Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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They may also be used for safety, security, permission, banking, crime prevention, forensics, medical applications, and communication. This book explores the latest developments, theories, methods, approaches, algorithms, analysis, systems, hardware, and software in biometrics and related systems.",isbn:"978-1-80355-457-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-456-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-458-7",doi:null,price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"recent-advances-in-biometrics",numberOfPages:236,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2d32e33e0f499cb5241734bb75dd2a83",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11195.jpg",numberOfDownloads:556,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:null,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 10th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 8th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 7th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 25th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 26th 2022",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kuwait"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"557",title:"Intelligent System",slug:"computer-science-and-engineering-intelligent-system"}],chapters:[{id:"82268",title:"Introductory Chapter: On Biometrics with Iris",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105134",slug:"introductory-chapter-on-biometrics-with-iris",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Muhammad Sarfraz and Nourah Alfialy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82268",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82268",authors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"},{id:"473361",title:"Dr.",name:"Nourah",surname:"Alfialy",slug:"nourah-alfialy",fullName:"Nourah Alfialy"}],corrections:null},{id:"80031",title:"Biometric-Based Human Recognition Systems: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101686",slug:"biometric-based-human-recognition-systems-an-overview",totalDownloads:171,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the proliferation of automated systems for reliable and highly secure human authentication and identification, the importance of technological solutions in biometrics is growing along with security awareness. Indeed, conventional authentication methodologies, consisting of knowledge-based systems that make use of something you know (e.g., username and password) and token-based systems that make use of something you have (e.g., identification card), are not able to meet the strict requirements of reliable security applications. Conversely, biometric systems make use of behavioral (extrinsic) and/or physiological (intrinsic) human characteristics, overcoming the security issues affecting the conventional methods for personal authentication. This book chapter provides an overview of the most commonly used biometric traits along with their properties, the various biometric system operating modalities as well as various security aspects related to these systems. In particular, it will be discussed the different stages involved in a biometric recognition process and further discuss various threats that can be exploited to compromise the security of a biometric system. Finally, in order to evaluate the systems’ performance, metrics must be adopted. The most widely used metrics are, therefore, discussed in relation to the provided system accuracy and security, and applicability in real-world deployments.",signatures:"David Palma and Pier Luca Montessoro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80031",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80031",authors:[{id:"121529",title:"Prof.",name:"Pier Luca",surname:"Montessoro",slug:"pier-luca-montessoro",fullName:"Pier Luca Montessoro"},{id:"439402",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Palma",slug:"david-palma",fullName:"David Palma"}],corrections:null},{id:"80525",title:"Assessment of How Users Perceive the Usage of Biometric Technology Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101969",slug:"assessment-of-how-users-perceive-the-usage-of-biometric-technology-applications",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biometrics applications are progressively widespread as a means of authenticating end-users owing to the extensive range of benefits over traditional authentication (token-base-authentication). However, the transaction involves taking into account the perceptions and responses of end-users. If end-users are fearful, hesitant about these biometric technology-applications, misuse and implementation-complications can surely overshadow. The goal of this study is to sightsee the user’s-motivation, understanding, consciousness and acceptance towards utilization of biometric technology-applications. A 300-person survey was conducted to evaluate public-opinion on the use and adoption of biometrics. Stratified sample technique was used to administer the surveys. The results presented that perceived ease-of-use, user-motivation and attitude are more important-factors when deciding whether to accept new technology-applications. Although many end-users have become more familiar with biometric technology-applications (e.g., Fingerprints or facial-recognition), many individuals still have a negative-perception of the technology. Concerns regarding confidentiality and security i.e., storing and protecting personal-identification data, the fear of intruding into a person’s daily-life and disclosing personal-information remain a major problem. Some end-users claim that despite the potential resilience to biometrics, designers must mentally and psychologically prepare the general public for the new use of biometric technology. This will make it possible to transform negative user-perceptions into a positive-experience. Thus, this study can help end-users and companies understand and make the right decisions to promote the use of biometric-applications and services. The study is expected to be an important research-discovery that will greatly contribute to Uganda’s digital-economy.",signatures:"Taban Habibu, Edith Talina Luhanga and Anael Elikana Sam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80525",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80525",authors:[{id:"438683",title:"Dr.",name:"Taban",surname:"Habibu",slug:"taban-habibu",fullName:"Taban Habibu"},{id:"438684",title:"Dr.",name:"Anael",surname:"Elikana Sam",slug:"anael-elikana-sam",fullName:"Anael Elikana Sam"},{id:"438685",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",surname:"Talina Luhanga",slug:"edith-talina-luhanga",fullName:"Edith Talina Luhanga"}],corrections:null},{id:"80748",title:"Behavioral Biometrics: Past, Present and Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102841",slug:"behavioral-biometrics-past-present-and-future",totalDownloads:78,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Behavioral biometrics are changing the way users are authenticated to access resources by adding an extra layer of security seamlessly. Behavioral biometric authentication identifies users based on a set of unique behaviors that can be observed when users perform daily activities or interact with smart devices. There are different types of behavioral biometrics that can be used to create unique profiles of users. For example, skill-based behavioral biometrics are common biometrics that is based on the instinctive, unique and stable muscle actions taken by the user. Other types include style-based behavioral biometrics, knowledge-based behavioral biometrics, strategy-based behavioral biometrics, etc. Behavioral biometrics can also be classified based on their use model. Behavioral biometrics can be used for one-time authentication or continuous authentication. One-time authentication occurs only once when a user requests access to a resource. Continuous authentication is a method of confirming the user’s identity in real-time while they are using the service. This chapter discusses the different types of behavioral biometrics and explores the various classifications of behavioral biometrics-based on their use models. The chapter highlights the most trending research directions in behavioral biometrics authentication and presents examples of current commercial solutions that are based on behavioral biometrics.",signatures:"Mridula Sharma and Haytham Elmiligi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80748",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80748",authors:[{id:"437855",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Mridula",surname:"Sharma",slug:"mridula-sharma",fullName:"Mridula Sharma"},{id:"448931",title:"Dr.",name:"Haytham",surname:"Elmiligi",slug:"haytham-elmiligi",fullName:"Haytham Elmiligi"}],corrections:null},{id:"81260",title:"Biometrics of Aquatic Animals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102957",slug:"biometrics-of-aquatic-animals",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is a part of the book “Recent advances in biometrics” introduces the importance of biometrics in the aquatic studies in brief view. Biometric measurements (Morphometric, meristics and description) are widely used in various fields’ “taxonomy, species identifications, monitoring of pollution, species abnormalities, comparison, environmental changes, growth variation, feeding behavior, ecological strategies, stock management, and water quality of aquaculture. These data were collected from several articles and books of aquatic animals and presented both applications and required considerations for biometric implementations. It is important also to detect sexual dimorphism, adaptations during evolutionary time and diminishing intraspecific competition by increasing niche portioning. The biometrics could be applied for various aquatic organisms as dolphins, sharks, rays, mollusca, crustaceans, protozoa, … etc. and for specific organs like teeth, otolith and appendages by different techniques and preservations. Scientists are still applying these measurements even with the presence of advanced techniques like PCR as they are low in cost, faster and more applicable. This chapter also presented some recent trends including animal’s biometric recognition systems, followed by challenges and considerations for the biometrics implementations. It is recommended to apply biometrics in wide range together with modern techniques considering the specificity of its quality and preservation status.",signatures:"Mahmoud M.S. Farrag",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81260",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81260",authors:[{id:"225312",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mahmoud M.S.",surname:"Farrag",slug:"mahmoud-m.s.