthcare system of rural communities. The Ghanaian flora provides a ready source for new therapeutic interventions for the local population [15, 16, 17]. This chapter provides a review with special focus on medicinal plants collected from Ghana with anthelmintic and anti-schistosomal activity.
Soil transmitted helminth (STH) infections are a group of infections which are acquired by the ingestion of, or contact with, soil containing infectious worm eggs or larvae [18]. STHs have been reported as the most common parasitic infections encountered in humans with an estimation of more than 1 billion people infected with at least one or more helminth parasites. They constitute an important global health challenge in resource deprived parts of the world and are prevalent in areas of poor sanitary conditions [19].
The main species of clinical importance are the intestinal roundworm (
Anthelmintics are a group of antiparasitic drugs that expel worms and other internal parasites out of the body by either stunting or killing them. For the treatment of STHs, the benzimidazoles specifically albendazole and mebendazole are the current treatment drugs of choice [19]. The main challenge with these anthelminthics is the development of resistance due to the intensive use of drugs in both human and live-stock [22]. With few new drugs evolving against helminth infections over the years, the fight against these parasites could become a losing battle, thus the need to search for new alternatives.
Schistosomiasis, widely known as bilharzia, is caused by infection with blood flukes of the genus
Five species of the schistosome parasite namely:
For the eradication of schistosomiasis, control programmes have been based on preventive chemotherapy. The WHO endorsed and advocated for mass drug administration (MDA) especially among school children utilizing a single oral dose of 40 mg/kg praziquantel [27]. Unfortunately, the unavailability of the drugs due to cost, poor drug coverage, inequity of access to chemotherapy and non-compliance to therapy due to adverse side effects have impeded the progress of this approach [7, 28]. The expansion of preventive chemotherapy has also raised concerns about the potential development of resistance to praziquantel (PZQ) which remains the only commercially readily available drug for the control of schistosomiasis [29]. Some studies have reported low cure rates of PZQ attributing this to possible mutation of the schistosome parasite as well as inactivity of PZQ against early stages of the worms [30, 31]. It is thus not a satisfactory situation to have only one single effective treatment. Ideally, other anti-schistosome drugs should be developed so that the classical strategy of avoiding development of resistance could be followed.
Reported anthelmintic and anti-schistosomal activities of medicinal plants collected from various parts of Ghana were obtained from electronic databases including PubMed, SciFinder and Google Scholar. The inclusion criteria were that: (i) plants should be used in Ghanaian traditional medicine for treatment of worm infestations or expulsion of worms and schistosomiasis (urinary and intestinal) or other condition characterized by the symptoms of the above diseases (ii) plant should have been investigated for anthelmintic or anti-schistosomal (cercarididal) activity using one or more validated
The anthelmintic activity of plant extracts was mostly studied by evaluating their effect on worms after direct exposure for a period of time. Earthworms including
The anthelminthic potency of the petroleum ether, chloroform and methanol extracts of
The methanol extracts (50–150 mg/mL) of the stem bark and roots of
In another study, the aqueous and ethanolic stem bark extracts (50–200 mg/mL) of
The anthelmintic activity of the ethanolic extract of
The pawpaw tree is well known for its nutritional and medicinal values. The leaf decoction is used as a galactogogue and in the treatment of tonsillitis, ulcerative stomatitis, hemorrhoids, asthma, urinary tract infections, as poultice for sores and gingivitis and in the treatment of helminth infections. The roots are used as antidote to various poisons. The fruits are used to treat indigestion, chronic diarrhea, ringworm infections, bleeding piles, and amoebic dysentery [39]. Almost all parts of the plant are documented to be used for managing helminth infections. In Ghana, 74% traditional healers used this plant for treating helminth infections [40].
In a comparative assessment of the anthelminthic activity of various parts of the plant, the hydroethanolic extracts of the leaves, stem bark, and seeds of
Ethnopharmacological reports from parts of Ghana revealed the extensive use of the leaves of
In a previous study, the alcoholic leaf extract of
In another study, fractions and purified compounds from
The anthelmintic and helminth resistance modifying activities of methanol extract of
Further the extract at 1, 2 and 5 mg/mL significantly potentiated the activity of albendazole, mebendazole and levamisole against the test organism. In the presence of 2 mg/mL of the extract the paralysis and death times of albendazole (8 mg/mL) against
In a previous study, the methanol stem bark extract of
In a previous study, the methanol stem bark extract of
The foliage of
The hydroethanolic extract of the roots of
In another study, the 70% aqueous acetone extract, solvent fractions and isolated compounds from the roots of
In a previous, observations were made for the time taken for different solvent extracts of the leaves of
The leaves and stem bark of
The anthelmintic activity of the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the roots of
In a previous study, the anthelmintic activity
In another study, the stem bark extracts (ethanol and chloroform extracts) of
The methanol extracts of the leaves and stem bark
The ethanolic extract of the dried fruits and leaves (300–300 mg/mL) were investigated for anthelmintic activity against earth worms. The anthelmintic activity of the fruit extract was more potent that the leaf extract. Both extracts demonstrated a concentration dependent activity with the fruit extract demonstrating significant paralytic and death times (
See Table 1.
