\r\n\tThe formation and development of seagrass meadows take many years. Among all the plant habitats in the world, the most carbon storage feature belongs to seagrass with 2000 tons/ha. Posidonia oceanica is the most important seagrass species for primary production and is endemic to the Mediterranean. This species is a perennial herb that spreads to a depth of 45 meters on the Mediterranean coast and can live up to 30 years. Their presence is indicative of clean seas.
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1. Introduction
Future technologies evolve toward flexible electronics (bendable, rollable, stretchable, or transparent) developed for a wide spectrum of bio- and medical applications, sensors and gadget displays, textile or clothing electronics, and so on [1–4]. Printing processes have attracted great attention, due to their compatibility with flexible substrates and materials, excellent prospects for applications, technical feasibility for scaling to large-area manufacturing and low cost. The two-dimensional (2D) printing technologies are at present used for creating intelligent components and smart systems of printed electronics, such as memories, displays, electronics, batteries, micromechanical systems, sensors, thin-film transistors, and other devices of modern electronics [1–4]. Flexible device technology does not support high temperatures, required for such materials as SiO2 or high-k Al2O3, HfO2, and ZrO2 [5]. So, alternative 2D dielectric materials are highly demanded. Recent developments in technologies of liquid-phase graphene exfoliation lead to a significant progress in methods for creating 2D materials, including graphene, graphene oxide (GO), and other related materials (MoS2, WSe2, and so on) [6–10].
Graphene presents great promise as an active layer in a wide spectrum of devices of flexible electronics and, first of all, in field-effect transistors. Recent reports demonstrate successful realization of graphene FETs on flexible or even on stretchable substrates [8–13]. To make such applications possible, the development of optimized dielectrics for the active graphene layer is critical (gate and interlayer dielectrics, or/and supported layer for graphene). Nowadays, traditional high-k materials, such as Al2O3, HfO2, and ZrO2, are widely used for FETs. Nevertheless, the development of dielectric materials allows achieving high performance of the devices with excellent mechanical properties and low fabrication temperature that is in great demand.
Recently, graphene oxide (GO), one of the most well known graphene derivatives, has been exploited as a gate dielectric for graphene-based FETs [7, 8, 12, 13]. With its good mechanical and optical properties, this material offers a unique advantage for high performance flexible and transparent electronic devices since it can be formed on a graphene channel by solution-based or direct oxidation at room temperatures. Generally, GO has combined an excellent flexibility, a relatively large leakage current, and a strong limitation on enhanced temperature (even under the current flow). This limitation on enhanced temperature is connected with reducing GO: for instance, annealing at 100 °C typically leads to a decrease in GO layer resistivity by 4–5 orders of magnitude [5].
The most stable graphene derivative with dielectric properties is fluorinated graphene (FG), which is a low-k material with k = 1.2 and band gap of 3–8 eV [14–16]. Graphene can be fluorinated by a low-damaged CF4 plasma treatment [16] or by exposing the graphene to XeF2 gas to convert it to insulating fluorographene (C4F) [17]. A new simple approach for graphene fluorination (treatment in aqueous solution of hydrofluoric acid) was recently suggested in Refs. [18, 19]. In the case of graphene suspension, such treatment leads not only to fluorination of flakes but also to additional flake fragmentation and exfoliation [19, 20]. As a result, a considerable decrease in thickness and lateral sizes of graphene flakes is accompanied by simultaneous transition of the flakes from conducting to insulating state. Smooth and uniform insulating films with low roughness can be created from the suspension on different substrates. The films from the fluorinated suspension are cheap, practically feasible, and easy to produce. The electrical and structural properties of the films from such fluorinated suspension with variable fluorination degree are discussed in the present chapter. Excellent characteristics of the dielectric film created from high fluorinated FG may be compared only with well developed SiO2 layers. In addition to excellent dielectric properties, reversible resistive switching effect and negative differential resistance (NDR) were detected in the films, created from the suspension with relatively low fluorination degree. Possible applications of these films are also considered.
2. Fluorination of graphene suspensions
The starting material was a graphene suspension that can be obtained using any of available approaches. It may be suspensions created by mechanical crushing of natural graphite, dimethylformamide (DMF) intercalation, ultrasonic treatment intended for splitting the intercalated particles, and centrifugation aiming at removal of nonsplit graphite particles [20]. At the stage of intercalation, other organic solvents may be used, for instance, N-methyl-2-7 pyrrolidone (NMP) [21, 22]. Suspensions may be also created by electrochemical exfoliation [23, 24], liquid-phase exfoliation in water or water-based solution [25], or shear mixer [26, 27]. During suspension preparation, the natural graphite typically turned into flakes with characteristic size from 1 to several micrometers and thickness from 0.4 (monolayer) up to tens of nanometres. Parameters of flakes strongly depend on the technology used. After obtaining the suspension, it was subjected to a fluorination procedure [20, 28]. To this end, equal volumes of the suspension and a 5–10 % solution of hydrofluoric acid (HF) in water were mixed together. Fluorination time strongly increased with an increase in size and thickness of pristine graphene flakes and could be accelerated by enhancing temperature [20]. Below, we demonstrate the fluorination process in the time scale when pristine graphene flakes have lateral sizes of 1–2 mm and thickness of 3–20 nm, without temperature acceleration. So, we are considering the admittedly inferior option which took sufficiently long time to clarify fluorination stages and all accompanying processes.
Let us consider here the reason for graphene fluorination during treatment in the aqueous solution of hydrofluoric acid (HF treatment). It is very important to note that practical difficulties associated with F reactions in two-dimensional (2D) carbon nanostructures are avoided if working with curved carbon nanosheets. An example of F reactions with corannulene molecules having a curved surface representing 1/3 of the structure of C60 fullerene was realized by dos Santos [29]. Corannulene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon with chemical formula C20H10. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations of the HOMO−LUMO were used to demonstrate that gap variation for fluorinated corannulene, used as a prototype of C-based nanostructures, yields in values of band gap of 0.13–3.46 eV due to fluorination. Our experiments on the fluorination of CVD grown or mechanically exfoliated graphene in the aqueous solution of hydrofluoric acid also show corrugation of these materials during fluorination. In other words, the corrugation of domain boundaries is an initial driving force for subsequent F reaction with carbon atoms in 2D plain and subsequent corrugation [19, 30–32]. This type of reactions stimulated by deformations is also realized for the graphene suspension, and only thin (few layer) flakes are suitable for fluorination during HF treatment.
Liu et al. [33] have employed the first-principles method within the density functional theory to study the structural, electronic, and magnetic properties of the fluorinated graphene with different coverage of fluorine. The authors have found a strong variation of the graphene properties already at the early stage of fluorination (lower than CF0.25). Duan [34] has demonstrated that when fluorine bonds to a carbon atom, the latter one is pulled slightly above the graphene plane, creating what is referred to as a CF defect. These CF defects cause the graphene surface buckling. This corrugation was experimentally observed under fluorination in the aqueous solution of the hydrofluoric acid [33]. Duan further showed that the addition of fluorine to graphene in some cases leads to the formation of an energy band gap near the Fermi level of 0.37–0.24 eV [34]. Generally, it was demonstrated that the adsorption of fluorine on graphene surfaces is a promising approach to modify the properties of graphene, which may lead to more flexible electrooptical applications of graphene in the future.
To investigate the properties of FG suspension, some portions of the suspension were periodically used for the study and preparation of films. The substrates for films were silicon (Si) wafers. In depositing the films, the native oxide was removed from the surface of silicon by the hydrofluoric acid available in the solution. The deposited films were dried and rinsed with deionized water for removing the residual hydrofluoric acid and the organic component of the suspension, and then subjected to a second drying treatment for water removal. In other cases (especially for 2D printing), the solution in suspension was substituted for water. Due to hydrophilicity of FG flakes, the water-based suspension was stable.