-farrag",fullName:"Mahmoud M.S. Farrag"}],corrections:null},{id:"81969",title:"MedMetrics: Biometrics Passports in Medical and Clinical Healthcare That Enable AI and Blockchain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104419",slug:"medmetrics-biometrics-passports-in-medical-and-clinical-healthcare-that-enable-ai-and-blockchain",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The term biometrics was defined to suggest any measurable biological and biomedical metrics that can be used to identify and confirm the uniqueness of individuals. In this chapter, we would like to introduce an emerging area of biometrics, MedMetrics, that combines patient and drug information managed in coded passports to keep medical information accessible, safe and fraud-resistance. Medmetics includes medical and biological biometrics of patients based on their electronic health records, International Classification of Disease codes, Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical codes, Defined Daily Doses, time-series test results, and personalizsed biological data. By combining the blockchain technology, Medimetrics enables sensitive data sharing in between different clinical settings, allowing monitoring patients’ health and care, as well as avoiding identification-related medical mistakes or frauds. MedMetrics Blockchain Passport can be used to identify patients and confirm their previous health conditions without the right of modifying or removing previous records. Medmetrics can revolutionary change the user demographic, shift safety restrictions, define new user applications, and encourage ethical AI regulations in medical science and health care. This chapter will discuss these directions and provide insights into the next generation of biometrics in medical science and health care.",signatures:"Huiqi Yvonne Lu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81969",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81969",authors:[{id:"24163",title:"Dr.",name:"Huiqi",surname:"Yvonne Lu",slug:"huiqi-yvonne-lu",fullName:"Huiqi Yvonne Lu"}],corrections:null},{id:"81521",title:"Quantum Biometrics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103752",slug:"quantum-biometrics",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It was recently proposed to use the human visual system’s ability to perform efficient photon counting in order to devise a new biometric authentication methodology. The relevant “fingerprint” is represented by the optical losses light suffers along different paths from the cornea to the retina. The “fingerprint” is accessed by interrogating a subject on perceiving or not weak light flashes, containing few tens of photons, thus probing the subject’s visual system at the threshold of perception, at which regime optical losses play a significant role. The name “quantum biometrics” derives from the fact that the photon statistics of the illuminating light, as well as the quantum efficiency at the light detection level of rod cells, are central to the method. Here we elaborate further on this methodology, addressing several aspects like aging effects of the method’s “fingerprint,” as well as its inter-subject variability. We then review recent progress towards the experimental realization of the method. Finally, we summarize a recent proposal to use quantum light sources, in particular a single photon source, in order to enhance the performance of the authentication process. This further corroborates the “quantum” character of the methodology and alludes to the emerging field of quantum vision.",signatures:"Iannis Kominis, Michail Loulakis and Özgur E. Müstecaplıoğlu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81521",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81521",authors:[{id:"438303",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Iannis",surname:"Kominis",slug:"iannis-kominis",fullName:"Iannis Kominis"},{id:"453629",title:"Dr.",name:"Michail",surname:"Loulakis",slug:"michail-loulakis",fullName:"Michail Loulakis"},{id:"453630",title:"Prof.",name:"Özgur E.",surname:"Müstecaplıoğlu",slug:"ozgur-e.-mustecaplioglu",fullName:"Özgur E. Müstecaplıoğlu"}],corrections:null},{id:"80351",title:"Feature Extraction Using Observer Gaze Distributions for Gender Recognition",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101990",slug:"feature-extraction-using-observer-gaze-distributions-for-gender-recognition",totalDownloads:64,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We determine and use the gaze distribution of observers viewing images of subjects for gender recognition. In general, people look at informative regions when determining the gender of subjects in images. Based on this observation, we hypothesize that the regions corresponding to the concentration of the observer gaze distributions contain discriminative features for gender recognition. We generate the gaze distribution from observers while they perform the task of manually recognizing gender from subject images. Next, our gaze-guided feature extraction assigns high weights to the regions corresponding to clusters in the gaze distribution, thereby selecting discriminative features. Experimental results show that the observers mainly focused on the head region, not the entire body. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the gaze-guided feature extraction significantly improves the accuracy of gender recognition.",signatures:"Masashi Nishiyama",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80351",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80351",authors:[{id:"437370",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Masashi",surname:"Nishiyama",slug:"masashi-nishiyama",fullName:"Masashi Nishiyama"}],corrections:null},{id:"80726",title:"Image Acquisition for Biometric: Face Recognition",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102767",slug:"image-acquisition-for-biometric-face-recognition",totalDownloads:52,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biometrics is mostly used for authentication purposes in security. Due to the covid-19 pandemic situation, nowadays distance-based authentication systems are more focused. Face recognition is one of the best approaches which can use for authentication at distance. Face recognition is a challenging task in various environments. For that taking input from the camera is very important for real-time applications. In this chapter, we are more focusing on how to acquire the face image using MATLAB. The complete chapter is divided into five sections introduction, definition of biometrics, image acquisition devices, image acquisition process in MATLAB.",signatures:"Siddharth B. Dabhade, Nagsen S. Bansod, Yogesh S. Rode, Narayan P. Bhosale, Prapti D. Deshmukh and Karbhari V. Kale",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80726",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80726",authors:[{id:"291867",title:"Prof.",name:"Karvhari V.",surname:"Kale",slug:"karvhari-v.-kale",fullName:"Karvhari V. Kale"},{id:"438415",title:"Dr.",name:"Siddharth B.",surname:"Dabhade",slug:"siddharth-b.-dabhade",fullName:"Siddharth B. Dabhade"},{id:"458252",title:"Dr.",name:"Nagsen S.",surname:"Bansod",slug:"nagsen-s.-bansod",fullName:"Nagsen S. Bansod"},{id:"458253",title:"Dr.",name:"Yogesh S.",surname:"Rode",slug:"yogesh-s.-rode",fullName:"Yogesh S. Rode"},{id:"458254",title:"Dr.",name:"Narayan P.",surname:"Bhosale",slug:"narayan-p.-bhosale",fullName:"Narayan P. Bhosale"},{id:"458256",title:"Dr.",name:"Prapti D.",surname:"Deshmukh",slug:"prapti-d.-deshmukh",fullName:"Prapti D. Deshmukh"}],corrections:null},{id:"81690",title:"Your Vital Signs as Your Password?