Definitions based on main concepts in Fairclough’s critical discourse analysis.
\r\n\tHowever, despite the positive outlook and trends in routing protocol design, there are still several open or unresolved challenges that researchers are still grappling with. Providing adequate responses to those challenges is essential for next-generation networks in order to maintain its reputation and sustain its preponderance in cyber and physical security. Some of the challenges include, but are not limited to, the following:
\r\n\t• Robustness and reliability of routing protocol
\r\n\t• Reduced dependencies on heterogeneous networks
\r\n\t• Security of routing protocols
\r\n\t• Dynamic Adhoc routing Protocols
\r\n\t• Routing in 5G Networks
\r\n\t• Routing IoT enabled networks
\r\n\t• Scalable and dependable routing system architectures
\r\n\t• QoS and QoE Models and Routing Architectures
\r\n\t• Context-Aware Services and Models
\r\n\t• Routing Mobile Edge Computing
\r\n\tThe goal of the book is to present the state of the art in routing protocol and report on new approaches, methods, findings, and technologies developed or being developed by the research community and the industry to address the aforementioned challenges.
\r\n\tThe book will focus on introducing fundamental principles and concepts of key enabling technologies for routing protocol applied for next-generation networks, disseminate recent research and development efforts in this fascinating area, investigate related trends and challenges, and present case studies and examples.
\r\n\tThe book also investigates the advances and future in research and development in Routing Protocols in the context of new generation communication networks.
Critical discourse analysis (CDA) emphasizes how language can function ideologically and how to identify hidden meanings in a text. Discourse analysis is an area of social linguistics, which can advance social theory in the direction of language. Data from a study where we used CDA on the curriculum of Norwegian public health nursing partly forms the basis for this chapter. The purpose was to reveal the governmental understanding and expectations of how the public health nursing profession should perform their work and to reveal possibly underlying meanings about health promotion and disease prevention discourses in the text [1].
\nPublic health nurses are to perform health promotion and disease prevention work on an individual and population level [2]. The role of public health nurses has changed. Traditionally, public health nurses were experts, with a “top‐down” approach toward their service users. They performed mostly controls, inspections and told the population how to live healthy. This is in line with disease prevention strategies. Now the public health nursing role has changed to a “bottom‐up” approach. It is an empowering role, where the public health nurse and the service users are dialogue partners. Emphasis is on revealing the resources of the service users in line with a health promotion strategy.
\nThere are various forms of performing discourse analysis. The discursive psychology approach maintains that individuals are both products of discourse and produce discourses in social interactions. Laclau and Mouffe’s discourse theory on the other hand assumes that discourses construct the social world in meaning, and this meaning is constantly in change. In CDA, the aspect is that discourse is just one of many facets of social practice [3]. In this case, Fairclough’s methodology and analyzing method of CDA were found suitable. Fairclough has developed a useful concept of tools for analyzing text, which contributed to map the relation between the various microdiscourses in the curriculum text and a wider macrosocial discourse of public health nursing.
\nDiscourse analysis is an area of social linguistics, which can advance social theory in the direction of language. CDA in the present shape asserts that the world is both socially and discursively constructed [4]. Fairclough includes microreadings of text with macro‐social perspectives. It is about analyzing the patterns, the structure of the language, to identify the linguistic‐discursive dimension of social phenomena, and processes of change in society [3].
\nIn critical discourse analysis, we combine analyzing tools from linguistics with theoretical perspectives from social science. Combining linguistics tools and social science perspectives can reveal how language functions ideologically and how the language contributes to maintain power relations in society [5].
\nThe chapter describes the public health nursing field, the methodology of CDA, and presents the results of a study using CDA.
\nNorwegian public health nurses are authorized nurses with one year continuing studies of health promotion and disease prevention on the fields of child health clinics and school health services. Their main target group is children, young people and families. Almost 100% of the families attend the service. They shall particularly focus on health promotion and primary prevention strategies on individual and population level. They work with immunization, weight/ length control and advising about healthy living. In youth health centers, they among other issues prescribe prevention, insertion of contraceptive coil; perform pregnancy tests, and tests for chlamydia. The environmental health is about advising in health issues and immunization when travelling abroad, tuberculosis work, and preventing diseases as HIV and Hepatitis. Health services for refugees can include health consultations and examination, advising in health conditions, psychosocial work and immunization. The Norwegian government has given the PHNs a mandate to work with universal and health promotion strategies [2].
\nA literature review on research on CDA related to nursing curriculum revealed only a few hits. A CDA study of the syllabus of nursing education had focus on perspectives and underlying ideological principles in the sociological contribution to nursing curricula. The CDA was a good tool to reveal rich source of data. The researchers found that the biggest challenge was to challenge the ideologies that was constructed and embedded in the syllabi [6]. An article using CDA focused on the links between discourse, power, and elements of social processes, in line with Fairclough’s methodology. The researchers studied British national newspaper representations of the academic level of nurse education and found that nurses lack a voice in the national press. They maintained that discourses do not exist in isolation, they are part of broader social discourses, and where nurses have little input into the construction of newspaper discourse [7]. Rogers & Shaenen focused on the use of CDA method when making a critical, integrative review of literacy education. They found the CDA method used in 76 literacy‐focused studies, including curricular design [8]. They reflect on three decades of CDA in literacy studies. What they revealed was that there has been an increase in researchers using CDA in literacy education research. They revealed a diversity of approaches around contexts and that the reviewers were acknowledged their role as researchers in a reflexive way when performing CDA. They found that the participants in the reviewed studies mostly struggled against dominant ideologies, and many articles called for social action, both on microlevel and macrolevel. The researchers maintain this finding reject the understanding of CDA that it has no plan for constructive alternatives and social action [8].
\nFrom the research found, related to CDA method, we can sum up that CDA can be a relevant tool in analyzing text critically. Hence, the aim of this chapter is to demonstrate how CDA analysis can reveal underlying meaning in a text. The purpose of the study was not to study the curriculum document in depth, but to analyze possible dominant and disguised discourses in the text, to reveal underlying governmental principles for how public health nurses should promote health and prevent diseases.
\nFairclough has his roots in a critical discourse analysis tradition. He has developed his methodology and analyzing method over the years, and his philosophy of science is close to critical realism. Critical realism is not as relativistic as social constructivism. Not all representations of the world are equally good, a critical realism defender would say there are some representations that can constitute better knowledge of the world than others [4].
\nThe movement from which Fairclough is affected is the sociolinguistic direction. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. The emphasis is on the role of language in communication. Fairclough [4] maintains that critical discourse analysis is part of a broadly conceived social linguistics. In the terms of Fairclough to reveal the truth of a text, one must analyze the dialectic between structure and action.
\nThe attention is on the effect of the society on the language. Fairclough defines discourse as the use of language as a social practice and not only as an individual activity [9]. He makes use of the concept discourse about both orally and written language. This is what the structuralist linguist Saussure name parole or the situational language. In the understanding of Saussure, parole is an individual activity not suitable for being analyzed [10]. Socio linguists have put forward criticism of Saussure and maintain that the language is socially created and not individually [9].
\nThere is an increasing emphasis on language in recent social theory but still a failure in showing in social research how language figures in social life [4]. Hence, a theorization of social language can contribute to a dialectic between social structure and action. We can see critical discourse analysis as a part of a broader developed social linguistics.
\nFairclough’s draw on Foucault in the understanding of the subject and object as discursively created. Fairclough’s focus includes a broad approach to language and text. Here, he separates from Foucault who is not engaged in the meaning of the language in the discourse and rejects the need of a text analysis. Rather, he refers to a macro‐sociological analysis [3]. Where Foucault sees the subject almost as a victim of the discourse, the subject in Fairclough’s view is an active participant in the change processes in the language and text interpretation. The active role of the subject brings about possibility for change. A critical attitude and possibilities of influence are fundamental in a critical discourse analysis. A way to understand Fairclough and Foucault is that they both find that the subjects constitute the discourse, but they differ in vital respect. Fairclough denies the structuralist view of Foucault and maintains that Foucault emphasizes the structure at the expense of the actor. A structuralist analytical procedure is about reduction and generalization of the text. Leaning on Foucault the curriculum represents a view within a given time, which will influence and determine the interpretation of the text. Fairclough advocates on his side a greater interaction between discourse and society.