3. The evolution of graphene suspension structure during fluorination
Fluorination of the DMF-based graphene suspension with a solution of hydrofluoric acid in water is considered in the present part. It has been found that, as a result of the interaction, the suspension particles undergo an additional splitting and size reduction by one-two orders of magnitude. Figure 1(a)–(d) shows the surface image of films created of Si substrate from the suspension after different times of fluorinated treatment. A schematic pattern for the action of the HF-containing solution on suspension particles resulting in additional exfoliation of graphene sheets, and formation of thinner and finer fluorinated graphene flakes has been proposed (Figure 1(e)). The driving force of these structural changes is found to be mechanical stresses, due to a difference in lattice constants and wettability of fluorographene [20, 28]. The similar fragmentation and exfoliation of graphene flakes are found for different kinds of graphene suspensions during the fluorination process.
Figure 1.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the surface for films with different fluorination degree: (a)—pristine (nonfluorinated) film; (b), (c), and (d)—films fluorinated respectively during 2, 10, and 40 days. The inset in (d) shows an image of an edge of the film taken at the angle of 45° to the surface; the film thickness indicated in the figure was evaluated with allowance for measurement geometry. (e) A sketch illustrating initial flakes splitting and their fractionation in finer flakes that occurred during fluorination process (1—initial particle, 2—split of partially fluorinated flakes, 3—intercalated DMF layer). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [20].
Dependences of FG flake size on time of HF treatment are given in Figure 2. It is seen that the process of flakes fragmentation may be divided into several stages—up to 20 days, from 20 to 80 days, and over 80 days. These intervals correlate with changes in electrical properties of the films obtained from suspensions. About 20-day treatment was required for the film transition from conducting to insulating state. During fluorination for 20 to 80 days, the insulating properties of the films improved, and the current through the films and the charge density in the films decreased. As it will be demonstrated below, the most optimal property for the majority of applications is the fluorination within 60–80 days. The observed stages well agree with the behavior of leakage current through the FG film, which are also given below (Figure 4(a)).
Figure 2.
Dependence of the lateral size and thickness of multilayered graphene flakes in suspension with optimum composition of 0.16 mg/ml on fluorination time. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [28].
Evidences proving the fluorination of suspension particles during the suspension treatment in a solution of HF in water were obtained by means of analysis techniques such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and Raman scattering spectroscopy (RSS) (Figure 3(a) and (b)) [17]. Strong IR bands with maxima 1107, 1166, and 1230 cm−1 are clearly seen in the FTIR spectra. The observed modes supposedly correspond to the fluorine atoms, connected with sp3-hybridized carbon atoms. The studies of FTIR spectra with an increasing fluorination time have revealed that an adsorption band at 1112 cm−1 gradually changes into 1211 cm−1. The modes observed for the studied films are supposed to correspond to C-F bond and change depending on fluorination time. The gradual emergence of fluorinated graphene properties was traced in measured Raman spectra (Figure 3(b)) for the films, which was obtained from suspensions with different fluorination times. It is seen that an increased duration of the treatment results in a decreased intensity of peaks in Raman spectra. This effect is typical for fluorination of graphene and connected with band gap opening. The images of pristine graphene suspension and FG suspension also clarify the fluorination process. XPS spectra show a signal from fluorine F1s and carbon C1s, detected in the energy region of 687.7 and 284–286 eV, respectively (Figure 3(d)). The energy position and shape of the peaks are indicative of partial fluorination of suspension particles. Decomposition of C1s demonstrates peaks C-F with position at 288.3 eV and a peak C-CF at 286.5 eV. These XPS spectra correspond to fluorination degree ~ C4F and are typical for the case when suspension becomes transparent and transfers to a nonconductive state (see details in Section 6). In a longer HF treatment, it is possible to obtain higher fluorination degrees limited to the value ~ C2F. Due to this fact, we have a partially fluorinated suspension in all cases, and namely this FG suspension demonstrates many properties that are attractive for applications.
Figure 3.
(a, b) Evolution of IR and Raman spectra of pristine fluorinated films with time of HF treatment. (c) Images of pristine graphene suspension and FG suspension after 50 days of HF treatment. (d) XPS study of the fluorinated graphene film: the spectrum near the peak of C1s with decomposition into component lines, an insert shows a part of the spectrum with F1s peak. Fluorination time was 50 days. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [20].
4. Insulating properties of hardly fluorinated graphene suspension
As it has been shown earlier, a considerable decrease in thickness and lateral sizes of graphene flakes (up to 1–5 monolayers in thickness and 20–30 nm in diameter) during fluorination is found to accompany the transition of the grapheme flakes from conducting to insulating state. The change in leakage current through the FG films as a function of the fluorinated time is given in Figure 4(a). One can compare these currents with leakage current of 17 mA/cm2 for 100 nm thick GO films [12] and ~20 A/cm2 for 4 nm GO films [8]. So, the electrical and structural properties of the films suggest their use as insulating elements in thin-film nano- and microelectronics devices/structures. We have performed an analysis of the capacitance-voltage characteristics of metal (Ag, Au)/insulator (FG)/semiconductor (Si) (MIS) structures on different substrates. Dependence of relative dielectric constant ε on fluorinated time is shown in Figure 4(b). The dielectric constant of the films is determined to range from 1.1 to 3.2, depending on the fluorination degree of the material. It is important to mention that value of ε = 1.2 known for fluorographene [16, 20], appears in our films for relatively low fluorinated degree (between C4F and C2F).
Figure 4.
(a) The electric current density across the vertical Me/FG film/Si structures biased with voltage U = ± 0.1 V versus the duration of the suspension fluorination procedure. (b) Film fluorination degree versus the duration of fluorination treatment in the solution of HF in water. The inset in (b) shows the value of dielectric constant ε versus the fluorination treatment duration. (b) is reprinted with permission from Ref. [20].
The density of the fixed charge in the film Qf extracted from the flat band voltage of the capacitance-voltage characteristics and the density of interface states at the interface with silicon Dit are given in Table 1. Recall that the fluorinated graphene film was applied onto a silicon surface free of native oxide. The densities Qf and Dit proved to range from 6 × 1011 cm−2 to (0.3–0.5) × 1011 cm−2. With increasing duration of fluorination treatment, the densities Qf and Dit were found to decrease in value. The quality of obtained dielectric films was improved by increasing the treatment duration. On the whole, the obtained values proved to be much lower than the values of Qf and Dit, typical of many traditional dielectric coatings used in nano- and microelectronics such as Al2O3, HfO2, and ZrO2 [5]. The typical values of built-in or interface charge density in the widely used Al2O3 films range within 1012–1013 cm−2 [35]; in HfO2, they vary within 1011–1012 cm−2 [36, 37], and in the Si/SiO2graphene/ZrO2 structures, they range within (1–15) × 1011 cm−2 eV−1 [38].
Substrate
Time of HF treatment
20 days
40 days
60 days
80 days
150 days
Si
Qf, cm−2
(5–6) × 1011
1 × 1011
5 × 1010
(2–6) × 1010
(5–7) × 1010
Si
Dit, cm−2
(3–5) × 1011
5 × 1010
(1–3) × 1010
2 × 1010
(3–5) × 1010
Table 1.
Specific values of fixed charge density Qf, calculated on the flat band voltage, determined from the capacitance-voltage characteristics, and the state density Dit at the interface with silicon, obtained from the difference between the middle-gap and flat band voltages.
5. Relation between structural and electronic properties of FG films
Figure 5 shows SEM and AFM images of partially fluorinated films, created from the graphene suspension, treated in an aqueous solution of HF for 7 days (~CF0.10) and 20 days (CF0.23) [31]. In both cases, the continuous films consisting of separate flakes may be observed in Figure 5. The bright corrugated areas of the film correspond to fluorinated regions, and the dark round regions correspond to nonfluorinated or weakly fluorinated graphene islands. The estimated flake sizes in suspension are 100–300 nm with a thickness of 0.5–5 nm for less fluorinated films (see Figure 2(a) and (b)), and 20–100 nm with a thickness of 0.5–2 nm for more fluorinated ones. The film thickness varies from 20 to 150 nm depending on the drop volume. Figure 5(a) and (b) presents the AFM image and the current map, measured with the probe for the same part of the weakly fluorinated FG film. Conductivity was found for graphene islands (dark areas), and bright areas (fluorinated part) were characterized by insulating properties. A comparison of AFM images clearly demonstrates that an increase in the HF treatment time leads to a decrease in the size of graphene islands and an increase in the size of the fluorinated areas between the graphene islands. So, generally, the films contain graphene islands and their properties were examined for pertinence to quantum dots (QDs).