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104783",slug:"your-vital-signs-as-your-password-",totalDownloads:16,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cognitive biometrics (vital signs) indicate the individual’s authentication using his/her mental and emotional status specifically, electrocardiogram (ECG) and electroencephalogram (EEG). The motivation behind cognitive biometrics is their uniqueness, their absolute universality in each living individual, and their resistance toward spoofing and replaying attacks in addition to their indication of life. This chapter investigates the ability to use the vital sign as unimodal authentication in its status by surveying the recent techniques, their requirements and limitation, and whether it is ready to be used in the real market or not. Our observations state—that the vital signs can be considered as a PASSWORD due to their uniqueness, but it needs more improvements to be deployed to the market.",signatures:"Hind Alrubaish and Nazar Saqib",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81690",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81690",authors:[{id:"453084",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hind",surname:"Alrubaish",slug:"hind-alrubaish",fullName:"Hind Alrubaish"},{id:"463575",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazar",surname:"Saqib",slug:"nazar-saqib",fullName:"Nazar Saqib"}],corrections:null},{id:"80323",title:"A Voice Signal Filtering Methods for Speaker Biometric Identification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101975",slug:"a-voice-signal-filtering-methods-for-speaker-biometric-identification",totalDownloads:75,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The preliminary stage of the personality biometric identification on a voice is voice signal filtering. For biometric identification are considered and in number investigated the following methods of noise suppression in a voice signal. The smoothing adaptive linear time filtering (algorithm of the minimum root mean square error, an algorithm of recursive least squares, an algorithm of Kalman filtering, a Lee algorithm), the smoothing adaptive linear frequency filtering (the generalized method, the MLEE (maximum likelihood envelope estimation) method, a wavelet analysis with threshold processing (universal threshold, SURE (Stein’s Unbiased Risk Estimator)-threshold, minimax threshold, FDR (False Discovery Rate)-threshold, Bayesian threshold were used), the smoothing non-adaptive linear time filtering (the arithmetic mean filter, the normalized Gauss’s filter, the normalized binomial filter), the smoothing nonlinear filtering (geometric mean filter, the harmonic mean filter, the contraharmonic filter, the α-trimmed mean filter, the median filter, the rank filter, the midpoint filter, the conservative filter, the morphological filter). Results of a numerical research of denoising methods for voice signals people from the TIMIT (Texas Instruments and Massachusetts Institute of Technology) database which were noise an additive Gaussian noise and multiplicative Gaussian noise were received.",signatures:"Eugene Fedorov, Tetyana Utkina and Tetyana Neskorodeva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80323",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80323",authors:[{id:"438652",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugene",surname:"Fedorov",slug:"eugene-fedorov",fullName:"Eugene Fedorov"},{id:"438653",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetyana",surname:"Utkina",slug:"tetyana-utkina",fullName:"Tetyana Utkina"},{id:"438713",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetyana",surname:"Neskorodieva",slug:"tetyana-neskorodieva",fullName:"Tetyana Neskorodieva"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9965",title:"Computational Optimization Techniques and 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\n
1. Measurement and modeling
\n
\n
1.1. Experimental measurement approaches
\n
Cardiovascular tissues are viscoelastic, exhibiting behaviors that combine features of elastic solids and viscous fluids. Elasticity, viscosity, and viscoelasticity can be quantified from mechanical testing techniques that relate the dynamics of a tissue’s deformation to an applied load. For example, linear elastic materials subjected to an applied load exhibit a time-independent stress that is linearly proportional to strain (Figure 1a). A common metric of material elasticity is the elastic modulus, E, which is the slope of the stress-strain curve. Materials that are nonlinearly elastic respond differently to different levels of strain and remain time-independent (Figure 1b). In this case, elastic moduli can be defined at any point along the stress-strain curve. In arteries, for example, it is often convenient to quantify the behavior in low and high strain regions separately and to calculate low and high strain moduli (Elow and Ehigh), respectively [1, 2], which is discussed in Section 2.3.
\n
Figure 1
(a) Stress-strain curve for a linear elastic material. (b) Stress-strain curve for a typical elastic material displaying nonlinear behavior. Low-strain and high-strain behavior can be quantified by fitting elastic moduli to those regions of the stress-strain curve. (c) Typical stress-strain curve of nonlinear viscoelastic cardiovascular tissue exhibiting energy dissipation resulting in distinct nonlinear loading and unloading curves. (d) Typical hysteresis loops of nonlinear viscoelastic cardiovascular tissue exhibiting strain rate dependence.
\n
Linear and nonlinear elastic materials do not dissipate energy after deformation or exhibit time-dependent behavior; therefore, stress-strain behavior of these materials is not different between loading and unloading. In contrast, viscoelastic materials dissipate energy upon deformation, which can be observed through hysteresis in the stress-strain curve (Figure 1c). The energy lost during a loading cycle is equal to the hysteresis area between the loading and unloading curves. Due to this energy dissipation, loading and unloading behaviors are not identical and loading moduli can be determined separately from unloading moduli. Since viscoelastic material behavior is also time-dependent, the loading-unloading stress-strain behavior also depends on strain rate (Figure 1d).
\n
To measure viscoelasticity, the strain rate-, frequency-, or time-dependent mechanical behavior of a material must be measured. Often, a sinusoidal input (stress or strain) is applied to tissue, and an output signal (the corresponding strain or stress) is measured. The output signal is in phase with the input signal for a purely elastic material and out of phase for a viscoelastic material. Alternatively, viscoelastic behavior can be quantified with creep and stress relaxation experiments. Creep testing is performed by subjecting a material to a constant load and recording the time-dependent changes in strain. Stress relaxation is conducted by applying a constant strain and measuring the time-dependent stress reduction. Typically, preconditioning is performed before data collection, which is described briefly in the following section.
\n
As a consequence of viscoelastic behavior, the mechanical response to an initial load (force, deformation, stretch, etc.) may differ from the response to a subsequent load. Fung implemented a preconditioning procedure to cyclically load and unload soft tissue to ensure a more consistent mechanical response [3]. The biological basis for the procedure is that with each subsequent cyclic load, the internal structure aligns with the direction of loading, and the tissue dissipates less energy [4]. The goal of preconditioning is to induce a pseudoelastic state, in which the tissue structure no longer changes with cyclic loading, resulting in a consistent mechanical response to a load or deformation. For instance, preconditioning has been implemented for up to 40 [5] or 80 [6] cycles in heart valve tissue before stable mechanical responses were observed. If the magnitude of the applied load changes, the internal material structure will change, so the tissue must undergo a new preconditioning protocol [4]. However, it is unclear whether tissues require additional preconditioning if the loading frequency is changed (while keeping the magnitude constant). In mechanical testing of cardiovascular tissues, preconditioning is nearly universally reported in arterial [7–12], heart valve [13, 14], and cardiac [15, 16] tissue. It is important to precondition tissues in order to more accurately estimate viscoelastic properties from single-valued elastic constants (i.e., modulus).
\n
Though preconditioning is performed to reduce sample variability, repeated cyclic loading can cause a sample “memory” problem. That is, mechanical behavior during testing can be affected by loading from previous cycles (i.e., testing after preconditioning cycles). To reduce the sample memory problem, researchers have induced rest periods (24 hours vs. 15 seconds) between sets of preconditioned valve samples [17]. This can be accomplished by allowing tissues a recovery period following preconditioning cycles. In heart valve tissues, protocols with a 24-hour rest period between cyclic preconditioning sets had the lowest errors between the predicted model and experimental data [17]. However, the rest periods encompassed several orders of magnitude (in seconds), and it is unknown if an intermediate time is sufficient to reset the strain history. Another study on heart valves reported reduced hysteresis and a stable mechanical response after only a 60-second rest period between two sets of preconditioning cycles [6]. Therefore, while it is clear that preconditioning is necessary, protocols for cardiovascular tissue viscoelasticity measurements have not yet been standardized.
\n
\n
\n
1.2. Empirical models
\n
Using the experimental techniques described above, stress-strain data can be fit to empirical models, which are often useful for predicting viscoelastic material mechanical behavior. Classical models of viscoelastic materials use combinations of spring and dashpot elements to characterize stress-strain behavior. Spring elements represent elastic behavior, where the spring constant of proportionality, k, directly relates the applied force, F, to the resulting deformation, x. Dashpot elements represent viscous behavior, where the applied force is related to the rate of deformation, x˙, by the viscosity, μ. Spring and dashpot elements are arranged in series in Maxwell models and in parallel in Kelvin-Voight models (Figure 2). Since the elements are arranged in parallel, force in a Kelvin-Voight model is a sum of the two individual element forces, and elements share the same deformation. Conversely, the elements in a Maxwell model share the same force, and the total deformation is the sum of the individual element deformations. The combination of spring and dashpot elements in these two models can be used to construct more complex viscoelastic solid models. Additional details on these models and their use are available in Ref. [18].