\nThe text embeds the ideology, and it is about identifying what lies behind the immediate “common‐sense” understanding. The hidden ideology relates to the concept of hegemony, which Fairclough links to discursive power structures. Power relations maintain and change through struggles for hegemony between discursive and social practices. Authority and ideology are in the optics of Fairclough associated with struggles for hegemony. The ideological discursive struggles contribute to maintain the dominant relations. His opinion divides from Foucault, who understands power as a creative and productive force that permeates all discourses.
\nCritical discourse analysis as method has suitable tools to develop the analysis and to describe important findings and perspectives to the research. Three dimensions of social life form the analysis: the abstract social structure, the concrete events, and the social practice, which mediates the relationship between the two first dimensions.
\nFairclough has developed his design and analysis of text from a former three‐dimensional conception of discourse that consisted of the analytical dimensions text, discursive practice, and sociocultural practice [9]. Fairclough maintains that one can still use this concept; however, he has developed the analyzing parts and given those new names and partly new content, more in line with critical realism theory [5]. The “new” dimensions are the basis in the present study of the curriculum of Norwegian public health nursing. It can be useful to highlight some main concepts which were fond suitable as tools to describe central approaches and results in the study (Table 1).
\nText | \nThe written or spoken language produced in a social event |
---|---|
Genre | \nUse of language associated with a particular social activity or work, for instance, interview genre |
Style | \nHow text figures in the identification of people; ways of being; production of social life |
Discourse (abstract noun) | \nLanguage use conceived as social practice |
Discourse (count noun) | \nWay of signifying experience from a particular perspective; ways of representing |
Order of discourse | \nTotality of social practices of an institution, and relations between them; a specific configuration of discourses, genres and styles |
Intertextuality | \nA text draws on elements and discourses of other texts; for instance, the influence of history on a text, and a text’s influence on history |
Interdiscursivity | \nShifting articulations of genres, styles and discourses in specific texts; a form of intertextuality |
Ideology | \nWays of representing aspects of the world that contribute to establishing or/and maintaining power relations and dominance. Ideology is often in the unsaid and implicit in the text |
Power | \nPower and discourse are different elements in the social process. Power is both dominant and more invisible in the text |
Hegemony | \nProcesses for dominance in orders of discourse and social struggles. Ideology is associated with power as hegemony |
Definitions based on main concepts in Fairclough’s critical discourse analysis.
Critical discourse analysis sees concrete social events and abstract social structures as part of social reality [4]. As mentioned above, Fairclough distinguishes between three dimensions in his understanding of critical discourse analysis: social events, social practices, and social structures. In the social structures lie the potentialities for action. The social events dimension is where the actual actions take place. The social practice domain controls the performance of different events. This means that there is a dialectic between the three dimensions (Figure 1).
\nModel inspired of Fairclough’s linguistic‐discursive dialectic dimensions for analysis of social reality.
The national curriculum for public health nursing educations in Norway [11] was the field of study. Regulation for public health nursing education was not part of the analysis. The authority and directing perspectives of the government form the basis for the curriculum text. The Ministry of Education and Research produced the curriculum in 1998 and slightly revised it in 2005. It consists of a general section with a historical perspective and an argumentation for the need of a national curriculum, and a section, which describes the claims and expectations concerning the social task and knowledge basis for public health nursing profession. The curriculum defines the public health nursing field to nearby professions.
\nThe dimension of social events is about social actions on the microlevel, the concrete level [4]. Emphasis is on analyzing the linguistic‐discoursal elements of a text, the verbal interactions. The way the language is used can unveil which institution produced the text. In the present case, we have a governmental document, the educational curriculum.
\nTo unveil the “hidden” meaning in the document, the first step was a linguistic approach to language and text analysis. The attention was both on form and on meaning, through symbols as words or longer text sequences, which per Fairclough is socially motivated and can illustrate a political agenda. The text analysis included four areas or levels: choice of word/ vocabulary, grammar, cohesion, and text structure. To explain how the curriculum constructs different types of discourses can visualize ideological struggles. Focus was here also on strength of the statements, coherence, and intertextuality [9]. The social institutions determine the social actions, and this dimension is the social practice dimension of the analysis.
\nThe dimension of social practice relates to social institutions. An institution includes both ideological norms and discursive orders. Faircolough maintains a discourse is just one among many aspects of any social practice [3]. Hence, the institution constructs subjects ideologically and discoursally, and the institution itself is a sort of ideological community and speech community [4]. To analyze the institutional dimension, one must reveal the linguistic‐discoursal element of orders of discourse (level of practices). Orders of discourse are the totality of social practices of an institution and relations between them, and they are relatively stable. In the present case, the analysis is of an educational order of discourse, and the focus is on a specific configuration of genres, styles, and discourses in the curriculum text. Fairclough maintains that there is a textual moment in any social practice that includes the categories of genre, style, and discourse (as a count noun). The genre of a text reveals how the text produces and reproduces for instance a social activity that constitutes different forms of social relations at work. The style can identify people and their ways of being. The question of discourses is about how people have ways of representing the world. Different discourses are different representations. Social practice is organized into networks based on different forms of social relations, identifications as different representations, and these common practices, for instance, an educational practice is networked into a common field. The category of intertextuality refers to textual aspects of the articulatory character of social practice [4]. The production process of the curriculum occurs in a particular way inside established limits, and we can make a de‐construction of the text to different positions.
\nThe social structure dimension is about investigating the semiotic systems, the linguistic‐discoursal element of language, which is the language use (codes, norms) in the text. It is about how language interaction is determined by and has effect on social structures. The highest level of social structure is social formation, which is on the macrolevel. The social formations determine the institution. However, in the institution, there is a dialectic relation to the actions and the formation, where the micro and macrolevel (actions and formation) influence on the practice. In line with Fairclough, the institutional dimension manifests the social formation and the social actions [4]. The analysis of the curriculum is about revealing the ideology basis of the text, and what discourses have hegemony, which is a social struggle for dominance. Hegemony is here also connected to a meta‐discourse, where different forms of hegemony structure the meaning of words and the relation between words [4]. A critical text analysis can reveal power dimensions in the curriculum text, which can have influence on the understanding of the public health nursing education.
\nAnalysis of the curriculum revealed four features of discourses related to the research question: a contradictory health promotion and disease prevention discourse, a paternalistic meta‐discourse, a hegemonic individual discourse, and a hegemonic discourse for interdisciplinary collaboration.
\nThe analysis started with a language analysis to get a deeper understanding of the text and reveal underlying structures. The writing style was factual prose, and metaphors and value‐laden words were almost absent. The language was precise, with little conflicts regarding the interpretation. The grammar or sentence structure had great statement force and use of present tense. The consequence was a reinforcement of request and requirements of form and content in the curriculum: “The public health nursing education shall help students acquire relevant knowledge of the work to improve public health” [11, p. 5]. The curriculum had a formal and confirming expression in a third‐person perspective: “…is it decided…”. The authors hold an authoritarian position, which was enhanced by the use of professional terminology:”…acquire skills in planning, implementing and evaluating measures…” [11, p. 5]. The use of modal auxiliary as “shall,” “must,” “should,” “may” in the text has significance for the strengthening of the statements. There was an extensive use of “shall” in the first part, regarding the rationale for the curriculum. An outline of the four discourses follows.
\nContradictory discourses here refer to a contradiction in visibility between the health promotion and disease prevention discourse in the text. The education should place “special emphasize” on “knowledge about and understanding of children and adolescents growth and development, and factors that are beneficial to their health.” Simultaneously students should consider “risk of disease and injuries.” The analysis indicated that health promotion and disease prevention strategies had equal status in the text. On the other hand, the result showed a dominant disease prevention discourse when analyzing a list of seven central themes for public health nursing work that followed. Three themes dealt with both health promotion and disease prevention: “main strategies, challenges and dilemmas in health promotion and disease prevention work,” and four were biomedical areas to prevent disease: “disease perspective,” “prevention strategies,” “information,””nutrition,””epidemiology,” “environmental hygiene, accident and injury prevention” [11, p. 6–7]. A separate chapter named health promotion and disease prevention work of public health nursing could be expected to highlight both working strategies. Nevertheless, emphasize was on disease prevention work, and underlined problem solving priorities: “psychosocial problems, repetitive strain injuries, injury/ accidents, asthma/ allergic, cardiovascular diseases, cancer and infectious disease” [11, p. 4].