Figure 5.
(a) AFM image of the FG film created by drops from a partially fluorinated suspension (7 days, CF0.10) and (b) current map for the same place on the film. The bright regions in both images correspond to fluorinated graphene. (c) SEM image of the films created from a graphene suspension and treated in an aqueous solution of HF for 20 days (CF0.23), respectively. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [31].
The charge deep level transient spectroscopy (Q-DLTS) and transport measurements were used to characterize partially fluorinated films [31]. It has been found that at the temperature range from 330 to 250 K, the current is described by equation I = Io exp(−E/kT), where E = 0.48 eV is the activation energy of the current flow through the film, and k is the Boltzmann constant. At lower temperatures, the current is close to be constant. The activationless current flow through the film is, most likely, associated with carrier migration (tunneling) through the traps in the FG band gap or graphene inclusions. Temperature dependence of the current is given in Figure 7, curve 1. Q-DLTS measurements demonstrate that only one type of activated process with energy 0.50 eV and density of localized states of ~ 1011 was observed. This activated process most likely corresponds to carriers passing over 0.5 eV potential barriers between graphene islands and fluorinated part of the film. It means that QDs with quantized electronic properties are not seen in these films. It may be connected with varying sizes of graphene islands and existing edge-related defects which provide the possibility of activationless transport in the films. It is worth mentioning that the arrays of QDs formed after similar fluorination of graphene or few layer graphene demonstrate the size quantization levels in Q-DLTS and transport measurements [31, 39–41]
Figure 6.
Current-voltage characteristics measured at daylight conditions of (a) vertical Au/FG/Si/InGa structures and (b) lateral Au/FG/Au structures (contact size was 0.5 mm, and period between contacts was 1.5 mm) measured several times at two voltage sweeps at the temperature of 300 K. (c) vertical Au/FG/Si/InGa structures measured in daylight (1) and dark (2) conditions. Fluorinated graphene film had thickness of 80 nm. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [32].
Figure 7.
(a) Q-DLTS spectra for FG/p-Si structure in low resistance state, associated with the holes, which are consistent with the activation energy of the holes 0.34 eV in FG/p-Si structures. (b) Temperature dependences of the current through the fluorinated graphene film on p-Si substrate in the high (curve 1) and low (curve 2) resistance states, measured in vertical configuration. Lines correspond to the activation energy 0.48 eV (1) and 0.09 eV (2). (c–e) Expected band diagram of (c) Au/FG/p-Si structures at no voltage, (d) for the filling pulse ΔV1, (e) during the carriers emission from the traps for holes at constant voltage, applied to the sample ΔV2. Only one trap is considered in this diagram for simplicity. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [32].
6. Resistance switching effects in fluorinated films
Currently, the resistive memory approach is considered the most promising, as it allows obtaining a significantly lower time of memory operation (data overwriting). The most important parameters for the memory devices are a low overwriting voltage (lower than 3 V) and a high number of rewriting cycles and stability [42, 43]. The main problems of traditional metal oxide materials in the case of flexible electronics are relatively high fabrication temperature and very high cost. So, recent interest in the graphene-based materials results from its possible use for flexible resistive memory elements. Recently, some efforts have been made to create the resistive memory from graphene oxide (GO) or MoS2/graphene oxide composite [5, 10]. We have investigated fluorographene that is much more stable than GO graphene derivatives. The resistive switching effect for partially fluorinated graphene films (a two-phase system of graphene islands embedded in FG matrix) was observed for the first time [32].
The reversible resistive switching effect was found for the films, created from the suspension of partially fluorinated graphene for fluorination level of about ~ C4F (fluorination time of 40–60 days). Figure 6(a) and (b) shows current-voltage (I-V) characteristics for vertical Au/FG/Si/InGa structures and lateral Au/FG/Au structures, measured at two voltage sweeps. It is seen that the transition to the lower resistance of the layer occurs at voltage of about −1.5 V in vertical configuration and at about −4 V in lateral configuration. The reverse transition occurs by changing the polarity of the applied voltage. Repeated measurements prove the repeatability of such switching. The variation of temperature measurements from 80 to 350 K shows that these transitions may be observed in the entire studied temperature range. Daylight illumination is very important for carrier transport in fluorinated films (compare Figure 6(b) and (c)). The reset loops observed in dark conditions degrade under daylight illumination. The reason for this effect is connected with a strong decrease in the time of nonequilibrium carrier relaxation, directly observed in similar structures [34].
For a lower fluorination degree, the relation of resistances decreased, and for a higher fluorination degree, films became insulated.
One of the most important parameters of the material for resistive memory is the time of switching from high to low resistance states [5, 42, 43]. Q-DLTS measurements allow direct determination of the time of carrier emission (relaxation of nonequilibrium charge) from the specified traps [32]. Time is one of the switching process parameters. The emission (relaxation) time of nonequilibrium carriers is determined from the position of the corresponding peak on Q-DLTS spectrum. It was found that after applying relatively high voltage (~4 V) we can fix the low resistive state of films for Q-DLTS measurements, and after 160°C annealing, the high resistive state can be restored.
The charge spectroscopy Q-DLTS and transport measurements were used to study traps in the films from partially fluorinated suspension in the states of both low and high resistance. The activation energy of traps E01 (0.50 eV), obtained from Q-DLTS method for the films in high resistive states, as mentioned above, may be interpreted as a potential barrier between graphene and fluorinated graphene areas, or between FG film and valence bands of silicon substrate. Transport and nonequilibrium recharging processes in the high resistance state were found to occur above all, due to carrier tunnelling through potential barriers in the films. Several types of traps for electrons and holes (one trap is demonstrated in Figure 7) with the density of 1010–1012 cm−2 were formed in the low resistive state of FG films. Among them are electron traps with activation energies of 0.15, 0.12, and 0.08 eV, and hole traps with energy of 0.34 eV. The minimum relaxation time of nonequilibrium carriers from different traps was found to be about 700 ns. The energy level position of corresponding traps from the conduction band of a silicon substrate equals 0.08 eV. The origin of the observed traps is supposed to correspond to traces of organic components, which are used during graphene suspension creation.
Figure 7(b) demonstrates temperature dependences of the current through the films, with thickness of 50 nm and 100 nm, at two electric field intensities. For the low resistance state (curve 2), the activation energy E for both films with different thickness is 0.09 eV, at the temperature range from 330 to 150–170 K [32]. At lower temperatures, the current again is close to constant. The activationless current flow through the film is, most likely, associated with carrier tunneling on the traps in the FG band gap and graphene inclusions. Comparison of transport and Q-DLTS data demonstrates that the carrier transport in the low-resistance state is determined by the same traps (traps with activation energy 0.08 – 0.09 eV), and they form conductive channels in the films.
7. Films with negative differential resistance
Negative differential resistance (NDR) devices with nonohmic current-voltage characteristics are used in a wide range of applications, including frequency multipliers, memories, fast switches, high-frequency oscillators operating up to the THz range, etc., [44–46]. Currently, the theoretical predictions of NDR pertaining to graphene appear to prevail [47–49], and only a few experimental observations of NDR are presented in the literature (in fact, NDR is experimentally observed in lateral structures only in Ref. [50]). In the case of a two-barrier structure, it is possible to observe different regimes, from oscillation behavior in conductivity to only positive differential conductance [47]. It is this situation that was observed in our experiments for FG films with a relatively low fluorination degree (F/C ratio) [30].