\n
Figure 2
Maxwell and Kelvin Voight models composed of dashpots and springs. Elements in parallel (Kelvin-Voight model) have the same deformation and separate forces, whereas elements in series (Maxwell model) have the same force and separate deformations.
\n
\n
\n
\n
2. Arteries
\n
\n
2.1. Viscoelastic characteristics of arteries
\n
The importance of arterial viscoelasticity is supported by the findings that arterial morphometry correlates more strongly with pulsatile rather than steady pressure [19] and that dynamically measured mechanical properties are different from statically measured mechanical properties [20–22] (Table 1). Measuring the viscoelastic behavior of isolated blood vessels can be accomplished by quantifying dynamic length-tension relationships in tissue strips or rings, or pressure-diameter relationships in intact segments either with sinusoidal pressurization [23–25] or step-wise increases in pressure (Figure 3). However, because step-wise pressurization does not accurately mimic the pulsatile blood pressure waveform that arteries experience in vivo (Figure 3), sinusoidal pressurization is a better method for characterizing arterial viscoelasticity. Arterial viscosity, or the damping capacity, can then be obtained from the hysteresis loop [1, 26]. Additional details on arterial mechanical testing methods are available in recent reviews [27, 28]. Arterial viscoelastic properties also depend on the function of the artery (e.g., conduit or muscular), species, and health status (Table 1).
Static and viscoelastic circumferential properties measured in conduit arteries.
The viscosity of an artery is presented as the phase difference between the force (stress) and deformation (strain).*Unpublished data. Mean ± SE shown for [22], [25], [29], and *. Mean ± SD shown for [21].
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Figure 3
Stair-step and sinusoidal pressure inputs compared to a physiological waveform.
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In healthy arteries, viscoelastic properties are frequency-dependent. In arteries from humans and large animals such as dogs, the dynamic elastic modulus increases over a low-frequency range (<3 Hz) and then remains nearly constant at higher frequencies (up to 10 Hz) [29–32]. The frequency-dependent behavior is different for small animals such as rats or mice; in mouse pulmonary arteries, the dynamic elastic modulus remains constant up to 5 Hz and then starts increasing with increasing frequency (up to 20 Hz) [22]. This discrepancy may be explained by the physiological frequency of the normal heart beat rate, which is largely species size-dependent. In large animals and humans, the normal heart rate is ~1 Hz, whereas in small animals, the heart rate is ~5–10 Hz. Therefore, if scaled to the physiological frequency, we can conclude that the arterial dynamic modulus increases rapidly at 2- to 3-times the natural heart rate and then plateaus at higher frequencies (10- to 20-times higher than the natural heart rate) [22]. In terms of viscous properties, the phase lag of energy dissipation increases as frequency increases in all species [22, 29, 30].
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2.2. Contribution of smooth muscle cells
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While it is generally agreed that elastin and collagen are responsible for the nonlinear elasticity of arteries, the cellular and molecular determinants of arterial viscoelasticity remain incompletely understood. Early experimental data comparing carotid and femoral arteries showed a higher viscosity in femoral arteries, and the investigators hypothesized that the higher smooth muscle cell (SMC) content in the femoral artery is responsible [29, 30]. However, there was no measurement of SMC content or activity in these studies. Recent evidence suggests that SMC activity is key to arterial viscoelasticity because removal of SMC tone reduces damping [33, 34] and activation of SMC contraction by phenylephrine or renovascular hypertension in dogs and sheep increases damping [35–37]. Therefore, both SMC content and SMC tone play important roles in arterial viscosity and viscoelasticity.
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2.3. Contribution of extracellular matrix
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The role of extracellular matrix (ECM) components in arterial mechanical behavior is originally evidenced in the nonlinear elasticity curve, which arises from differential load-bearing contributions of ECM proteins. Specifically, the protein elastin dominates load-bearing in the low-strain region whereas at higher strains, collagen fibers, which impart strength and stiffness, are engaged. The transition region in between occurs because increasing strain causes collagen fiber alignment and recruitment resulting in a transition from increasing collagen engagement to collagen-dominated load-bearing. Therefore, ECM proteins are critical to arterial nonlinear elasticity.
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ECM proteins and cell-ECM interactions may also play important roles in arterial viscoelasticity. Collagen and proteoglycans are known to affect energy loss in tendon and cartilage [38–41]. In the first measurements of mouse pulmonary arterial viscoelasticity, Wang et al. [22] found supporting evidence that collagen and proteoglycans affect frequency-dependent changes in arterial damping capacity. Similarly, in carotid artery strips, Garcia et al. [42] found evidence that elastin is an important contributor to stress relaxation.
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The contribution of ECM components to tissue viscoelasticity is best studied through single ECM protein degradation or tissue decellularization. The viscoelastic behavior of elastin was studied using a cyanogen bromide treatment, which removes cells and all ECM components except elastin [43]. In this experiment, stress-relaxation was highest in intact aortas, intermediate in decellularized ECM, and lowest in cyanogen bromide-treated aortas, i.e., arterial elastin. Interestingly, the creep behavior of the aorta in all the three aforementioned groups was negligible.
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Our group has found that increased expression levels of collagen and proteoglycans are associated with increased pulmonary arterial stiffness and decreased damping capacity [22]. Since we did not investigate the independent effects of proteoglycan and collagen content on pulmonary arterial viscoelasticity, both proteins may be involved. Furthermore, the concomitant changes in these ECM proteins and arterial viscoelasticity and lack of changes in SMC content, coupled with the absence of SMC tone, suggest that these ECM proteins are critical to arterial viscoelasticity in a way that has not been previously described. Future investigations should clarify the roles of individual ECM protein and the ECM-fibril interaction or cell-ECM interaction in arterial viscoelasticity.
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2.4. Effects of aging and hypertension
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With aging or hypertension, arteries become less distensible [44, 45]. This is mainly associated with changes in the ECM proteins collagen and elastin. It is well known that fragmentation of elastin and degeneration of collagen occurs with age in arteries [45]. In addition, the degree of cross-linking of the ECM proteins increases. These changes lead to a higher elastic modulus. Hypertension and arterial stiffening are closely associated with age; however, arterial stiffness is an independent prognostic factor for cardiovascular outcomes [46]. Indeed, recent investigations have reported that arterial stiffening precedes blood pressure elevation [45]. The cause-and-effect relationship between hypertension development and arterial stiffening remains a key knowledge gap in current investigations [47, 48].
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The changes in conduit arterial viscosity during aging and hypertension remain incompletely understood. From in vitro isobaric experiments on human aorta or mouse pulmonary artery, viscosity of the arterial wall has been found to decrease in these conditions [22, 30]. However, inconsistent findings are reported elsewhere. In vitro studies on rat aorta found increased viscosity with aging [49]. In another case, in vivo measurements have shown increased pulse damping (or viscosity) as hypertension develops [33, 34, 37]. In these in vivo studies, the dynamic responses of healthy and hypertensive arteries were measured under different pressure ranges due to the developing disease. It is known that arterial viscoelasticity is dependent on the pressure level: as the pressure increases gradually, arterial stiffness and viscosity both increase [50]. Therefore, the shift and deformation of the stress-strain hysteresis loop are a combined effect of changes in intrinsic mechanical properties and extrinsic pressure/stretch ranges, which must be taken into account when interpreting dynamic mechanical testing data.