\nThe curriculum pointed out that different historical and cultural meanings of the health concept should be emphasized [11, p. 6], but the health concept was not further defined. One can distinguish between a narrowly health concept, understood as “absence of disease,” and an extended health concept, based on WHO’s definition from 1948:”a state of complete physical, mental and social well‐being and not merely the absence of disease” [12]. We can link the first to biomedical knowledge and the latter to social scientific knowledge. The result indicated that the narrow and the wider health concept had equal status in the curriculum.
\nThe students were to acquire evidence‐based knowledge: “shall know current research” [11, p. 7] and “interpret and apply research results” [11. p. 9]. The nurses’ ethical guidelines emphasize that nursing shall be knowledge based [13]. Nevertheless, the curriculum also described the need for practical knowledge and experience, and that students should develop their ability to work in line with a health promotion and disease prevention perspective. The description of priorities in health promotion and disease prevention work emphasized “problem,” “suffering,” and “disease” [11. p. 4]. This harmonizes with a disease prevention discourse. The health promotion discourse was almost absent.
\nIt was apparently a dominant health promotion discourse when it came to the description of the public health nursing field of work, but the prevention discourse showed through. This is confirmed by the fact that the biomedical knowledge was highlighted, in that disease prevention strategies got substantially more space when the areas under each main topic was explained. The critical text analysis revealed that the more invisible disease prevention discourse had a power position in the text and hegemony over the health promotion discourse.
\nA paternalistic discourse here refers to the identification of a discourse in the curriculum text associated with the traditional expert role of public health nurses. To use the term meta‐discourse means a summing up of the discourses in the text, to examine the purpose of the discourses. What are we to understand by for instance the participation discourse that follows below?
\nThe health promotion strategy that emphasizes service user participation has gradually increased in public health. Political documents highlight collaboration, participation, and to reveal recourses of service users [14]. This shift from a medical discourse linked to disease prevention and paternalistic ideology, to a health promotion discourse and a coping perspective, was hardly noticeable in the curriculum. The curriculum stated:”the study shall emphasize service user and community participation” [11, p. 6]. To use the concept “participation” could indicate that public health nurses should work with health promotion strategies toward the community. However, participation on a population level was mainly touched upon related to “identification of risk‐factors” in the environment and “participate in the problem‐solving work” [11, p. 5]. The analyzing result indicated the public health nursing tasks related to community, and population level was mainly limited to environmental health and expressed in disease prevention strategies.
\nA service user perspective linked to participation was constructed in the text, where the students should”stimulate the service users attention on and manage to protect own health”…”strengthen the initiative of the population” [11, p. 5]. Concepts as “dialog” and “participation” [11, p. 8] pointed out the significance of a service user perspective and could have contributed to generate a dominant discourse of participation. However, emphasis on concepts like recourse thinking, coping strategies and empowerment‐ideology was absent. Analyzing the service user participation in the text revealed instead an expert discourse: “It shall be emphasized that the students develop an understanding of the power and control‐aspects associated with the helper‐role…” [11, p. 8]. The use of “helper‐role” increases a dependence relation. We here identify a meta‐discourse linked to a paternalistic expert ideology, which appeared to be a dominant discourse in the curriculum text.
\nThe hegemonic individual discourse refers to a dominant discourse in the text that emphasized an individual perspective and not a population perspective in the description of public health nursing work.
\nThe result indicated public health nurses was to interact on an individual and family basis: “It is thus increased demands on ability to collaboration and interaction on and together with children, young people and their families” [11, p. 5]. The cohesion or coherence between the sentences, for instance, the use of conjunctions (“thus”, “and”) showed an argumentative structure in the text, and it hardly opened for argumentation. Use of the concept “demand” gave an association to power and order, which indicated a discourse of power in the text. The curriculum text opened for collaboration with the service uses but revealed no further emphasis on health promotion strategies related to quality of life on a population basis. The result suggested that the individual discourses in the text were about health promotion and disease prevention, whereas the population discourses related to health promotion strategies were absent in the curriculum. We could have expected that the thoughts from the Ottawa Charter [12], advocating local communities as arenas for health promotion had been more visible in the text.
\nWe can identify a discourse of collaboration in the curriculum, enhanced by:”…the necessity that tasks are solved across sector boundaries shall be emphasized” [11, p. 7]. This is in line with guiding principles for the health and social sector, that is, to develop the interdisciplinary collaboration [15]. The use of “shall” emphasized a strong statement force and a hegemonic use of power. The public health nurse was earlier, together with the doctor, the only professional working with health aspects in child health clinics and school health services. Now the service engages new groups as physiotherapists, midwives, child welfare officers, and other professionals. The curriculum stated, “The work demands interdisciplinary and intersectoral collaboration” [11, p. 5]. The text had an argumentative form: “Today’s health problems and social challenges…need for innovation and multi‐disciplinarily…” [11, p. 3]. It referred to the increased emphasize on health promotion and disease prevention in governmental documents, and that the health promotion—and disease prevention work gradually has entered many public and private sectors.
\nA text is both socially structuring and socially structured [4]. Fairclough points out that we cannot automatically reproduce a discourse. However, the curriculum is a specific social practice open for change and which can need a reformulation to new positions if health and social political goals and development in society indicate this [11]. In line with the sociolinguistic theory, Fairclough [4] advocates a greater interaction between discourse and society. Transferred to the public health nursing field, this is in line with the goals of World Health Organization, who is claiming for nursing educational programs to act as agents for change in a constant changing health care [16].
\nThe analysis has explored how governmental strategies for the public health nursing profession can come to expression in the curriculum, and produce ideological statements and guidelines for public health nursing educations. The curriculum points out the specific public health nursing work and knowledge basis, which will be of importance in maintaining the professional borders of public health nursing. A profession is characterized by a particular knowledge field, and Abbott [17] relates the boundary drawn around one’s own profession to a power strategy. The curriculum represents the content, which marks the boundaries for public health nursing profession. The results indicate that a discourse about health promotion is constructed and maintained in the curriculum; however, the empowerment and coping perspective were absent. This weakens the power of the health promotion discourse. Following Fairclough, power and ideology have a link to hegemonic struggles [9]. The result revealed a disease prevention discourse and indicated this to be a hegemonic power discourse.
\nThe result identified service users in a helper role, positioned as a weak group. They are in need of help from an expert nurse in a power position. Foucault is concerned about the relation between power and knowledge, where knowledge is internal the power relation. According to Foucault, the power is everywhere, more, or less hidden, and it is about social control and disciplining the dissidents [18]. Public health nurses can appear as disciplining agents seeking to control the life of the service users by telling them how to live their lives. This position can bring about ethical dilemmas related to contradictions between the empowering and expert role of nurses [19]. Fairclough maintains that changes in power relations between discursive practices can be elucidated through new ways of articulating the concept of knowledge and content [4]. The traditional relation between public health nurses, and the service users has in many ways entered a new language or a new mode, disguising the traditional direction. The discursive position as disciplining‐agent harmonizes with the “top‐down” paternalistic discourse especially recognizable from the early days of public health nursing work. Public health nurses are required to follow the official recommendations for the service, which then must reflect the actual practice. This dominant position disclaims core values and can lead to professional and societal resistance discourses [20].
\nWe can argue that the disease prevention perspective has hegemony in the curriculum, and that public health nursing educations must be aware of this in order to challenge it.