In our case for films created from suspensions, NDR was observed for relatively weakly fluorinated layers CFx with fluorination degree ranged from 0.10 < x < 0.23 (Figure 8(a) and (b)) [30]. Two types of the film with slightly different flake size demonstrate similar I-V curves, but with different numbers of peaks. These films demonstrate one or few peaks in I-V curves, depending on the flake sizes, and that is explained by formation of barrier or multi-barrier systems. The current steps also seen in I-V curves are most likely connected with the presence of electrically active traps considered above. It’s worth noting that the obtained films were multibarrier systems due to the presence of a fluorinated network and non-fluorinated graphene islands. An increase in the fluorination degree first results in the increased number of the FG barriers. The origin of NDR for I-V curves shown in Figure 8(a) and (b) is mostly likely associated with the theoretically predicted gap in the transmission coefficient for carriers in the barrier between fluorinated graphene and graphene areas. It is caused by the competition of hole-to-electron transport and Klein tunnelling with resonant tunnelling in structures with potential barrier(s) [48].
Figure 8.
(a) and (b) I-V characteristics measured in lateral configurations for FG films ~CF0.10 for films created from suspension with smaller flake size in the case (b). Different curves correspond to repeated measurements on the same structures. (c, d) I-V characteristics measured in vertical configuration for FG film (CF0.23) over the temperature range of 80–300 K. Peak 1 (c) and peak 2 (d) were observed in thick 150 nm FG film. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [30].
The origin of the NDR was demonstrated to vary with an increase in the F/C ratio. Thick FG films (150 nm) with F/G ratio CF0.23 showed two peaks in the I-V curves, observed for voltages swept from negative to positive values (Figure 8(c) and (d)). The peaks were observed for the vertical configuration of measurements. A reverse voltage sweep produced I-V curves without any peaks (inset of Figure 8(d)). It is suggested that electrochemical oxidation-reduction reactions involving organic contaminants (traces of DMF, used to produce the graphene suspension) are located near defects, fluorinated carbons, or other special areas in our films. The temperature dependence of the conductivity at peaks exhibited activation behavior σ = σ0 exp(−Ei/kT), where Ei is the activation energy, k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the temperature. Ei takes values 0.04 and 0.09 for peak 1, and 0.16 for peak 2.
The effect of NDR in fluorinated films widens the range of application including active device layers fabricated using 2D printed technologies on rigid and flexible substrates.
8. FG suspension for 2D inkjet printing technologies
The discovered control of the size of flakes in the graphene suspension during its fluorination serves to create inks for 2D inkjet printing [28, 51–53]. Suspensions of fluorinated graphene with nanometer size flakes are of interest for the development of 2D inkjet printing technologies, and production of thermally and chemically stable dielectric films for nanoelectronics [28]. The printed fluorinated graphene films on silicon and flexible substrates have been demonstrated first time, and the charges in MIS structures have been estimated as ultra low values of (0.5–2) × 1010 cm−2.
The properties of the graphene oxide films may be greatly improved by adding the FG top layer. The thin FG and GO films are printed on silicon and flexible polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrates (Figure 9 (a) and (b)). FG flakes have lateral sizes ranging within 20–100 nm and thickness of 0.4–1.5.nm. Figure 9 (a) contains the photo of printed graphene oxide lines with different number of layers. Layers in the left part of the substrate are coated by a layer of printed FG. The boundary between areas with and without FG is marked with arrows. The FG layers on the PET substrate are presented in Figure 9 (b). An AFM image of the FG layer on PET and the profile near the edge of FG film are demonstrated in Figure 9 (c) and (d).
Figure 9.
(a) FG printed 10-layer films on the PET substrate. (b) Images of graphene oxide printed 4, 6, 10, and 16-layer films with an additional FG 8-layered coating printed on top of the left half of the wafer. The boundary of the FG layer is slightly seen in the image, and for better visualization, it is marked with arrows. (c) An AFM image and height profile (d) near the edge of the FG film from (b). FG layer thickness can be estimated at ~17 nm. (e) Comparison of the current values through the GO, FG, and FG/GO films deposited by droplets. (f) Dependence of the current through the two-layer FG/GO and GO films on the isochronous (20 min) annealing temperature; the considered films were obtained by printing and applying droplets. Annealings were carried out in an inert atmosphere (Ar with addition of 10% H2). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [28].
The properties of two-layer films of FG on GO were the most extensively studied due to their revealed stability. Figure 9 (e) shows the current-voltage characteristics of the two-layer films of FG/GO, created by printing and dropping, measured in lateral configuration. It has been found out that the magnitude of the current through the two-layer structure is significantly lower than that through the separate films of GO or FG. The increase in the two-layer film thickness was shown to be not that significant, compared with the effect of reducing the current through the film by several orders of magnitude, especially in the case of printed layers. Applying the FG layer causes primarily the “healing” of structural defects in the GO film. The origin of this effect lies in good affinity between GO and FG, and in the electrostatic interaction between GO structural defects and FG flakes. Surface roughness of different films on rigid substrates was extracted from AFM images: the surface roughness for GO film was 8.1 nm, for FG/GO film, it was 5.7 nm, and for FG film, it was 1.5 nm. This effect is supposed to result from blocking of graphene oxide conductivity with small FG flakes. Significant decrease in FG/GO film roughness suggests formation of FG few layers on structural defects of GO films (local insulating island with thickness exceeding the average FG film thickness).
Assessment of thermal stability of different structures required investigation and comparison of the conductivity of GO and FG/GO films, obtained by applying drops and printing. Figure 9 (f) presents dependences of film resistance on temperature of isochronous annealing. The graphs show that the resistance of the two-layer structures, both printed and created by drops, changes not more than by 1–1.5 orders, while the change in the resistance of the graphene oxide films in both cases is 3–5 orders of magnitude. Therefore, the two-layer FG/GO films are much more stable than the GO films, since the application of the second layer greatly suppresses the GO recovery during heating.
9. Outlook and conclusion remarks
Creation of the fluorinated graphene suspension and inks are shown to extend the range of graphene-based materials from conductive to insulating and functional layers (Figure 10). The suggested approach for graphene or graphene suspension fluorination in the aqueous solution of hydrofluoric acid allows obtaining the partially fluorinated graphene with fluorine content lower than in CF0.5. This approach is cheap, practically feasible, and easy to produce. Moreover, films obtained from the partially fluorinated graphene may be conducting or insulating, depending on the suspension fluorination degree.
Figure 10.
Schematic illustration of possible applications for partially fluorinated graphene films created from suspensions.
Fluorinated graphene cannot be structured using traditional technological approaches such as plasma treatment. This problem of the fluorinated graphene nanostructuring is successfully overcome by means of spin-coating or printed technologies. As a result, the use of FG suspension is the most convenient approach for a wide spectrum of applications, especially for flexible technologies.
The fluorination process in the case of graphene suspension causes additional flakes splitting and fragmentation. The small size of the fluorinated flakes makes them an excellent base for graphene-based inks. Dropped and printed films, obtained from the inks both on rigid and flexible substrates, demonstrate a great potential for a wide spectrum of electronic devices, especially for flexible electronics. Partial fluorination provides for FG films such effects as NDR and resistive switching that are promising for applications. The development of optimized dielectrics for the graphene active layer (active layer gate and interlayer dielectrics or/and substrate for graphene) has been described. Dielectric layers fabricated from fluorinated graphene or in combination with graphene oxide are the most promising graphene-based flexible and transparent electronics.
Acknowledgments
The study was financially supported by the Russian Science Foundation, grant 15-12-00008. Figures 1, 3, and 4 are reproduced from Ref. [20] with permission from the PCCP Owner Societies.