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2.5. Hemodynamic and cardiac consequences
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The impact of large, conduit arterial viscoelastic properties on cardiovascular hemodynamics has not been well studied. As noted above, arterial stiffening (i.e., decreased elasticity) is a useful prognostic indicator of cardiovascular events [51, 52] and is well known to contribute to increased ventricular afterload [53–55]. Increased stiffness may also impair wave reflections, which further augment the ventricular afterload [56, 57].
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The energy dampening function achieved through arterial viscosity is beneficial in normal physiological conditions because it absorbs the energy from the wave reflections. In sheep with acute pulmonary hypertension, an SMC activation-mediated increase in pulmonary arterial viscosity led to a decrease in wave reflections and increase in characteristic impedance (the vascular impedance that represents the opposition to pulsatile flow), thus reducing the fraction of oscillatory to total right ventricular hydraulic power and improving hemodynamic function [58]. In the mouse extralobar pulmonary arteries, our group found a decrease in arterial damping capacity as pulmonary hypertension developed [22]. We speculated that the reduced viscosity may be in part responsible for the increased pulse wave velocity and pulse pressure during pulmonary hypertension progression [59], which eventually increased pulsatile right ventricular afterload.
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Additional clinical studies are needed to elucidate the implications of arterial viscosity for cardiovascular hemodynamics. Also, elasticity and viscosity are coupled behaviors in an artery, yet the relationship between them is rarely reported. The investigation of the independent and interdependent impacts of arterial elasticity and viscosity on cardiovascular function could be an important area for future research.
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2.6. Use of an arterial viscoelasticity index for clinical diagnosis
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A novel index of arterial viscoelasticity, which was measured in a large scale, clinical study, is worthy of special mention. Taniguchi et al. [60] used noninvasive methods to assess carotid artery viscoelasticity in 383 patients. The authors defined a nondimensional parameter I* derived from the ratio of the gradients of vascular wall deformation rates during deflation and inflation over a cardiac cycle, in which I* < 0 indicates healthy viscoelasticity whereas I* > 0 indicates abnormal viscoelasticity. A positive I* was found in female, elderly (>60 yr), and hypertensive (blood pressure > 140 mmHg) subjects and was a significant, independent risk factor for coronary artery disease based on univariate and multivariate analyses [60]. While this parameter is only an indirect measure of arterial viscoelastic behavior and its physical meaning requires further investigation, it is noteworthy that this index can be measured noninvasively through ultrasonic Doppler [60, 61]. In order to better understand the clinical significance of arterial viscoelasticity, it is crucial to assess arterial viscoelasticity in more patient populations, with additional measurement parameters. Research like this may establish new, useful viscoelasticity indices that aid in clinical diagnosis and prognosis.
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3. Veins
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Vein biomechanics are understudied compared to arterial biomechanics, and there is a general lack of understanding of venous viscoelasticity. That said, the venous wall is structurally similar to the arterial wall with less muscle and elastic tissue, resulting in thinner walls that are more compliant and collapse easily [62]. Thus, venous viscoelasticity likely shares several features in common with arterial viscoelasticity, including a dependence on SMC content and tone and the ECM proteins collagen, proteoglycans, and elastin. The measurement methods for venous viscoelasticity are identical to those for arterial viscoelasticity. Vein viscoelasticity is clinically relevant to coronary artery bypass grafting, which often uses saphenous veins to replace diseased coronary arteries, since coronary artery perfusion is critical to myocardial health. Venous viscoelasticity is an important and largely unexplored area for future research.
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4. Capillaries
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Capillaries are very thin microvessels that are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells. Capillary beds serve as the location for the exchange of gases and nutrients between blood and tissues. Because of the delicate structure of the capillary wall, it is impossible to isolate the capillaries without injury. To obtain the stress-strain relationship for capillaries, capillary dimensions can be measured by microscopy imaging while the local intravascular pressure can be altered and measured by micropuncture [63], occlusion of upstream (arterial) and downstream (venous) vessels [64] or controlled perfusion [65]. Like other types of blood vessels, the capillaries exhibit nonlinear stress-strain behavior [64] and viscoelastic features like creep and relaxation [65]. In normal conditions, the distensibility of the capillary vessels is in between the small arteries (arterioles) and small veins (venules), and the viscosity is the least in capillary vessels in a passive creep test in rats (i.e., without smooth muscle tone in the arterioles and venules) [65] (see Table 2). Like venous viscoelasticity, capillary viscoelasticity is a largely unexplored area for future research with unknown clinical relevance.
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Arcade arterioles
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Capillary
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Arcade venules
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α1 (×102 mmHg)
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6.34±3.59
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7.42±3.00
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9.52±3.24
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β (×104 mmHg s)
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4.25±4.17
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3.00±2.25
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5.52±3.16
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Table 2.
Viscoelastic properties measured in rat arterioles, capillary vessels, and venules using a single-step creep test (pressure = 50 mmHg).
The experimental data were fitted with a three-element linear solid viscoelasticity model. Coefficients α1 and β represent the elastic and viscous characteristics, respectively. Mean ± SD shown. Adapted with permission from Skalak et al. [65].
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5. Blood components
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Blood is a non-Newtonian, viscoelastic fluid made up of cellular components, including erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs), leucocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets), and a fluidic component called plasma. The volume percentage of all blood cells in whole blood is about 45% in adult men. The viscoelasticity of blood depends on the hematocrit (volume fraction of RBCs) in whole blood, plasma viscosity, and aggregation and mechanical properties of blood cells. The deformability of blood cells plays an important role in their main functions as well as the blood rheology and hemodynamics [66, 67]. While the viscoelasticity of blood cells, including RBCs [66–68] and white blood cells [69, 70], has been studied, here we will discuss only RBCs since they have the highest concentration in whole blood and are the most relevant to hemodynamics under most physiological and pathological conditions.
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The RBC is a simply structured biological component that consists of a bilayer membrane and thin cytoskeleton of spectrin filaments [68]. Mammalian RBCs lack a cell nucleus. RBCs exhibit a unique deformability, which enables them to change shape reversibly in response to an external force (e.g., under the stress applied by the capillary wall). Despite the structural simplicity of RBCs, the understanding of their mechanical properties is still incomplete. The viscoelastic properties of RBCs, which are key determinants of RBC deformability, can be classified into elastic (or storage) and viscous (loss) moduli: the shear modulus that describes the uniaxial elongation property, the area expansion modulus that describes the changes in RBC membrane area, the bending modulus that describes the bilipid layer associated with resting shape changes, and the viscosity that describes the rate of deformation of RBC membrane [71, 72].
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Typical methods for viscoelasticity measurement of single or multiple RBCs were recently reviewed [71] and include micropipette aspiration, atomic force microscopy, optical tweezers, fluid or microfluidic filtration, and laser diffractometry.
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RBC viscoelasticity is closely related to blood rheology and hemodynamics [66, 67]. For example, reduced RBC viscoelasticity leads to a significant increase in microvascular flow resistance and blood viscosity [67, 71]. Exchanging native RBCs with RBCs hardened with glutaraldehyde causes a doubling of the filtration resistance and reduced flow in rats [67]. Altered RBC viscoelasticity is frequently reported in pathological conditions such as diabetes [73, 74], hyperglycemia [74, 75], and sickle cell disease [76]. While cardiovascular complications including arterial stiffening, heart failure, or stroke are often associated with these diseases [77, 78], it is possible that the altered RBC mechanics may exert an impact on overall hemodynamics, which is a critical contributor to cardiovascular health. Further understanding of the influence of RBC viscoelasticity on cardiovascular hemodynamics could inspire novel therapies that target the biomechanical mechanism of the disease.