\nSince the 1980s, there has been a gradually change from a biomedical discourse, associated with disease prevention strategy, to a health promotion recourse perspective in Norwegian governmental documents. The public health nursing work has changed with social change from emphasis on epidemiological and pathogenic factors to recourse thinking and salutogenic factors. The salutogenic theory relates to the individual level and is about how to stay healthy by strengthening positive factors [21]. Primary prevention strategies and not health promotion strategies were highlighted in the text. This is not in line with the Norwegian public health nurses’ community mission, stating that public health nurses are to practice both health promotion and primary prevention work [22]. Resource thinking was almost absent in the text, in spite of a revision of the curriculum as late as in 2005, when these were common concepts in Norwegian governmental documents [15]. This is informed already by the Ottawa Charter of 1986 [12] assuming health as a resource for everyday life. This result is enhanced by the fact that the Ottawa Charter was not referred to in the text. When the notions of empowerment and resource thinking are absent, and the population perspective is hardly touched upon, this causes limitations to the health promotion discourse in the curriculum. This study indicates that we need to highlight health promotion in public health nursing, being an agent for quality of life.
\nThe analysis has pointed out a power position in the curriculum illuminating inter‐professional collaboration. A defined knowledge basis of the nurses’ constructs the boundaries toward collaborators. At the same time, when public health nurses know and feel secure in their role, this creates possibilities for interprofessional and interdisciplinary collaboratin. In line with governmental expectations, we can maintain that primary prevention and health promotion should be the strategies of public health nursing work. Secondary and tertiary prevention has a problem focus, and nurses should detect and refer deviations from normality to more specialized services. Public health nurses could then contribute to improve and extend quality of life on a broad public health arena.
\nConsequently, this study indicates a need for clarity of public health nursing educational basis. To meet the challenges and needs that come with social change, the curriculum has to be examined [23]. When clarifying the health promotion and disease prevention strategies in public health nursing and by questioning and debating other guiding documents for public health nursing, this can develop a joint understanding of the content of the education. Further, this can provide a qualified work force in public health to meet the requirements of the society.
\nThis critical text analysis is just one of the several readings. In CDA, one discourse is not more valuable than another, where the analysis seeks to identify discourses and their effects [24]. It is a cultural production, where we bring our preunderstanding of the field into the CDA analysis [8]. Being a public health nurse myself, working in the public health nursing education can be both a strength and a limitation in the analyzing process. Strength in the way that I have knowledge of the content of the public health nursing education. Limitation in the way that this knowledge can make me blind for variations in the curriculum text. Fairclough maintains that one has to be sensitive to what position and resources one has oneself to do analysis [25]. To acknowledge this position as a researcher, and by using the analyzing tools of the CDA, can contribute to make the necessary distance and critical entrance to the text.
\nThe purpose of this study is to illuminate how critical discourse analysis can be a purposeful method in revealing possible dominating discourses and underlying meaning in a text. The example from the analysis of the curriculum text revealed different features of discourses related to health promotion and disease prevention strategies in public health nursing. The analysis is different representations of orders of discourses in the curriculum, and present four contrasting features of discursive practices. The study suggests how analysis of curriculum discourses can illuminate shifting perspectives in public health. The analysis emphasizes a display of social and educational practices in the curriculum. The results indicate that the disease prevention discourse had hegemony, both on an individual and a population level. The health promotion discourse is more disguised and on an individual level. The analysis indicates that the role of the language in the curriculum text can have consequences for the social work of public health nurses. From a sociolinguistic perspective, we can maintain that a revision of the curriculum is needed, to clarify how public health nurses are to work and meet the population for the purpose of promoting health and preventing disease. It is a need for further research on public health nursing practice.
\nMangroves form the coastal and estuarine wetland ecosystem in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. This unique intertidal ecosystem acts as a safeguard to the coastlines from the disastrous effects of storm surges, erosion, and floods. Some mangroves occur along open coasts, subject to moderate wave processes, while most of them grow in sheltered, muddy tracts that are either regularly or occasionally immersed by tides [1]. The extent and biomass of the mangrove forests are determined by variations in rainfall, tidal influence, wave energy, duration of tidal inundation, and salinity levels at both local and regional scale which further modify the physical and biological setup within a single coastal or estuarine area by affecting the water circulation pattern as well as sediment mixing and trapping [2]. There are 9 orders, 20 families, 22–27 genera, and roughly 70 species of mangrove, among which 40 exclusive and 65 non-exclusive species are found in Southeast Asia [3]. The zonation pattern of different species is attributed by salinity, tidal flooding, and land elevation. They develop in monospecific bands, parallel to the coastline. In Andaman and Nicobar island group, the mangroves depict a unique assemblage with the coral reefs. A general description of mangrove zonation extends from shore to the inland areas where at the edges the species are mostly salt-tolerant and at the interior parts the species are more adopted to nonsaline environment. There are four major hypotheses explaining the zonation—(i) land-building and plant succession hypothesis by Davis [4] elucidated the succession process by which the pioneer species of mangroves mold the substrate by trapping sediments in the intertidal zones and progressively mature mangrove species develop to compete with the colonizing species at established substrate; (ii) Woodroffe [5] has demonstrated the geomorphologic influences and long-term stratigraphic configuration to be dominant factors in species zonation; (iii) in 1980, Ball [6] has discovered the influence of salinity among other physicochemical determinants (seed dispersal, water logging, and tidal inundation) on species competition and growth which ascertain the forest structure; and (iv) Rabinowitz [7] laid emphasis on the propagule dispersal. Tidal action is responsible for delivering propagules of all sizes to their specific and suitable areas. Survival, establishment, and growth of propagules, therefore, play a significant role in dictating mangrove zonation. Predation of propagules by small crabs is correlated with the conspecific dominance and tree distribution. Avicennia marina is most heavily preyed upon, followed by Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, and Rhizophora stylosa [2].
\nWoodroffe [9] outlined the relationship between the role of mangroves and the morphodynamic response of the shoreline. Sedimentation process including deposition of fine-grained, clay-dominant particles within the forest floor is considered to be one of the driving factors of land-building and shoreline progradation. Sedimentation modifies the geomorphological setup and influences the soil characteristics, groundwater reach, and substrate salinity determining mangrove zonation and species distribution. Mangrove vegetation favors the sedimentation process by resisting the tidal water flow and trapping the sediments through the network of their roots. The resistance offered by mangrove trees to water flow has been experimentally tested in a flume [8]. This makes the mangrove shorelines as remarkable sediment sink, characterized by long-term import of sediments, especially recent sediments which underlie the mangrove forests and coastal plains. The mangroves are mostly associated with muddy shorelines of the tropical deltas, but they may grow on a wide variety of substrates, including sand, volcanic lava, or carbonates. The carbonate sediments are derived from calcareous skeletal remains or coral reef substrates, but often the mangrove forest floor is underlain by organic peat, acquired mostly from mangrove roots. These sediments which are generated within the ecosystem are termed as in situ or autochthonous [9]. Allochthonous sediments are transported from the catchment through fluvial discharge or inflow of tidal current and littoral drift. The accumulation rates of allochthonous and autochthonous sediments, both inorganic and organic, differ between and within different geomorphological setups [9]. Dumped dredged material and other bottom sediments also contribute to allochthonous sediments when these are re-suspended by waves, turbulence generated by ships, and also dredging [10].
\nSouth and Southeast Asia represents some 42% of the total mangrove areas in the world and is typified by highest diversity of mangroves [11]. A large number of islands and a considerable total length of coastline permit mangrove growth and development in the coastal Southeast Asia. In most of the regions, coastlines are characterized by high rainfall and a large amount of riverine sediment input. The Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, constituted by a complex network of estuaries, tidal creeks, and islands, supports the world’s largest continuous single-area mangroves—the Sundarbans [12]. The sediment input of this delta plain is mainly sourced by delivery from overbank flooding of the large rivers and their distributaries [13]. Almost 70% of the total mangroves of India exist in the deltaic region. Mahanadi delta constitutes the second most developed mangrove forests within India after the Indian Sundarbans [11]. Other mangrove areas of Southeast Asia include the Philippines, Brunei, Cambodia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Japan, China, and Vietnam (Table 1).
\nCountry | \nArea (×105 ha) | \n
---|---|
Brunei | \n0.17 | \n
Cambodia | \n0.60 | \n
Indonesia | \n45.4 | \n
Malaysia | \n6.4 | \n
Myanmar | \n3.8 | \n
Philippines | \n1.6 | \n
Thailand | \n2.6 | \n
Vietnam | \n2.5 | \n
Total | \n63.2 (34.9% of the world) | \n
The goals of the chapter include (1) the review and reassessment of the sediment accretion pattern and processes of the Southeast Asian mangrove forests, (2) understanding the role of mangroves both as plants and ecosystem in accreting sediment in different geomorphic settings, and (3) relating surface elevation changes with relative sea-level rise patterns.