\n',keywords:"flexible electronics, fluorinated graphene, suspension, dielectric films, leakage current, charges, resistive switching, quantum dots, negative differential resistance",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/54212.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/54212.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54212",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54212",totalDownloads:1761,totalViews:326,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:73,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 26th 2016",dateReviewed:"January 12th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 17th 2017",dateFinished:"February 26th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Future electronics technology is expected to develop from rigid to flexible devices. This process requires breakthroughs in material properties, especially flexibility, in combination with desirable electrical insulating, semiconducting, or metallic properties. Graphene, being one of the recently developed two-dimensional (2D) materials, presents great promise as an active layer in a wide spectrum of electronics devices and, first of all, in field-effect transistors (FET). The development of optimized dielectrics for the graphene active layer is critical for graphene applications. The carrier transport in graphene films takes place at interfaces with dielectric or semiconductor substrates; therefore, the quality of such interface and the interaction of graphene films with nearby dielectric layers (charge carrier scattering) determine the device performance. Generally, the development of dielectric materials aiming at high performance device operation, proper mechanical properties, and low-temperature fabrication is not progressing well since the graphene thin film is very sensitive to surface conditions of dielectric layers. Solving the problem with dielectric layers in the case of nonorganic printed and flexible electronics is especially acute. As it is demonstrated in the present chapter, dielectric layers fabricated from fluorinated graphene suspension or in its combination with graphene oxide are the most promising for graphene-based flexible, printed, and transparent electronics.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/54212",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/54212",book:{id:"6215",slug:"graphene-materials-advanced-applications"},signatures:"Irina V. Antonova and Nadezhda A. Nebogatikova",authors:[{id:"96688",title:"Prof.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Antonova",fullName:"Irina Antonova",slug:"irina-antonova",email:"antonova@isp.nsc.ru",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Institute of Semiconductor Physics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"196570",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadezhda",middleName:null,surname:"Nebogatikova",fullName:"Nadezhda Nebogatikova",slug:"nadezhda-nebogatikova",email:"nadonebo@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196570/images/5580_n.jpg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Fluorination of graphene suspensions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The evolution of graphene suspension structure during fluorination",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Insulating properties of hardly fluorinated graphene suspension",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Relation between structural and electronic properties of FG films",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Resistance switching effects in fluorinated films",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Films with negative differential resistance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. FG suspension for 2D inkjet printing technologies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Outlook and conclusion remarks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Han X, Chen Y, Zhu H, Preston C, Wan J, Fang Z, Hu L: Scalable, printable, surfactant-free graphene ink directly from graphite. Nanotechnology. 2013;24:205304. DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/24/20/205304'},{id:"B2",body:'Wei D, Li H, Han D, Zhang Q, Niu L, Yang H, Bower C, Andrew P, Ryhänen T: Properties of graphene inks stabilized by different functional groups. Nanotechnology. 2011;22:245702. 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Rev. Lett. 2000;85:4767–70. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.4767'},{id:"B47",body:'Song Y, Wu HC, Guo Y: Negative differential resistance in graphene double barrier resonant tunneling diode. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2013;102:093118. DOI: 10.1063/1.4794952'},{id:"B48",body:'Nguyen HC,Nguyen VL: Tunneling of dirac electrons through one-dimensional potentials in graphene: a T-matrix approach. J. Phys.: Condens. Matter. 2009;21:045305. DOI: 10.1088/0953-8984/21/4/045305'},{id:"B49",body:'Ren H, Li QX, Luo Y, Yang JL: Graphene nanoribbon as a negative differential resistance device. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2009;94:173110. DOI: 10.1063/1.3126451'},{id:"B50",body:'Wu Y, Farmer DB, Zhu W, Han SJ, Dimitrakopoulos CD, Bol AA, Avouris P, Lin YM. Three-terminal graphene negative differential resistance devices. ACS Nano. 2012;6:2610–2. DOI: 10.1021/nn205106z'},{id:"B51",body:'Kamyshny A, Magdassi S: Conductive nanomaterials for printed electronics. Small. 2014;10:3515–35. DOI: 10.1002/smll.201303000'},{id:"B52",body:'Li J, Ye F, Vaziri S, Muhammed M, Lemme MC, Östling M: Efficient inkjet printing of graphene. Adv. Mater. 2013;25:3985-92. DOI: 10.1002/adma.201300361'},{id:"B53",body:'Xu Y, Hennig I, Freyberg D, Strudwick AJ, Schwab MG, Weitz T, Cha KCP: Inkjet-printed energy storage device using graphene/polyaniline inks. J. Power Sources. 2014;248:483–8. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.09.096'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Irina V. Antonova",address:"antonova@isp.nsc.ru",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
Salt stress is among the leading abiotic causes of modifications in many physiological, anatomical, and biochemical processes [1]. Anatomical and morphological changes in leaves under restricted moisture availability play a significant role in salt stress, and they are an indication of the level of tolerance. The epidermis is the external tissue of every plant organ and serves as the initial point of contact with its environment. It is essential to preserve physiologically appropriate circumstances in all plant and environment interactions for normal metabolism [2].
In salt-stressed plants, stem vascular cell thickness was much larger than control treatment; the salinity effect was concentration-dependent. Generally, plants grown in saline solution showed higher thickness in the cuticle, vascular tissues, and vessel than unstressed plants (Figure 1B–C). Furthermore, we observed that, in salt-stressed plants, the number of trichomes was increased from epidermal stem cells. In other words, an increase in salinity level led to more trichomes on the epidermal layer compare with control plants [3]. There are several reports on increased trichomes density under environmental stresses such as drought and salinity [4, 5]. An increase in trichome density may be a mechanism to increase tolerance to salt stress.
Figure 1.
Salt stress effects on rice plant growth under control and at 200 mM NaCl treatment(A): rice leaf anatomy, Oriza sativa; (B–C): light microscopy (cross-section) in control; (C): light microscopy (cross-section) in 200 mM NaCl; cu = cuticle, ms: mesophyll cell, Bul: bulliform cells, cp: parenchyma cells, m: mesophyll, s: stomata, vb: vascular bundles, s: stomata stomata, lv: largr vascular bundle and red line indicates the thickness of parenchyma; and scale bar = 100 μm; (D): scanning electron microscopy of the adaxial surface in control rice leaves; and (E): under stress condition (200 mmol/l), showing epicuticular wax deposition.
The importance of the cuticular layer in regulating a plant’s water status and providing protection from environmental challenges has been recognized for a long time. The cuticular layer in plants restricts non-stomatal water loss and protects plants against damage from biotic and abiotic stress [6]. Due to their role in controlling water loss, specialized epidermis structures have the potential to enhance the drought tolerance and WUE (“water use efficiency”) of critical crops [7, 8, 9, 10]. The cuticular wax on the leaves of the control (non-treated rice leaves) showed less than compared with the treated rice leaves (200 mmol/l NaCl), indicating adaptation against salinity to maintain photosynthesis to control water loss (Figure 1D–E).
Trichomes study has conventionally centered on specialized metabolic processes understanding in glandular trichomes [11, 12, 13]. Our data showed that in salinity tolerance, rice varieties have developed dense trichomes and increased in size with the help of a layer of air trapped in trichomes to reduce the rate of water transpiration as compared to susceptible varieties under differing concentrations of salt (40–160 mmol/l) [3].
The epidermis also includes stomata, which constitute epidermal pores that directly control the exchange of gases and also water status management. They may be found on a single surface (hypostomatic) and both leaf surfaces (amphistomatic) [14]. Stomata regulate water absorption through modifications in the stomatal opening, conductance, along with density. Shortly, plants alter their stomata closure to minimize water loss and a moderate absorption of CO2 for changing circumstances [15]. Our data indicated that tolerant cultivars of rice closed stomata at the highest concentration (160 mmol/l NaCl) of salt [3]. Plant leaves can rise in stomatal density and a decreased saline area indicating a change to saline stress [16, 17]. Thus, the equilibrium between the density of stomatal and site could lead to stomatal conductance control and evaporation water loss [18, 19], which establishes equilibrium in photosynthesis [20]. Similar behavior was found for other species like “Leptochloafusca” [21] Imperata cylindrical [22], and Triticum aestivum [23].