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6. The heart
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6.1. Heart valves
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Viscoelastic behavior has been demonstrated to different degrees in native or pericardial-based heart valve tissues, which are usually made up of highly organized ECM and valve interstitial cells. Though direct comparisons cannot be made between studies with different testing methods, viscoelastic characteristics including strain-rate dependence, stress relaxation, and creep have been observed after loading of valvular tissue from ex vivo mechanical testing. Similar to arterial tissue discussed above, interestingly, mechanisms of stress relaxation appear to be distinct from those of creep. For example, stress relaxation observed in valvular tissue was accompanied by negligible creep over a 3-hour timeframe [79]. Therefore, use of multiple modalities for valve tissue viscoelastic property measurement is recommended.
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As with arterial tissue, valvular viscoelastic behavior is dependent on ECM components. In heart valves, collagen in particular has a complex fiber alignment pattern that appears to generate more viscoelasticity in the circumferential direction compared to the radial direction [80]. Imaging techniques including scanning electron microscopy and bright field or polarized light microscopy have demonstrated that collagen fibers are highly aligned in the circumferential direction but more randomly distributed in the radial direction. Therefore, a more highly aligned fiber structure likely contributes to larger degree of viscoelastic behavior. Also, the effect of preconditioning has been shown to be direction-dependent with the circumferential direction displaying a more consistent mechanical response after a fewer number of cycles [80]. This indicates that an initially aligned fiber structure will achieve a consistent mechanical response faster than randomly oriented fibers.
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Like arteries, heart valves exhibit less creep than stress relaxation [81]. This behavior seems to be unique to collagen-rich soft biological tissues like ligament [82] and cornea [83]. The underlying mechanism is not fully understood. Thornton et al. [84] attribute it to different mechanisms involved in the two tests. In particular, these authors suggest that the stress relaxation response is determined by a discrete group of ECM fibers recruited at constant elongation, whereas the creep response is determined by different fibers being progressively recruited at constant stress. Another hypothetical mechanism is the ‘fibril-locking’ mechanism that collagen fibrils maintain under a constant stress, whereas under a constant strain the fibril stress decreases [81]. The interactions between collagen and proteoglycans also have been proposed to affect tissue viscoelasticity in heart valves [79, 85].
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Not surprisingly, the chemical treatments of valvular tissue that are used prior to bioartificial heart valve replacements have been shown to affect viscoelastic behavior. Glutaraldehyde fixation reduces the immune response and prevents leaflet degradation but can induce ECM cross-links and other structural changes [86, 87] that reduce radial stiffness and increase extensibility [86, 88] as well as reduce creep and stress relaxation [13, 86, 88, 89]. Fixation also increases the number of preconditioning cycles required to achieve a consistent mechanical response in dynamic mechanical testing [88]. These effects can be minimized with pressure fixation, which results in more similar viscoelastic behavior in fixed tissues compared to untreated tissues [88].
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The decreased stress-relaxation that occurs in heart valve tissues treated with glutaraldehyde has important implications for bioprosthetic heart valves because the industry standard of accelerated wear testing (AWT) is used to determine the absolute fatigue life of bioprosthetic heart valves. In AWT, valves are cycled at frequencies higher than the normal heart rate (up to ~30 Hz). With reduced stress-relaxation, the valve may not have time to relax to its natural state, resulting in a higher preload for each subsequent cycle [13]. A better understanding of heart valve viscoelasticity and the molecular basis for tissue viscoelastic properties could improve bioprosthetic valve design and testing.
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6.2. Myocardium
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Ventricular myocardial tissue exhibits viscoelastic characteristics, which are changed in diseased states. Viscoelastic properties have been examined in the healthy swine myocardium using noninvasive shear wave velocity techniques [90]. Briefly, external actuators are used to create and propagate waves in the myocardial wall; the velocity is measured at several frequencies, and these data are fit to empirical viscoelastic models described in Section 1.2. Human myocardium tissue tested ex vivo exhibited multiple viscoelastic characteristics including directional-dependent hysteresis and stress relaxation, and rate-dependent stress-strain curves [16]. The subjects from whom tissues were harvested had various causes of death, so the data cannot be interpreted in the context of healthy versus diseased states. However, several studies have shown changes in viscoelastic properties with disease. The use of a Kelvin-Voight model demonstrated that elastic and viscous damping constants increased in the pressure-overloaded feline right ventricle [91]. Similarly, elastic and viscous constants increased in the pressure-overloaded rat left ventricle [92]. An important future direction is to assess the viscoelastic behavior in healthy versus diseased myocardium and determine the impact on cardiac performance.
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The structural basis of myocardial viscoelasticity can be attributed to a combination of cardiac cells and ECM proteins, but the nature and extent of each component’s contributions to viscoelasticity are still debated. Myocardial tissue is composed of cardiac cells or myocytes. Myocytes are composed of repeating units called sarcomeres, which contain titin, actin, and myosin proteins. By isolating cardiomyocytes from surrounding ECM structures, viscoelastic properties can be measured. Uniaxial testing of myocytes revealed force-length hysteresis [93], indicating they are one source of viscoelasticity. Titin functions as a spring, and titin-actin interactions may contribute to viscoelastic behavior [94]. Cardiac cells are surrounded and consequently interconnected by ECM proteins to provide structural integrity to the heart. Evidence that collagen degradation is accompanied by decreased elastic stiffness and viscous damping suggests that collagen plays an important role in myocardial viscoelasticity [91]. Collagen accumulation (or fibrosis) is a characteristic of failing ventricles and with hypertrophic remodeling the collagen content can increase by ~50% [95]. Therefore, it may be important to investigate the effect of collagen accumulation on myocardium viscoelasticity during heart failure development.
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Importantly, the majority of myocardial viscoelastic properties are reported from the left ventricle, and differences in viscoelastic behavior between ventricles are unknown. The left ventricle differs embryologically, geometrically, and structurally from the right ventricle [96–98], so results from the one cannot be extrapolated to the other. Indentation testing ex vivo showed similar baseline levels of elastic and viscous constants between both ventricles in rats [92]. Differences in viscoelastic properties between ventricles will be important directions for future research to understand the role of viscoelasticity in healthy and diseased myocardial function.
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7. The lymphatic system
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The lymphatic system is the third circulation in the human body and is complementary to the first two: the systemic and pulmonary circulations. It consists of branched lymphatic vessels that collect and transport lymph fluid as well as organs (e.g., lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus) that assist with lymph transport. When pressure is greater in the interstitial fluid than the tiny, closed-end lymphatic capillaries, lymph flows in [99] and is transported to gradually larger lymphatic vessels, collected and filtered through lymph nodes, and finally enters the lymphatic duct where it is Reintroduced into the bloodstream. The ontogenesis of lymphatic vessels is not fully understood but some evidence suggests that they are derived from the veins [62]. Lymphatics are often compared to veins because both are thin walled, valved structures and their main function is to transport fluid (blood or lymph) for nutrition and immune purposes, respectively.