\nEstuarine circulation is often influenced by the asymmetry between the ebb tide and flood tide, mixing of saline and fresh water, and tidal range. The duration of the flood tidal current is of shorter span, but with stronger peak currents than the ebb tide in most of the extensive vegetated coastal wetlands [2]. The velocity of the tidal current is ultimately determined by the ratio of the forest area to waterway area and the slope from the tidal creek into the forest [14]. Sedimentation in the world’s most extensive mangrove regions is a function of retarded flow velocity of the ebb tide due to the bottom friction generated by the mudflat and flow around tree trunks, roots, and pneumatophores [5] and thus directly related to the density of vegetation [15]. These flows are complex with eddies, jets, and stagnation zones. Manning coefficient is a popular engineering parameter to measure the flow velocity in relation to friction within the forest. Thus,
\nwhere U is water flow velocity, n is spatially averaged Manning friction coefficient, h is water depth, and I is water surface slope [14].
\nValue of n is within the range of 0.025–0.035 in typical sandy channels. It is two to three times lesser in the muddy estuaries as it diminishes with the grain size [14]. But in the mangrove forest, the friction generated by vegetation becomes prominent along with the bottom friction which increases the value of n. Drag forces and trapping of water is another characteristic of mangrove forests. Some amount of this incoming and outgoing tidal water is temporarily retained within the forest floor, for being returned to the main channel later (Figure 1).
\nSchematic view of the flow distribution and hydrodynamics in a mangrove swamp near a tidal creek, after Mazda et al. [15].
Demuren and Rodi [16] have observed that meanders create a secondary circulation which sorts the sediment according to size ranging from fine-grained mud to gravel. It is driven by stratification of flow by density or salinity and particle concentration. Due to the secondary circulation, fine-grained silt and clay are accumulated on the sloping banks, whereas sand and gravels remain on the bed. This secondary circulation along with tidal pumping promotes flocculation of sediments in the estuary, and these mechanisms altogether create mudbanks.
\nThe drag force and delayed water flow is enhanced during the wet season due to the freshwater buoyancy, and it is slowed down during dry periods. Wolanski and Cassagne [17] have observed high evaporation rate, decline of freshwater input, and higher salinity accompanied by slower rate of tidal flushing during the dry seasons in Konkoure River delta in Guinea. In addition to this physical complexity of water circulation, some estuaries with mangrove dominance exhibit floating mangrove debris including propagules which are likely to be accumulated upstream. Hence, the presence of tree roots, animal burrows, mounds, and debris exert a drag force and resistance to water flow [2, 14].
\nThe sediment transport by the attenuating tidal flow is largely managed by several interrelated processes such as (i) tidal pumping and mangrove tidal prism, (ii) secondary circulation, (iii) flocculation and trapping of small particles at the turbidity maximum zone (TMZ), and (iv) microbial production of humus. The relative importance of these processes is site specific [2]. For example, an estuary with narrow fringe of mangrove has different tidal flushing characteristics and is unlikely that they play a significant role in sediment dynamics, whereas in the estuaries with extensive mangrove forest, sediment transportation and accretion are prominent.
\nSalinity stratification and salinity gradient determine the estuarine water circulation. In the presence of small freshwater input and small tidal range, a salinity maximum zone can develop which isolates the upper reaches of the estuary from the coastal edges creating an inverse circulation pattern, such as in Klong Ngao mangrove creek in Thailand. Reference [18, 19, 20] demonstrate the dynamics of an extensive, mangrove-fringed estuary in Malaysia which receives a large and sufficiently steady freshwater incursion. They found that the salinity stratification is strong during neap tide, but the system de-stratifies during spring tide. Water flooding the mangroves has low salinity at neap tide and is saltier at spring tide.
\nThe fine-grained sediment particles, brought by the rivers or produced due to coastal erosion, are deposited predominantly at the vicinity of TMZ of the estuary as either individual grains or in aggregated (flocculated) form [21, 22, 23]. TMZ usually marks the landward limit reached by the saline water where the inward bottom flow meets the outward river flow, thus creating a shallow convergent water layer [2]. It encompasses a large variation in suspended particulate matter, which varies from 0.1 gl−1, occurring at moderate to low freshwater flow situation, to more than 200 gl−1, occurring at a prominent fluid mud layer with stationary suspension [20]. The turbidity maximum is not similar for all types of estuaries. It is largely controlled by degree of freshwater flow, salinity gradient, tidal dynamics, suspended particles at the upper reaches, etc. Researchers have attempted to investigate the pattern of sediment transport and characteristics of the turbidity maximum at different estuarine systems of the world through both laboratory-based and remote sensing-based methods. The degree of flocculation or colloidal stability [24] is largely dependent on a number of parameters including mineralogy [25], electrolytic levels which may alter with the changing salinity in estuary [26], organic content [27], suspended sediment concentration [28], and turbulent mixing [29, 30].
\nA cyclic occurrence of processes involved in sediment movement—suspension, flocculation, settling, deposition, erosion, and resuspension. Laboratory experiments revealed that flocculation occurs more readily when salinity increases [26]. However, salinity has an inverse relationship with settling velocity of the suspended particles. Laboratory analysis by Mhashhash et al. [31] reveals that settling velocity becomes faster with the increase in sediment concentration and decrease in salinity (Figure 2).
\nThe effect of baroclinic circulation, tidal pumping, mixing, and flocculation in the turbidity maximum zone of a model mangrove estuary, after Alongi [2].
Cohesive sediments are composed of granular organic and mineral solids in a liquid phase [25]. In the estuaries cohesion of clay minerals is facilitated by the flat shape and size of particles with their surface area and electrical charge interacting with ambient water [32]. An important outcome of the cohesion property of sediments in the seawater is that particles can be adhered together and produce aggregates or flocs of several times greater than the size of the original or primary particles and can also be disaggregated. This reversibility between aggregation and disintegration of cohesive sediment is called flocculation [25, 33].
\nFlocculation leads to gentle mixing which increases the size from submicroscopic to microfloc, which grows in size after being merged with other microflocs [34]. The flocculated particles often provide surface area for absorbing heavy metal, pollutants, and nutrients. These processes control the size, density, and form of suspended particles [24, 35] and finally determine the settling velocity of flocs. Once the floc gains its optimum size and strength, it is ready for sedimentation. Differential settling is the consequence of large particles with higher settling velocity colliding with smaller particles, having lower velocity [25, 33].
\nAccording to Winterwerp and Kesteren [25], a turbulent flow is responsible for introducing the particles into eddies, and the particles collide to produce flocs. Within the mangrove forests, turbulence is generated by flow around the trees, resulting in flocs which are composed of clay and silt particles. The settling of suspended sediment particles within the forest takes a shorter time (<30 minutes) during the transition from flood to ebb condition, when the water flow becomes relatively inactive [2]. Settling is also enabled by sticking of microbial mucus and by pelletization of invertebrate excreta. Mucus is not rare in mangroves, being found on rotting tree trunks and leaves, on the sediment surface, and in the density-driven lines of organic material [36] (Figure 3).
\nFlocculation process, after Mandoza [32].
The most remarkable adjustments of the mangroves to the coastal and estuarine environment are the robust root structures which largely contribute to the geomorphological stability of the mudflats through trapping and binding of sediments [37]. The aboveground complex root structures of mangroves facilitate sediment accretion by increasing friction and reducing tidal current velocities [38]. According to Furukawa and Wolanski [14], mangrove forest acts as a “pump” of fine-grained sediments from coastal edges toward the forests. Pumping, here, indicates the turbulence generated by different mangrove root structures at the time when water enters into the forests as flood tide [39]. During slack tide the tidal current velocity slows down, ultimately becoming zero and resulting in deposition of flocs. The flocculated materials often grow in size and sometimes attain a size which the ebb tidal currents are unable to re-suspend [14].