Salt tolerant plants exhibit leaves thickening [23, 24, 25] which may contribute to the maintenance of turgor and content of leaf water. Wankhade et al. [26] and Hameed et al. [17] identified an optimistic association between salt stress tolerance and epidermal cells’ thickening. The epidermal thickness increases the water effectiveness of plants and offers more area in which NaCl is effective for the epidermis of the leaf [27]. It can also be important to increase the region of sclerenchyma with rising salinity since it provides organ rigidity and this may be an essential characteristic for salt resistance [16]. The area of the photosynthetic leaf, parenchyma tissues exhibited a progressive reduction in salinity which is likely to influence CO2 diffusion [18].
The most challenging issues to assess by traditional microscopy methods are rice mesophyll tissues as their cells are lesser and have a greater density of chloroplast [28, 29] comparison to other plants. Thus, precise mesophyll morphology evaluation is essential for assessing photosynthetic capability [30] and maintains the leaf structure against salinity via following ways;
Salt exclusion: It inhibits salts from entering the vascular scheme.
Salt elimination: Salts glands and hair actively remove salts and therefore maintain the concentration of salt below a specific threshold in the blades.
Salt succulence: If the amount of cells storage gradually rises with salt ingestion (since the cells raise water constantly), the salt level may be maintained for long durations reasonably consistent.
Salt redistribution: Na+& Cl− may easily be transported to phloem to allow redistribution across the plant of higher concentrations in actively transpiring leaves.
Significant modifications were detected in salt stress chloroplast in rice leaf contrast to tolerance variety. These include; (1) Modifications in the chloroplasts number & size, and starch level. (2) Disordered membranes of the chloroplast. (3) Variations in plastoglobuli numbers and sizes. (4) Loss of the disorganization and envelope of thylakoids and grana which directly affect the chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthetic rate, and reduced the productivity of rice (12). Chloroplast is recognized as an organelle susceptible to environmental stress [31], and its pockets [32] are known to be present in salt. Even though earlier TEM investigations have shown alterations in the chloroplast ultrastructure to salt that influence photosynthetic [32], these structural variations are specifically noticeable in the thylakoids [28] that swell under salt stress [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. Therefore, mesophyll conductance decrease was correlated with the olive leaf mesophyll thickening [33]. A substantial reduction in mesophyll cell size was also a notable leaf anatomical characteristic found in A. gomboformis. Comparatively, small cells were found to better withstand turgor pressure than massive ones and more efficiently help to maintain turgor [34]. Thus, the decline in cell size was relatively considered to sustain tissue turgescence in A. gomboformis as a leaf tolerance mechanism.
On the other side, improved porosity by raising the parenchyma intercellular space did not promote the propagation conductivity of stressed plants [35]. The existence of highly vacuolated epidermal cells with poor metabolic seemed to function as a dumping mechanism in preventing mesophyll cells from stress [36]. However, decreasing the diameter of the xylem tube contributed in decreased hydraulic and ionic conductance [37] and therefore reduced photosynthesis and plant development.
The influence of salinity on leaf ultrastructure changed with the plant tolerance to NaCl, as reported in two rice species, (Oryza sativa L.). The sensitive rice species (‘Jaya’) indicated variations in the chloroplast integrity compared to the tolerant species (‘Kogut’). Specifically, the majority of chloroplasts of ‘Jaya’ exhibited indications of damage in reaction to elevated NaCl. In comparison, ‘Korgut’ tolerance chloroplasts variety did not exhibit any salinity impact. This response was associated with a 53% decrease in PN in Jaya, while no substantial variation in PN was found in ‘Korgut’ [3] (Figure 2). The impact of NaCl on the ultrastructure of leaf chloroplast was investigated in two distinct pea varieties with numerous sensitivity concentrations to NaCl, one sensitive to salt (“cv. Challis”) and another relatively [38].
Figure 2.
(A) Transmission electron microscope images of salt-tolerant variety, (a) under control (without treatment) and (b) treated with 160mM Nacl, showing thylakoid system of chloroplasts remained unaffected in control as well as under treatment. However, salt-sensitive variety, transmission electron microscope images of leaf, (c) under control, Chloroplasts had a well-developed system of thylakoids, (d) Thylakoid were damaged with loss of grana stacking under treatment; (B) Gas Exchange measurements; (C) Light reaction of photosynthesis [3].
Aranda-Romero et al. [39] investigated anatomical disturbances generated with chloride salts (NaCl, CaCl2, KCl) in both tolerant (Cleopatra mandarin) and sensitive (Carrizo citrange) citrus cultivars. Salts in PN were associated with alterations in leaf anatomy, like the decrease in the thickness of the leaf and decreased mesophyll cell area (Figure 1B–C), enhanced leaf succulence, and decreased intercellular air space, surface, and density of the tissue. The anatomical alterations related to Arbutus unedo leaves in semi-thin sections were found by Navarro et al. [40]. A relationship between control plants and saline plants revealed that the cell size was not significantly changed in the 1st layer of palisade cells. Hernández et al. [38] observed in the same research that the NaCl concentration of salt and salt-tolerant pea plants had a distinct impact. Moreover, Argyranthemum coronopifolium, as demonstrated by Morales et al. [41], is similarly susceptible to high levels of salt. These researchers discovered that the salt in these plants does not cause modifications in the chloroplast’s number, while in palisade & mesophyll cells, chloroplasts have risen significantly owing to a rise in the quantity of starch in palisade parenchyma compared to mesophyll tissues. A smaller formation of sucrose and hexoses and high activity of phosphate – sucrose synthase may explain the development of starch in leaf-chloroplasts in saline condition, which may lead to the triose-phosphate path towards the synthesis of starch or/and enzymes damage included in starch deterioration through modifications in the ionic chloroplast’s composition [41, 42]. The variations in the sizes of a chloroplast, as well as starch accumulation among palisade and mesophyll, parenchyma was explained by various photosynthetic leaf rate values observed by Morales et al. [41].
2. Anatomy of roots
The roots under salinity stress are essential to stress management studies since the root surfaces are initially exposed to environmental stress [43]. The root system anatomy correlates to root efficiency and permits plants to get nutrients and water, thus increasing the degree of replacement for lost plant water [44]. The anatomy system also prevents the salt build-up from roots, so that water from salty soils may continue [45]. Salt stress mainly controls root hair production and growth [46]. Root epidermal development demonstrates flexibility because external stimuli affect epidermal cells and root hair commencement [47]. The roots cross-section of rice species seedlings studied, in absence of stress, a greater roots thickness and well-organized tissue were noted in rice but root thickness decreased in salt condition (Figure 3). Growth of the plasticity root epidermis suggests a role of root hairs in detecting environmental signals that plants adapt to stressful circumstances as a reaction to different environmental conditions [48]. Optimal root systems promote plant development and increase plant output, as roots interface plants with the earth [47]. A plant root system that is increasing thus seems better since it enables it to reach deeper soil layers and get water and nutrients [49]. Moreover, soil environmental variables (temperature fluctuations, salinity, mechanical impedance, lack of O2) may also have significant effects on the root morphology. Salt stress at a lower concentration induced plentiful root hairs, but progressively less root hair counts were calculated at increased salt levels [48]. Under the stress of salt, the root hair length and the root hair density were below 25 & 40% in comparison with untreated hydroponically cultivated wheat genotypes [36]. Two determinants of the total root surface area are total root duration and branching density – improved during moderate drought stress by comparison with “Silene vulgaris seedlings” [43]. Moreover, the morphology of certain plants indicates their salt sensitivity. Salinity inhibits the development of plants via osmotic & toxic effects and high sodium absorption levels because sodium raises soil tolerance, decreases root growth & root water flow by decreasing hydraulic conductivity [50]. The same behavior was also found in “Euonymus japonica” plants treated with a solution of NaCl and retrieved water comprising various levels of salt, which reduced the entire plant’s root length, most particularly in thin (“Ø ≤ 0.5 mm”) as well as average thickness (“0.5 < Ø≤2.0 mm”) roots [51]. In other varieties of the plant (Portulaca oleracea &Pinus banksiana), Croser et al. [52] & Franco et al. [46] have reported a rise in root diameter as a result of salinity. The higher root density found in plants indicates better tolerance and perhaps greater reserved accumulation [45, 46] that might enhance plant resistance and accelerate the plant’s establishment for farming and landscape objectives, particularly ornamental plants [53]. Root hydraulic conductivity can vary according to the salt concentration of irrigated water used in cultivated fields [54]. The root hydraulic behavior usually expresses the entire root dry weight, regardless of the root architectural function in water absorption capacity. However, the number of fine roots that define the root and the area could vary significantly in any given relatively dry weight value, therefore influencing the degree of water absorption [55]. The detrimental impacts of abiotic stress may be reduced more by salt-tolerant rootstocks than by rootstocks sensitive to salt. Navarro et al. [54] reported lower fruit production and attribute in Carrizo grafting of the Clemenules mandarins (“salt-sensitive rootstock”) in comparison with Cleopatra (“salt-tolerant rootstock”), both exposed to a solution of NaCl (30 mM). According to Penella et al. [56], the output of commercial pepper cultivars during salt irrigation was shown to be raised in salt-tolerant rootstocks. Nassar et al. [57] noted that the widths of vascular bundles and rice stems diameters reduced in NaCl. NaCl treatment in mung bean seedlings was noted by Khan et al. [58] to suppress the development of the vascular system. Gal et al. [59] found that shoot/root ratio was an essential indicator in predicting water consumption, water loss, and hydraulic conductivity in the C3 plants. The roots permeability to water is also measured by other root features, like the number of root hairs, root cortex width, xylem vessels number & diameter, and the suberin deposition in root endodermis and exodermis. This xylem structural modification may influence the capacity of water movement [60]. The xylem’s capability to resist negativity depends on the specific environmental limitations [60]. Many studies show that every plant uses the same basic effectors and regulatory systems for salt tolerance and that the variation in glycophytic & halophytic species is quantitative rather than qualitative [61].