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Despite of their structural similarity to blood vessels, lymphatics are different in several aspects. First, at a similar distance from the heart, lymphatics are larger and thinner than veins [62]. Second, lymphatics are subjected to lower pressures than veins and have more compliant walls [62, 100, 101]. Third, unlike the veins in which the blood is conducted only passively to the heart as a result of valve action and in combination with the intermittent compression by adjacent tissue, lymphatics have both extrinsic and intrinsic pumping mechanisms [101, 102]. Both experimental studies and mathematical modeling have been done to characterize lymphatic pump function [103–105]. For instance, incorporating experimental measurements of a mesenteric lymph vessel, Bertram and Moore developed a model to capture intrinsic pumping function [102]. Similar to arteries and veins, chronic changes in pressure and flow can cause remodeling of lymphatics [101]. For example, lymphatic pumping weakens in response to venous hypertension [106]. The active pumping function can be impaired due to metabolic disorders, local immune-compromise, and lymphedema [104].
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Few studies have been performed on the viscoelasticity of lymph vessels. Ohhashi [100] compared the viscoelastic properties of bovine mesenteric lymph vessel, which is considered as muscular lymphatics because of the rich and well-developed SMC content, to the canine thoracic duct, which is considered a fibrous lymphatic because of the lower SMC content and higher elastin and collagen content in the wall. They found that the muscular lymphatic vessel is more compliant, and its hysteresis loop is wider than that of the fibrous thoracic duct, suggesting a larger viscosity due to more layers of SMCs. Because lymphatic pumping is critical to lymph transport and lymphatic viscoelasticity likely affects lymphatic pumping, understanding the determinants of lymphatic viscoelasticity and its impact on pumping function may unveil new mechanisms for lymphatic dysfunction.
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The viscoelastic properties of another main component in the lymph system – the lymph node – have been recently reported. McClain et al. found that lymph node tissue becomes stiffer and has increased energy loss with cancerous tumor development in mice [107]. While the finding is novel and exciting, it raises more questions such as how changes in lymph node viscoelastic properties relate to tumor regression, antitumor immune response, or metastatic colonization of the lymph node.
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8. Summary
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An improved understanding of cardiovascular tissue viscoelastic properties and their dependence on cardiovascular tissue structure will no doubt provide valuable insights into the functional behavior of these tissues. More importantly, despite the long-standing recognition that cardiovascular tissues are nonlinearly elastic and viscoelastic materials, the clinical implications of cardiovascular tissue viscoelasticity remain poorly understood. In the example of arterial viscoelasticity, inconsistent findings of arterial viscoelastic changes with disease and a lack of tools for simple and easily accessible clinical measurement have likely contributed to a lack of information on the impact of arterial viscoelasticity on cardiovascular hemodynamics and cardiac function. Therefore, there is a pressing need to elucidate the clinical implications of cardiovascular tissue viscoelasticity in disease progression in future research.
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We recommend the following as promising and impactful future areas of research:\n
Protocols for preconditioning: It is well accepted that preconditioning is necessary for mechanical property measurements. The most appropriate protocols for preconditioning tissues subjected to different testing frequencies and different strain ranges is unclear, however. Also, the sample \'memory\' behaviour should be investigated to standardize mechanical testing protocols for cardiovascular tissue viscoelasticity measurements and reduce sample variation.
Structural models that include viscoelasticity: The rapid development of arterial structural models has advanced the understanding of the structural-functional relationship of arteries in ways that empirical, phenomenological models cannot. However, current models predict static mechanical behavior only. Future structural models should incorporate elements that are responsible for viscous behavior and predict cardiovascular tissue dynamic mechanical behavior.
Creep vs. stress relaxation behaviours: The mechanisms that lead to differences in creep and stress relaxation behaviours are not fully understood. Investigating these characteristics in different cardiovascular tissues would improve our understanding of tissue viscoelastic behavior.
Structural determinants of viscoelasticity: The contributions of cells (e.g., SMCs, endothelial cells, or myocytes), ECM (e.g., elastin, collagen, or proteoglycans), and cell-ECM interactions to tissue viscoelasticity are not fully understood. Modern high spatial and temporal resolution imaging techniques (e.g., multiphoton microscopic imaging) will provide insight into the ways in which cardiovascular tissue structures generate viscoelastic function.
Hemodynamic and cardiac impact of viscoelasticity: Arterial stiffening is known to occur in aging and hypertension and predict heart failure. Future research should investigate the impact of arterial viscoelasticity on cardiovascular disease development and progression.
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\n\n',keywords:"viscoelasticity, energy loss, blood vessel, heart, lymph system, hemodynamics",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/51650.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/51650.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51650",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51650",totalDownloads:3013,totalViews:1181,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:38,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:13,impactScorePercentile:99,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 2nd 2015",dateReviewed:"May 10th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 21st 2016",dateFinished:"July 8th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The aims of this chapter are to review the current state of knowledge regarding the viscoelastic behavior of cardiovascular tissues. We begin with a brief, general discussion of measurement and modeling of cardiovascular tissue viscoelasticity. We then review known viscoelastic behavior of arteries, veins, capillaries, blood components, the heart, and lymphatics. For each tissue type, we highlight tissue-specific measurement methods, the cellular and extracellular components responsible for tissue viscoelasticity, and the clinical implications of energy loss due to viscoelasticity. We conclude with a summary and suggestions for future research.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/51650",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/51650",book:{id:"5302",slug:"viscoelastic-and-viscoplastic-materials"},signatures:"Zhijie Wang, Mark J. Golob and Naomi C. Chesler",authors:[{id:"183475",title:"Prof.",name:"Naomi",middleName:null,surname:"Chesler",fullName:"Naomi Chesler",slug:"naomi-chesler",email:"naomi.chesler@wisc.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Wisconsin–Madison",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"183807",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhijie",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Zhijie Wang",slug:"zhijie-wang",email:"zhijie.wang@wisc.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Wisconsin–Madison",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"183808",title:"BSc.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Golob",fullName:"Mark Golob",slug:"mark-golob",email:"mark.golob@wisc.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Wisconsin–Madison",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Measurement and modeling",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Experimental measurement approaches",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Empirical models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Arteries",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.1. Viscoelastic characteristics of arteries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.2. Contribution of smooth muscle cells",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.3. Contribution of extracellular matrix",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.4. Effects of aging and hypertension",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.5. Hemodynamic and cardiac consequences",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.6. Use of an arterial viscoelasticity index for clinical diagnosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"3. Veins",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Capillaries",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Blood components",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. The heart",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.1. Heart valves",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.2. Myocardium",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"7. The lymphatic system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"8. Summary",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nWang Z , Chesler NC. Role of collagen content and cross-linking in large pulmonary arterial stiffening after chronic hypoxia. Biomech Model Mechanobiol. 