\nThe aboveground aerial roots are generally exposed in the tropical mangrove swamps [3]. However, the mangroves facing the waterfront have their aerial roots submerged during flood tides [3]. Tomlinson described “pneumatophores” as the upward extended erect root forms of the subterranean root systems. In Avicennia (Figure 4b), the pneumatophores are of limited height, commonly less than 30 cm. Cone roots also belong to pneumatophores and are developed by Sonneratia spp. and Xylocarpus moluccensis. The cone roots of Sonneratia (Figure 4f) attain greater heights (exceptionally up to 3 m) due to longer period of root development [3]. The size of pneumatophores of Laguncularia racemosa is of 20 cm in height. Root systems of Avicennia type (Avicennia species, Sonneratia species, and Laguncularia racemosa) offer the stability through their star-shaped network of cable roots radiating out from the trunk at a depth of 20–50 cm [40]. Apart from aerial roots (or pneumatophores) and cable roots, Avicennia marina possesses nutritive roots (or feeding roots) and anchor roots [41]. However, Spenceley [42] suggested that pneumatophores are likely to have better sediment-retaining properties than other root types. Buttress roots, developed mainly by Heritiera littoralis (Figure 4d) and Pelliciera rhizophorae, provide a strong tree stability in deltaic plain. Prop roots or stilt roots of Rhizophora spp. (Figure 4a) arch out from the tree trunk and often anchor within 30 cm of depth [43]. Stilt roots develop to a limited extent in Bruguiera and Ceriops. At the sapling stage, they grow at the stem base and form shallow buttresses in old trees [3]. Ceriops and Bruguiera possess aboveground knee roots (Figure 4e) with lenticels. Horizontally extended surface roots, developed by Excoecaria agallocha (Figure 4c), are prevalent in the tropical mangrove wetlands. Sedimentation potential around various mangrove species with differing cross-sectional root area is studied by Furukawa and Wolanski [14]. Species with prop roots, such as Rhizophora spp., tend to capture more sediments than Ceriops spp. which have smaller root knees. Moreover, the magnitude of sedimentation is greatest for trees forming a complex matrix of roots such as Rhizophora spp. and smallest for single trees like Ceriops spp. [14]. According to Scoffin [44] Rhizophora roots are the strongest binders of sediment as they reduce flow velocity to a degree which restricts sediment transportation. Specific root length and longevity of roots are other contributors to soil volume and thus to elevation gains [45]. Accumulation of long-lived roots through the loss, decomposition, and compression of cell contents often promotes the increase in soil volume [45] (Figure 5).
\n(a) Rhizophora spp. with stilt roots; (b) pneumatophores of Avicennia spp.; (c) surface roots of Excoecaria spp.; (d) buttress root of Heritiera littoralis; (e) knee roots of Bruguiera gymnorhiza; (f) cone roots of Sonneratia alba; (g) root system exposed due to erosion of substrate; (h) discolored leaves, roots, and trunks indicating tidal submergence level; (i) thick muddy substrate due to sediment accretion. Photographs a, b, c, d, g, h, and i—Indian Sundarbans—are taken in November 2017 by Subhamita Chaudhuri. Photographs e and f—http://www.mangrove.at/mangrove_roots.html [46].
Schematic diagram demonstrating aerial roots in mangroves, after Tomlinson [3]. All have developed from left to right. Dotted line represents substrate level.
Mangrove seedling density induces sediment accretion [47]. Experiment carried out at Palakuda, Sri Lanka, by Kumara et al. [48] unfolded that accretion rates and aboveground biomass accumulation were highest among the highest density of planted Rhizophora mucronata seedlings for more than 3 years.
\nWithin the coastal wetlands, sediment accretion pattern varies spatially. It negatively relates with the distance from mangrove edge [39]. Sedimentation is associated with the suspended sediment concentration during tidal inundation which reduces from seaward fringe to the scrub zone [14]. Reed [49] postulated that the front mangroves are situated at the slurry zone which is the depository of sediments both from the rivers and estuaries. Hence, sediment accretion is concentrated more at the tidally regulated front mangroves than back mangroves. Victor et al. [50] from their experiments at Ngerdorch and Ngerikiil estuaries of Micronesia have documented the efficiency of mangroves in trapping 44% of riverine fine-grained sediment. These estuaries are subject to high rates of sediment erosion resulting from land clearing and poor farming practices, and this erosion is largely affecting the growth of coral reefs. Through the radionuclide experiment at the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, Allison and Kepple [51] show the decreasing pattern of sedimentation from inland to the shoreline, indicating that the sediment has its source at the marine side and it is introduced through tidal inundation, storm surges, and seasonal monsoon setup of sea level. This tidal delta plain accounts for a widespread mean annualized accretion rate of ~1.1 cm year−1, and the heterogeneous sedimentation depositional pattern is influenced by tidal creek networks and topography [13, 51, 52]. However, researches of Santen et al. [53] demonstrate that in Red River, Vietnam, sediment accretion in some wave-dominated mangrove regions alternates with erosion in the fringe zones, and deposition mostly occurs in the riverbank mudflats.
\nSaad et al. [39], in their study at Kemaman River of Malaysia, found that the coarser and poorly sorted sediment accumulates at the front mangroves, while back mangroves are dominated by finer grains ranging from medium silt to very-fine-grained silt. The high energy waves at the front may lead to the deposition of medium sand at the front mangroves. The grain size often increases with the magnitude and frequency of storm surges [54].
\nMangrove, as a community, influences sediment accretion in the different geomorphological units which are regularly modified by the physical forces and shoreline processes. Thom [55] has classified mangrove communities on the basis of their geomorphological setup as river-dominated, tide-dominated, wave-dominated and composite river-wave-dominated. The riverine mangrove areas, having a unidirectional flow, possess lesser sediment retention capacities. In contrast, tide-dominated fringes have the bi-directional flow facilitating net sediment import, sediment suspension and retention. Wave-dominated mangrove forests often possess distinctive sediment properties than others as because different bedform types promote strong erosion-accretion alternation within the forest [56].
\nHydrogeomorphic variability along with variation in soil type in different topographic setups has led to the classification of mangroves as fringe, riverine, basin, scrub, and overwash. In Sri Lanka, these five types of mangrove systems are prominent [11]. Lugo and Snedaker [57] have demonstrated that dwarf mangroves exist in the environment with considerable scarcity of external nutrients. Both mineralogical and biological accretion are affected by the hydroperiod and complex morphodynamic feedbacks within these differentiated mangrove zones. The vertical elevation changes within these mangrove zones are not only the result of vertical accretion but also relate to the subsurface processes, such as compaction, decomposition, and shrink-swell cycles [58] (Figure 6).
\nStages in the formation of mangroves in deltas, after Untawale and Jagtap [56].
In their studies at Southwestern Florida, Cahoon and Lynch [58] have observed that basin mangroves are often separated by berms, and the hydroperiod is mostly controlled by rainfall rather than tidal flushes except at extreme high-tide conditions. The accumulated sediment is mostly autochthonous, where organic matter inputs are prevalent and elevation changes are mainly caused by accretion and substrate shrink-swells due to cycles of flooding and drying. On the other hand, erosion and accretion processes are equally important for surface elevation changes in tide-dominated, fringe, and outwash mangroves [58] (Figure 7).
\nMesoscale processes represent interaction of mangroves mainly with hydrodynamics and sediment supply; microscale processes depicts mangrove stand interaction mainly with surface and subsurface processes, after Woodroffe et al. [1].
Apart from the physicochemical properties present along the shoreline such as soil and water temperature, salinity, and pH, sedimentation processes are largely controlled by seasonal changes of the river discharge pattern and tidal regime. Due to notable increase in current velocity and river discharge, net sediment and organic matter transport rate progressively increase during the rainy months. At this time, buoyancy effect is important as the freshwater is captured in the forest during high tide [2]. Moreover, increasing erosion rates during wet seasons contribute to the sediment budget at the foreshore. Relatively weak stratification of sediment is often recorded at the headwaters of mangrove-fringed waterways due to dominance of freshwater input during the wet season [2]. At spring tides, the ebb current directs the surface and bottom velocities for the whole tidal cycle in the upper estuary [59].