Figure 3.
Effect of salinity on root anatomy (10x, magnification) of oryza sativa L.(A): anatomical structure of rice roots under control (without treatment); and (B):under salinity stress (200 mM NaCl). The different letter in the figures represents; a; epidermis, b; exodermis, c; sclerenchyma layers, d; mesodermis, e; endodermis, f; pericycle, g; pholem, h; metaxylem.
3. AMF (“arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi”)
The inoculation of roots AMF (that is considered an essential bio-ameliorators) for salt soils and facilitating host plants’ strong growth under stressful circumstances through various complicated events of communication between the plants as well as the fungus, leading to enhancing photosynthetic activity and other features linked to gas exchanges [62] and enhanced absorption of water. Several investigations have shown that AMF’s effectiveness imparts development and increase in salinity stress plants [63, 64]. AMF enhances plant nutrition by improving the availability and transport of different nutrients [65]; and also enhances soil quality by affecting its texture and structure, and therefore plant health [66, 67] and reduces Na and Cl uptake, resulting in a growth boost [68]. Good interactions between AMF-soil plants may allow reusing of recovered water, especially when roots develop in saline soil [69]. Mycorrhizal inoculation prominently increased photosynthetic rate with other gas interchange characteristics, the content of chlorophyll, and water usage effectiveness in “Ocimumbasilicum L.” in saline circumstances [70]. AMF-inoculated plants with “allium sativum” exhibited increased development rates, such as the leaf area index, dry & fresh biomass in saline circumstances [71] Wang et al. [72] observed a substantial improvement in fresh & dry weights and N levels of Root & Shoot owing to inoculation with mycorrhizal in mild saline conditions.
4. Conclusion
With a burgeoning population estimated to reach around 1.43 billion by 2030, India requires approximately 311 million tons of cereals and pulses to achieve food security. To meet the future food security target, it is expected to increase food grain production by 2 million tons per annum. To increase food grain production, there is a dire need to expand agricultural land and increase crop productivity. One of the possible solutions to address this problem is the genetic improvement of rice varieties in order to enhance their tolerance to salinity. In this review we have discussed morphology and anatomy review that indicates, high salinity is characterized by an increase in the leaf size, trichome and stomata size, and number, thickening of epidermis, area of vascular bundles, maintained thylakoid structure as adaptive characters for salinity stress; these characters are used as an indicator of the salinity of the soil. In addition, AMF is considered essential bio-ameliorators, which can enhance soil quality and maintain better productivity under salinity. Therefore, understanding different mechanisms enable crops to be sustained in hypersaline conditions; this may eventually contribute in improving rice yield on saline lands.
\n',keywords:"adaptive mechanisms, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, trichomes, stomata, mesophyll",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80587.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80587.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80587",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80587",totalDownloads:76,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 23rd 2021",dateReviewed:"November 17th 2021",datePrePublished:"February 23rd 2022",datePublished:"June 28th 2022",dateFinished:"February 23rd 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Plants tolerant of NaCl, implement several adjustments to acclimate to salt stress, such as biochemical, physiological, and morphological modifications. Besides, plants also adjust to saline circumstances by altering their anatomical structure of roots, leaves, and morphological modifications. The leaf and roots are among the essential plant organs and are involved in the transport of water and minerals used for photosynthesis. From a plant physiology perspective, water use efficiency in the quantity of CO2 fixed in photosynthesis compared to the leaf anatomy. In this review, we provide a comparative account of the morphology of the leaf and root under normal and salt stress circumstances. There is little information on the ultrastructure changes elicited in response to salt stress. The analysis expands our knowledge of how salt may impact the leaves and root anatomy.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80587",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80587",signatures:"Smita Srivastava",book:{id:"10905",type:"book",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",slug:"plant-defense-mechanisms",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",bookSignature:"Josphert Ngui Kimatu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-771-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-770-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-772-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"224171",title:"Prof.",name:"Josphert N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kimatu",slug:"josphert-n.-kimatu",fullName:"Josphert N. Kimatu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"415728",title:"Mrs.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Srivastava",fullName:"Smita Srivastava",slug:"smita-srivastava",email:"srivastavasmita13@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Anatomy of roots",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. AMF (“arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi”)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Silva BRS, Batista BL, Lobato AKS. Anatomical changes in stem and root of soybean plants submitted to salt stress. Plant Biology. 2021;23(1):57-65. DOI: 10.1111/plb.13176'},{id:"B2",body:'Glover BJ, Airoldi CA, Moyroud E. Epidermis: Outer cell layer of the plant. In: eLS. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.; 2016. 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Salt-induced oxidative stress in chloroplast of pea plants. Plant Science. 1995;105(2):151-167. DOI: 10.1016/0168-9452(94)04047-8'},{id:"B39",body:'Romero-Aranda R, Moya JL, Tadeo FR, Legaz F, Primo-Millo E, Talon M. Physiologicalandanatomical disturbances induced by chloride salts in sensitive and tolerant citrus: Beneficial and detrimental effects of cations. Plant, Cell and Environment. 1998;21(12):1243-1253. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3040.1998.00349.x'},{id:"B40",body:'Navarro A, Bañón S, Olmos E, Sánchez-Blanco MJ. Effects of sodium chloride on water potential components, hydraulic conductivity, gas exchange and leaf ultrastructure of arbutus unedo plants. Plant Science. 2007;172(3):473-480. DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2006.10.006'},{id:"B41",body:'Morales MA, Sánchez-Blanco MJ, Olmos E, Torrecillas A, Alarcón JJ. Changes in the growth, leaf water relations and cell ultraestructure in argyranthemum coronopifolium plants under saline conditions. Journal of Plant Physiology. 1998;153(1-2):174-180. DOI: 10.1016/S0176-1617(98)80062-X'},{id:"B42",body:'Balibrea ME, Dell’Amico J, Bolarín MC, Pérez-Alfocea F. Carbon partitioning and sucrose metabolism in tomato plants growing under salinity. Physiologia Plantarum. 2000;110(4):503-511. DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2000.1100412.x'},{id:"B43",body:'Szabó-Nagy A, Galiba G, Erdei L. Induction of soluble phosphatases under ionic and non-ionic osmotic stresses in wheat. Journal of Plant Physiology. 1992;140(5):629-633. DOI: 10.1016/S0176-1617(11)80800-X'},{id:"B44",body:'Khan MH, Panda SK. Alterations in root lipid peroxidation and antioxidative responses in two rice cultivars under NaCl-salinity stress. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum. 2007;30(1):81-89. DOI: 10.1007/s11738-007-0093-7'},{id:"B45",body:'Franco JA, Bañón S, Vicente MJ, Miralles J, Martínez-Sánchez JJ. Root development in horticultural plants grown under abiotic stress conditions–a review. Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology. 2011;86(6):543-556. DOI: 10.1080/14620316.2011.11512802'},{id:"B46",body:'Munns R, Passioura JB, Colmer TD, Byrt CS. Osmotic adjustment and energy limitations to plant growth in saline soil. New Phytologist. 2020;225(3):1091-1096. DOI: 10.1111/nph.15862'},{id:"B47",body:'Dwivedi SL, Stoddard FL, Ortiz R. Genomic-based root plasticity to enhance abiotic stress adaptation and edible yield in grain crops. Plant Science. 2020;295:110365. DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2019.110365'},{id:"B48",body:'Vamerali T, Saccomani M, Bona S, Mosca G, Guarise M, Ganis A. A comparison of root characteristics in relation to nutrient and water stress in two maize hybrids. Plant and Soil. 2003;255(1):157-167. DOI: 10.1023/A:1026123129575'},{id:"B49",body:'Smith DM, Inman-Bamber NG, Thorburn PJ. Growth and function of the sugarcane root system. Field Crops Research. 2005;92(2-3):169-183. DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2005.01.017'},{id:"B50",body:'López-Berenguer C, García-Viguera C, Carvajal M. Are root hydraulic conductivity responses to salinity controlled by aquaporins in broccoli plants? Plant and Soil. 2006;279(1):13-23'},{id:"B51",body:'Gómez-Bellot MJ, Álvarez S, Castillo M, Bañón S, Ortuño MF, Sánchez-Blanco MJ. Water relations, nutrient content and developmental responses of Euonymus plants irrigated with water of different degrees of salinity and quality. Journal of Plant Research. 2013;126(4):567-576. DOI: 10.1007/s10265-012-0545-z'},{id:"B52",body:'Croser C, Renault S, Franklin J, Zwiazek J. The effect of salinity on the emergence and seedling growth of piceamariana, picea glauca, and pinus banksiana. Environmental Pollution. 2001;115(1):9-16. DOI: 10.1016/s0269-7491(01)00097-5'},{id:"B53",body:'Sánchez-Blanco MJ, Ortuño MF, Bañon S, Álvarez S. Deficit irrigation as a strategy to control growth in ornamental plants and enhance their ability to adapt to drought conditions. The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology. 2019;94(2):137-150'},{id:"B54",body:'Navarro JM, Gómez-Gómez A, Pérez-Pérez JG, Botía P. Effect of saline conditions on the maturation process of clementine Clemenules fruits on two different rootstocks. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research. 2010;8(S2):21-29. DOI: 10.5424/sjar/201008S2-1344'},{id:"B55",body:'Wu HI, Sharpe PJ, Walker J, Penridge LK. Ecological field theory: A spatial analysis of resource interference among plants. Ecological Modelling. 1985;29(1-4):215-243'},{id:"B56",body:'Penella C, Nebauer SG, Quiñones A, San Bautista A, López-Galarza S, Calatayud A. Some rootstocks improve pepper tolerance to mild salinity through ionic regulation. Plant Science. 2015;230:12-22. DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2014.10.007'},{id:"B57",body:'Nassar RMA, Kamel HA, Ghoniem AE, Alarcón JJ, Sekara A, Ulrichs C, et al. Physiological and anatomical mechanisms in wheat to cope with salt stress induced by seawater. Plants. 2020;9(2):237. DOI: 10.3390/plants9020237'},{id:"B58",body:'Khan MN, Siddiqui MH, Mukherjee S, Alamri S, Al-Amri AA, Alsubaie QD, et al. Calcium–hydrogen sulfide crosstalk during K+-deficient NaCl stress operates through regulation of Na+/H+ antiport and antioxidative defense system in mung bean roots. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry. 2021;159:211-225. DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2020.11.055'},{id:"B59",body:'Gal A, Hendel E, Peleg Z, Schwartz N, Sade N. Measuring the hydraulic conductivity of grass root systems. Current Protocols in Plant Biology. 2020;5(2):e20110. DOI: 10.1002/cppb.20110'},{id:"B60",body:'Brodribb TJ. Xylem hydraulic physiology: The functional backbone of terrestrial plant productivity. Plant Science. 2009;177(4):245-251. DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2009.06.001'},{id:"B61",body:'Flowers TJ, Troke PF, Yeo AR. The mechanism of salt tolerance in halophytes. Annual Review of Plant Physiology. 1977;28(1):89-121. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.pp.28.060177.000513'},{id:"B62",body:'Birhane E, Sterck FJ, Fetene M, Bongers F, Kuyper TW. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi enhance photosynthesis, water use efficiency, and growth of frankincense seedlings under pulsed water availability conditions. Oecologia. 2012;169(4):895-904. DOI: 10.1007/s00442-012-2258-3'},{id:"B63",body:'Talaat NB, Shawky BT. Protective effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) plants exposed to salinity. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 2014;98:20-31. DOI: 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2013.10.005'},{id:"B64",body:'Abdel Latef AA, Miransari M. The role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in alleviation of salt stress. In: Use of Microbes for the Alleviation of Soil Stresses. Vol. 23. New York: Springer; 2014. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-0721-2_2'},{id:"B65",body:'Rouphael Y, Franken P, Schneider C, Schwarz D, Giovannetti M, Agnolucci M, et al. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi act as bio-stimulants in horticultural crops. Scientia Horticulturae. 2015;196:91-108. DOI: 10.1016/j.scienta.2015.09.002'},{id:"B66",body:'Zou YN, Srivastava AK, Wu QS. Glomalin: A potential soil conditioner for perennial fruits. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology. 2016;18(2):293-297. DOI: 10.17957/IJAB/15.0085'},{id:"B67",body:'Thirkell TJ, Charters MD, Elliott AJ, Sait SM, Field KJ. Are mycorrhizal fungi our sustainable saviours considerations for achieving food security. Journal of Ecology. 2017;105(4):921-929. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2745.12788'},{id:"B68",body:'Evelin H, Giri B, Kapoor R. Contribution of Glomusintraradices inoculation to nutrient acquisition and mitigation of ionic imbalance in NaCl-stressed Trigonella foenum-Graecum. Mycorrhiza. 2012;22(3):203-217. DOI: 10.1007/s00572-011-0392-0'},{id:"B69",body:'Calvo-Polanco M, Sánchez-Romera B, Aroca R, Asins MJ, Declerck S, Dodd IC, et al. Exploring the use of recombinant inbred lines in combination with beneficial microbial inoculants (AM fungus and PGPR) to improve drought stress tolerance in tomato. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 2016;131:47-57. DOI: 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2016.06.015'},{id:"B70",body:'Elhindi KM, El-Din AS, Elgorban AM. The impact of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in mitigating salt-induced adverse effects in sweet basil (Ocimumbasilicum L.). Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences. 2017;24(1):170-179. DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2016.02.010'},{id:"B71",body:'Borde M, Dudhane M, Jite PK. AM fungi influences the photosynthetic activity, growth and antioxidant enzymes in Allium sativum L. under salinity condition. Notulae Scientia Biologicae. 2010;2(4):64-71. DOI: 10.15835/nsb245434'},{id:"B72",body:'Wang Y, Wang M, Li Y, Wu A, Huang J. Effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on growth and nitrogen uptake of Chrysanthemum morifolium under salt stress. PLoS One. 2018;13(4):e0196408. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0196408'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Smita Srivastava",address:"srivastavasmita13@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Botany, Goa University, Taleigao, Goa, India
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
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2017
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Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. 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