Plant | Family | Common name | Part Investigated | Activity Type |
---|---|---|---|---|
Euphorbiaceae | Christmas Bush | Leaves | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Apocynaceae | Alstonia | Roots, stem bark | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Meliaceae | Neem | Seeds Leaves | Anthelmintic activity against Cercaricidal and adulticidal activity against | |
Caricaceae | Pawpaw | Leaves, stem bark, seeds | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Combretaceae | — | Leaves | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Cyperaceae | — | Whole plant | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Dichapeltaceae | — | Stems, roots | Anti-schistosomal activity against eggs obtained from clinical isolates of | |
— | Leaves, stem bark Roots | Cercaricidal activity against post-infective larvae (schistosomule) and adult parasite of Cercaricidal activity against freshly shed cercariae from | ||
Gutifferae | Bitter kola | Stem bark | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Apocynaceae | — | Stem bark | Cercariae from | |
Rubiaceae | — | Stem bark | Anthelmintic activity against Cercaricidal activity against Adulticidal effect against | |
Moringaceae | Moringa | Foliage | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Rubiaceae | African peach | Stem bark | Cercaricidal activity against Adulticidal effect against | |
Lamiaceae | Basil | Fruits | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Euphorbiaceae | — | Roots | Anthelmintic activity against the free-living nematode | |
Plumbaginaceae | — | Leaves | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Euphorbiaceae | — | Leaves | Cercaricidal activity against | |
Apocynaceae | Snakeroot | Leaves, roots Roots, stem bark | Anthelmintic activity against Cercaricidal activity against Adulticidal effect against | |
Anacardiaceae | Roots | Anthelmintic activity against | ||
Asteraceae | Bitter leaf | Leaves, stem bark Leaves | Anthelmintic activity against Cercaricidal activity against Adulticidal effect against | |
Apocynaceae | — | Leaf, stem bark | Anthelmintic activity against | |
Apocynaceae | African black pepper | Fruits, leaves | Anthelmintic activity against |
Medicinal plants from Ghana with anthelmintic and anti-schistosomal activity.
[Refer to Section 2.3 for plant description].
The methanol leaf extract of
The effect of
The effect of the extract on the weight of spleen and liver of infected mice were all significantly lesser in the
Crude extracts (pet-ether, ethyl acetate and methanol) and isolated triterpenoids from the stems and roots of
For the stem extracts, the ovicidal potency was in the following order petroleum ether (IC50 = 443.70) > EtOAc (IC50 = 638.00) > MeOH (IC50 = 893.70 μg/mL). The IC50 values for the root extracts were 248.60, 546.40, and 566.30 μg/mL respectively for the EtOAc, pet-ether and MeOH extracts.
The isolated compounds (Friedelan-3-one, β-Sitosterol/stigmasterol, Dichapetalin M and Dichapetalin A) showed higher ovicidal activity than the extracts though activities for both extracts and compounds were lower compared to the standard drug, praziquantel. The highest ovicidal potency was exhibited by β-sitosterol/stigmasterol mixture with an IC50 of 177.90 μg/mL which was about 11 times less potent than praziquantel (15.47 ± 0.06 μg/mL). The next highest was dichapetalin A (151.10 μg/mL) whiles friedelan-3-one showed the least potency with IC50 of 378.10 μg/mL. From the root extract, Dichapetalin M showed ovicidal effect with IC50 of 191.00 μg/mL [75].
The cercaricidal activity of the leaf and stem bark extracts of
In another study, the
The hydroethanolic and alkaloidal extracts from the stem bark of
[Refer to Section 2.8 for plant description].
In a previous study, the cercaricidal activity of the methanol stem bark extract of
Previous studies on the cercaricidal activity the methanolic extract of stem bark of
The methanolic extract (250 μg/mL) of
[Refer to Section 2.13 for plant description].
The root and stem bark of
The ethanolic extract of the root and stem bark were both found to be active against the cercariae and adult worms. At a concentration range of 62.5–1000 𝜇g/mL the stem bark extract exhibited significant anti-cercarial activity (
[Refer to Section 2.15 for plant description].
In a previous study, the evaluation of the cercaricidal and schistosomicidal activities of the methanol extract of the leaves of
The ability of the leaf extract (500 mg/kg
The anthelmintic and anti-schistosomal activities of some medicinal plants employed in Ghanaian traditional medicine have been validated. For most of these plants however, the specific bioactive constituents are not yet identified. It is therefore imperative that further studies to isolate and verify the constituents responsible for the observed activities be performed. Further, the evaluation of safety profiles will add substantial value to the reported bioactivities and make these plants attractive for adaptation to pharmaceutical companies for further development.
Authors have no conflict of interest to declare.
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 7th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:96,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/195367",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"195367"},fullPath:"/profiles/195367",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()