\nDegraded mangrove forests of the monsoon-influenced regions induce considerable sediment erosion which is ultimately followed by accumulation. Occasional storms often deliver the sediments within the forest and promote sediment deposition. Saad et al. [39] have observed the seasonal impact on sediment accretion rates in Kemaman, Malaysia, where the sediment accretion rate was 2.6 mm per month during the monsoons between November and January.
\nThe low discharges during the dry season result in the landward transport of sediment. Residence time of water is long in the mangrove waterway during dry seasons. Trapping of water increases considerably as there is little freshwater to cause buoyancy-induced water circulation [2]. Spring tides often result in greater peak velocities at the surface in the middle or upper estuary. At the dry season, the saltwater reach extends to the extreme upstream section of the estuary. Reduced river discharge lowers the sediment input within the forest, resulting in slower rate of accretion. Saad’s [39] observation at coastal Malaysia revealed that sediment concentrations reached only to 8–20 ppm in non-monsoon season as compared to 50–200 ppm during the monsoons. The average sediment accretion rate is eventually brought down to 1.2 mm per month during non-monsoon period.
\nApart from diverse plant types, mangrove wetlands as an ecosystem support an incredible assemblage of fauna which, in turn, participate in land formation processes. The wide array of organisms includes barnacles, mollusks, shrimps, crabs, lobsters, jellyfish, tunicates, etc. which are often found among the roots of the mangroves. Autochthonous materials, including leaf litter, dead twigs, branches, and roots from the mangroves, accumulate on the mudflat surface and are incorporated within the soil through bioturbation by crabs [60]. This built-up material is consumed by detritivores, such as crabs, amphipods, and gastropod mollusks [61]. Some of this whole range of organisms plays a conspicuous role in aggregating and trapping sediments in their own way.
\nMucus and bacterial populations are considerably abundant and productive in the mangroves. Mucus is known to be produced by benthic and pelagic detritivores. Wolanski [62] has noticed that the clay particles in suspension are trapped by sticking to the bacterial, algal, and animal mucus and pelletization by benthic detritivore deposits. He also found that a large number of non-flocculated particle, entering into the coral creek mangroves during flood tide, were re-exported at the ebb tide by sticking to the mucus floating on the surface water. This mucus was transported during ebb tide from the swamp to the creek where it produced prominent foam lines [62].
\nAnimal structures, such as burrows, mounds, tubes, and other biogenic structures, also impact on sedimentation within the forest [63, 64]. These bioturbation structures are engineered by crabs and other benthic organisms. Numerous burrows generate friction on the forest floor when the tidal water flows through these burrows. Various models of fluid dynamics indicate that water circulation through the burrows are highly influenced by the architecture, slope, depth of the forest floor, location of roots relative to the burrow, and number of loops within the burrows [2]. De [65] in his experiments in the Indian Sundarbans demonstrated the biophysical mechanism of intertidal beach crab. Burrowing cycles within the substratum involve construction of oriented and open-to-air burrow tube (pre-tidal phase), formation of underwater and subsurface-trapped tabular air bubble occupied by the burrower that perpetually maintains internal and external pressure equilibrium by modifying inside burrow (tidal phase), and final exposure of air bubble system to air (post-tidal phase) before deserting the previous burrow and opening of another burrow cycle [65].
\nVegetated marsh substrates reduce the fluid current velocity locally near the bed resulting in reduction of the energy available to move the sediment through fluid shear stress [39]. Benthic mats, developed by algal or microbial material on the surface of mangrove soils, contribute to vertical accretion [66]. These biomats are produced locally in patches in the depressed and moist areas on the supratidal flats following algal bloom. During the experiment at Hooghly estuary, De [65] observed that the mat grounds are cohesive, leathery, and composed of slightly coherent admixtures of fine-grained sand, silt, and green algae-secreted organic glue. Substrates of coastal wetlands including marshes and mangroves are thus characterized by organic matter deposition, suggesting the major role of biological processes in soil development, soil accretion, and elevation change [67, 68, 69]. Analysis of sediment cores has helped in inferring the contributions of organic matter to soil volume and vertical accretion in marsh and mangrove wetlands [70].
\nMangrove distribution along the coasts or estuaries changes with time, involving the balances between subsidence and accretion, erosion and vegetative stabilization, productivity and decomposition, tidal pumping, and drainage competency [1]. The global rise in sea level is caused by thermal expansion of seawater due to climate change and melting of polar ice caps and glaciers. These lead to the increase in volume of water in the ocean resulting in substantial rise in sea level, which is called eustatic sea-level rise. On the other hand, mean sea-level rise, measured by tide gauges, also varies because of tectonic movement, such as glacial-isostatic adjustments and lithospheric flexural subsidence [71]. Subsidence can be of two types: shallow and deep [72]. Shallow subsidence is caused by the reduction of mangrove and marsh surface elevation due to sediment compaction at the top layer, such as shrinkage of silt, clay, or peat deposits and accumulation of subsurface materials [73]. Deep subsidence is led by tectonic and isostatic processes. The measures for vertical accretion only consider the effect of shallow subsidence, whereas the methods measuring surface elevation anomalies include both shallow and deep subsidence [73]. The net effect of eustatic and isostatic sea-level changes results in the relative sea-level rise in a specific location over a specific time period [47]. Observed and projected sea-level rise has far reaching impacts on mangroves, from drowning the vulnerable wetlands to squeezing the coastal areas [74, 75]. However, satellite-based experiments of Phan et al. [74] at Mekong River showed that mangrove degradation and rapid coastal erosion has reduced the mangrove strip inducing lesser sedimentation. Krauss [45] showed that sediment accretion rates beneath some mangrove forests surpass the rates of sea-level rise. Hence, the subsurface processes play a dominant role in determining whether mangrove adjusts to sea-level rise. Subsidence led by autocompaction and areal expansion caused by mangrove root growth has important bearing on adjustment of mangroves to sea-level rise [1]. Surface elevation table measurements along with marker horizon techniques are often adopted to record vertical sediment accretion rates and substrate elevation changes and calculate short-term subsidence rates [1]. With the organic and mineral sediments, subsurface processes beneath the mangrove forests play a major role in developing surface elevation [76]. Wetland elevation is increased and inundation stress is decreased by sedimentation. Mangroves develop on the newly accumulated mudbank and facilitate soil development and elevation change [77]. Root growth dominates below-ground organic sediment accumulation, and this in turn keeps a balance with sea-level change [60, 78] (Figure 8).
\nFactors affecting sedimentation processes in coastal wetlands after Cahoon et al. [79].
The research findings of Cahoon and Lynch [58], based on mangrove forest of Southwestern Florida, have shown that vertical accretion is often driven by shallow subsidence and local sea-level rise. Hence, vulnerability of mangroves is described in terms of elevation reduction, rather than accretion deficit [58]. However, mangroves will be affected by inundation if the rate of sea-level rise is greater than vertical land development due to sediment accretion and root accumulation. In such situations, mangroves would naturally have the tendency to extend landward [1].
\nThe mangroves respond differently to surface accretion, subsidence, and sea-level rise according to their hydrogeomorphic setting. In the experiment at Micronesian mangroves, Krauss et al. [37] found that the fringe and riverine mangroves are moderately susceptible to local sea-level rise, despite considerably high sediment accretion rates along Yela and Utwe rivers of Pacific high islands. In contrast, root and peat-based accumulation resulted in greater elevation gain in Belize [78]. Fringe mangroves are specifically vulnerable to sea-level changes than riverine or interior mangroves, partly due to physiological stress imparted by prolonged flooding [37].
\nAccording to Cahoon et al. [60], mangrove forests of the world are prone to lose surface elevation relative to sea-level rise, despite their ability to accrete sediment in some hydrogeomorphic settings. Hence, protecting the mangroves susceptible to sea-level rise in the outer margin of the estuaries from human interferences may slow the rate of soil loss [37] (Table 2).
\nHydrogeomorphic setting | \nSurface elevation change (mm year−1) | \nVertical accretion (mm year−1) | \nSubsurface change (mm year−1) | \n
---|---|---|---|
Fringe | \n−1.3 to +5.9 | \n+1.6 to +8.6 | \n−9.7 to +2.4 | \n
Riverine | \n+0.9 to +6.2 | \n+6.5 to +13.0 | \n−11.2 to −0.2 | \n
Basin | \n−3.7 to +3.9 | \n+0.7 to +20.8 | \n−19.9 to +2.8 | \n
Scrub | \n−1.1 | \n−2.0 | \n−3.1 | \n
Overwash | \n−0.6 to −2.5 | \n+4.4 to +6.3 | \n−3.8 | \n
Surface elevation change, vertical accretion, and subsurface adjustment for different mangrove hydrogeomorphic settings, determined using surface elevation table-marker horizon (SET-MH) methods, after Krauss et al. [45].
Various methods and models have been adopted till date to analyze and understand sediment accretion rates within mangrove ecosystems of the world. Sedimentation rates, measured by short-term measurement of changes in relative sea level along with the estimates by radiotracers, provide a net sedimentation pattern [2]. There is a widespread use of radioisotopes 210Pb and 137Cs in analysis of long-term sedimentation within mangroves as well as salt marsh areas. Mudd et al. [80] have used the above method along with OIMAS-N model simulating the ephemeral evolution of a sediment column situated within a salt marsh [80]. Banerjee et al. [81] established the 210Pb geochronology in selected four sediment cores in the Sundarbans and the Hugli estuary of India for the assessment of trace metal distribution in the sediment. The core sites were selected on the basis of different anthropogenic and hydrological parameters. Fe-Mn oxyhydroxide is observed to be the major controlling factor for trace metal accumulation as compared to organic carbon in both the sites. Fe-normalized enrichment factors (EFs) were calculated based on trace element abundance, and the result shows EF >1 for Cd, Pb, Co, and Cu indicating high enrichment in the top layers of the forest substrate. This is mostly because the core sites receive high pollution load from various anthropogenic sources. The experiment revealed relatively less contamination in the Hugli estuary due to high energy conditions and mostly coarse-grained sediments. Chaudhuri et al. [82] determined the accumulation of various trace metals in fine nutritive roots of Avicennia marina under the contaminated sediments at Sydney estuary, Australia. The result showed highest metal concentrations of Cu, Pb, and Zn in the fine nutritive roots, with a mean of 153, 189, and 378 mg/kg, followed by As, Cr, and Ni with mean enrichment concentration of 16, 21, and 11 mg/kg, respectively. Cd and Cr have low concentrations in fine nutritive root tissues. Radiocarbon (14C) dating is another widely used method for measuring long-term sedimentation rates for both freshwater and marine ecosystems [83]. Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) technique is often used for dating both older and younger (<60 years) sediments of the coasts. Madsen and Murray [84] have provided a detailed analysis and review on this technique.
\n“Marker horizon” technique and sedimentation plates are two most popular methods of quantifying transient sediment accretion [37, 73, 85]. Krauss et al. [85] in their study used sediment pins to measure elevation change in Micronesian mangrove forests. A marker horizon, mainly consisting of degradable material as opposed to sedimentation plates, assists as a reference layer within the soil, against which deposition of both mineral and organic sediment can be measured using a soil corer [72, 85]. In the case of dense vegetation, clipping the vegetation before applying the marker material is advisable, whereas marker material can be placed at soil surface within the stems in less dense forests. Following this procedure the effect of vegetation canopy structure on sediment accretion rates can be investigated [73]. With stacked layers of the markers, autocompaction rates are often assessed [73]. However, recovery of markers may be a challenging task when the layer is disturbed by bioturbation [84], distributed by profound floods, or shuffled with darker inorganic and organic materials [68]. In the sedimentation plate method, the marker horizon consisting of a firm plate made of metal or plastic is buried horizontally within the soil just below the rooting zone [73]. For recording sediment accretion, a thin metal pin is pushed within the soil until it reaches the plate, and its length above the sediment is determined [73]. However, measurements, based on marker horizon and surface elevation tables, provide short-time perspectives, indicating shallow subsurface processes of root growth and substrate autocompaction, whereas radiometric dating measures long-term sedimentation [1]. Saad et al. [39] applied the methodology based on estimating the thickness of a sediment section divided by the time span necessary for its deposition. The study covered a span of 2 years. To estimate the amount of sediment trapped by mangroves in the Ngerdorch and the Ngerikiil estuaries of Micronesia, Victor et al. [50] measured the salinity, temperature, and suspended sediment concentration to finally quantify the freshwater flow, brackish water outflow, and net estuarine sediment transport. Backscattering nephelometer is used widely by the scientists for estimating suspended sediment concentration. Horstman et al. [86] estimated dry weight of deposited sediments on the forest floor in the Andaman coast of Southern Thailand. They used ceramic tiles covered with smooth layer of mortar and carefully leveled with the forest floor for recording sediment entrainment and deposition. Computer-aided modeling of sediment transport is a valuable tool to understand and predict morphological change and sedimentation amount [87]. Delft3D software is very popular and is applied widely for simulating hydrodynamics, sediment dynamics, morphological processes, and biotic impacts in shallow water environments [88]. The process-based Delft3D-FLOW module solves the three-dimensional and two-dimensional unsteady shallow water equations. The hydrodynamic model applies horizontal momentum equations to compute transport and deposition of sediments concomitantly with the hydrodynamics, facilitating the understanding of morphodynamic feedback [86]. For measuring sedimentation rate and ratio, Adame et al. [89] used sediment traps which consisted of pre-weighed 9-cm Whatman qualitative filters placed in the ground over Petri dish lids held to the sediment by hooks. In addition, for the assessment of sediment quantity transported and deposited in the mangroves, they used glomalin—a novel terrestrial soil carbon tracer (Table 3).
\nLocation | \nSedimentation rate (mm year−1) | \n
---|---|
Bay of Bengal | \n≤5 | \n
Ajkwa estuary, Papua | \n0.6–5.5 | \n
Sawi Bay, Thailand | \n10–12 | \n
Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve, Malaysia | \n10–31 | \n
Kuala Kemaman Forest Reserve, Malaysia | \n10.6 | \n
Jiulongjiang estuary, China | \n13–60 | \n
Mangroves, acting as traps for both mineral and organic sediments, control the sedimentation and thus form their own survival ground. In the investigation at the Gulf of Thailand, Thampanya et al. [93] substantially differentiated coasts with and without mangroves. Coasts with mangroves showed prograding characteristics with low rate of erosion. The eroding coastal stretches are characterized by the absence of mangroves coupled with increased number of shrimp farms, increased fetch to prevailing monsoon, and decreased riverine inputs due to construction of dam [93]. Mangrove swamps of Southeast Asia are typified by sediment transport and circulation which is the consequence of intense anthropogenic disturbances near and around coastal regions and high rate of sediment erosion. Mangrove degradation and fluvial discharge with seasonal maxima seems to play a pivotal role in sediment erosion. Mangroves of Mekong delta have been especially affected by human activities including cutting of trees for timber and reclamation for shrimp cultivation [94]. Mandai mangroves, a small mangrove patch of Northeast Singapore, indicate an impact of urbanization. It has been a hotspot of research agenda for decades providing a broader context of Southeast Asian mangrove conservation [95]. Hence programs for plantation, restoration, and rehabilitation can alter the decline of mangrove habitat if proper hydrodynamics and sedimentary requisitions are met [1]. Alongi [96] examined the impact of climate change on mangrove forests. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted that mangroves of arid coastlines, in subsiding river deltas, and some islands will reduce in area, though they have often proved to be either resilient or resistant to most environmental changes. The persistence of mangroves insinuates their ability to cope with moderately high rates of relative sea-level rise [1]. High sediment accretion, coupled with surface elevation change and plant survival in high densities, can facilitate shoreline protection and counter relative sea-level rise in the tropics. Moreover, continuous increment of aboveground biomass within the high-density mangrove wetlands not only advocates surface elevation gain but also acts as atmospheric carbon sink [48]. As they grow in saturated, muddy, low-oxygen soils, maximum amount of carbon is stored in roots, resists decay, and becomes long-term sinks as mangrove peat [61]. Thus, they provide other significant ecological services such as carbon storage. These tidal forests of the tropics are unique open ecosystems for a variety of structural and functional properties as well as their distinctive adaption techniques with the hydrogeomorphic processes.
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