2012;11(1–2):279–289.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nTabima DM , Chesler NC. The effects of vasoactivity and hypoxic pulmonary hypertension on extralobar pulmonary artery biomechanics. J Biomech. 2010;43(10):1864–1869.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nFung YC , Fronek K, Patitucci P. Pseudoelasticity of arteries and the choice of its mathematical expression. Am J Physiol. 1979;237(5):H620–H631.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Humphrey JD , DeLange S. An Introduction to Biomechanics: Solids and Fluids, Analysis and Design: Springer-Verlag New York; 2004.\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nPham T , Sun W. Material properties of aged human mitral valve leaflets. J Biomed Mater Res A. 2014;102(8):2692–2703.\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nMartin C , Sun W. 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J Biomed Mater Res. 1984;18(1):79–98.\n'},{id:"B89",body:'\nRousseau E , Sauren A, Van Hout M, Van Steenhoven A. Elastic and viscoelastic material behaviour of fresh and glutaraldehyde-treated porcine aortic valve tissue. J Biomech. 1983;16(5):339–348.\n'},{id:"B90",body:'\nUrban M , Pislaru C, Nenadic IZ, Kinnick RR, Greenleaf J. Measurement of viscoelastic properties of in vivo swine myocardium using lamb wave dispersion ultrasound vibrometry (LDUV). IEEE Trans Med Imaging. 2013;32(2):247–261.\n'},{id:"B91",body:'\nStroud JD , Baicu CF, Barnes MA, Spinale FG, Zile MR. Viscoelastic properties of pressure overload hypertrophied myocardium: effect of serine protease treatment. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2002;282(6):H2324–H2335.\n'},{id:"B92",body:'\nRubiano A , Qi Y, Guzzo D, Rowe K, Pepine C, Simmons C. Stem cell therapy restores viscoelastic properties of myocardium in rat model of hypertension. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. 2015;59:71–77.\n'},{id:"B93",body:'\nHelmes M , Trombitas K, Centner T, Kellermayer M, Labeit S, Linke WA, . Mechanically driven contour-length adjustment in rat cardiac titin\'s unique N2B sequence: titin is an adjustable spring. Circ Res. 1999;84(11):1339–1352.\n'},{id:"B94",body:'\nGranzier HL , Labeit S. The giant protein titin: a major player in myocardial mechanics, signaling, and disease. Circ Res. 2004;94(3):284–295.\n'},{id:"B95",body:'\nSchreier D , Hacker T, Song G, Chesler N. The role of collagen synthesis in ventricular and vascular adaptation to hypoxic pulmonary hypertension. J Biomech Eng. 2013;135(2):021018.\n'},{id:"B96",body:'\nGolob M , Moss RL, Chesler NC. Cardiac tissue structure, properties, and performance: a materials science perspective. Ann Biomed Eng. 2014;42(10):2003–2013.\n'},{id:"B97",body:'\nBellofiore A , Chesler NC. Methods for measuring right ventricular function and hemodynamic coupling with the pulmonary vasculature. 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Biomech Model Mechanobiol. 2014;13(2):401–416.\n'},{id:"B103",body:'\nWilson JT , van Loon R, Wang W, Zawieja DC, Moore JE Jr. Determining the combined effect of the lymphatic valve leaflets and sinus on resistance to forward flow. J Biomech. 2015;48(13):3593–3599.\n'},{id:"B104",body:'\nMunn LL . Mechanobiology of lymphatic contractions. Semin Cell Dev Biol. 2015;38:67–74.\n'},{id:"B105",body:'\nNipper ME , Dixon JB. Engineering the lymphatic system. Cardiovasc Eng Technol. 2011;2(4):296–308.\n'},{id:"B106",body:'\nDongaonkar RM , Nguyen TL, Quick CM, Heaps CL, Hardy J, Laine GA, . Mesenteric lymphatic vessels adapt to mesenteric venous hypertension by becoming weaker pumps. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2015;308(5):R391–R399.\n'},{id:"B107",body:'McClain J , Tuell SL, Thomas SN. Tumors Change the Elastic and Viscoelastic Properties of Draining Lymph Node Tissues. Proceedings of the ASME Summer Bioengineering Conference – 2013, Pt B. 2014.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Zhijie Wang",address:null,affiliation:'
University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Mark J. Golob",address:null,affiliation:'
University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Naomi C. Chesler",address:"naomi.chesler@wisc.edu",affiliation:'
University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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1. Introduction
Pulses are dry seeds of legume family grown in pods in varying shape and size. These are member of the Leguminosae, family Phaseoleae, subfamily Papilionoideae [1]. Chronological, archeological evidences showed that legumes and pulses were domesticated and originated from America [2]. Now consumed in every part of this globe especially by people in the developing countries as well as developed countries [3, 4]. In some areas such as Mexico, south and central American, and African countries, these are being consumed as staple foods where per capita intake may extend up to 40 kg per year [5].
Oilseeds are excluded from this category, which are solely grown or harvested for oil extraction purpose. A variety of pulses are grown with various shapes and size throughout the world. Most commonly consumed pulses include chickpea (Cicer arietinum), field peas (Pisum sativum), lentils (Lens culinaris), mung bean (Phaseolus mungo), dry broad bean (Vicia faba), moth beans (Phaseolus aconitifolius), lupins (Lupinus albus) etc. In addition, there are a large number of minor pulses that are grown and consumed in different parts of the world [6, 7].
Pulses are most commonly consumed food in the Asian countries as a culinary staple since ancient times. However, its cultivation is not as increased as other staple crops such as wheat, corn, barley, etc., and mass production of pulses is restricted in underdeveloped countries where per capita consumption is increased up to 125–140 kcal as compared with western world such as the United States where per capita consumption is minimal, i.e., only up to 27 kcal [8].
Plant-based protein could be the best substitute for animal-based protein to overcome protein energy malnutrition. Legumes are considered as a good source of protein having 12–40% protein on an average. Although 60% share of global protein consumption is occupied by plant-based protein, and remaining 40% is fulfilled by animal-based proteins [8], however, pulse consumption has been increased to certain regions of the world. Currently there is a great concern for the sustainable, clean label product, pulses and legumes are best suited as these are environment-friendly with no carbon footprints or CO2 emission. Ultimately substituting animal-based protein with plant-based protein would be beneficial from both environment and consumers’ health perspective. Similarly the consumers’ demand for plant-based protein can be met by advanced research and innovative processing technique with efficient availability of good-quality protein providing key amino acids that play a vital role in the development, reproduction, and support of the human body. Pulses in combination with cereals provide one of the best solutions to protein energy malnutrition being complementary to each other having lysine and methionine, respectively [11], and combination of both cereals and pulses is complimentary for product development with balanced nutritional quality and high protein contents. These products can be claimed as a source of potential protein supply for malnourished population.
This chapter covers the importance of nutrients of pulses (legume grains) especially protein and their importance and strategies for industrial application and processing industry for developing target-oriented protein-enriched products.
2. Nutritional importance of pulses
Whole and split pulses are a good source of complex carbohydrates, protein, and dietary fiber, having significant amounts of vitamins and minerals. Protein content in legume grains range from 17 to 40%, contrasting with 7–13% of cereals, and being equal to the protein contents of meats (18–25%) [9].
2.1 Micronutrients in pulses
Pulses are a good source of fat-soluble vitamins especially folate, riboflavin, and thiamin. Folate is an important micronutrient to reduce the risk of neural tube defects in newly born during pregnancy. Pulses are rich in vitamin A also but poor source of vitamin C. Pulses are also a good natural source of essential minerals including iron, zinc, selenium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and chromium. These minerals play an important in human body during different physiological processes such as iron is required for hemoglobin synthesis and antioxidative activity, copper and zinc for lipids and carbohydrates metabolism, calcium is essential nutrient for bone health, copper for enzyme activity and iron metabolism. Pulses are lower in sodium content and helpful for decreasing the trends of different diseases especially hypertension. Pulses are high in iron content, but their bioavailability is low. However, legumes can be a good source of ion if consumed with vitamin-C-rich foods. Iron absorption increased in this way plays an important role in prevention and treating anemia especially in women because during menstruation, there is a high risk of anemia [10].
2.2 Carbohydrates in relation to pulses
Carbohydrates are energy-giving macronutrients, present in pulses up to 60% (dry weight). Leguminous starch is digested slower as compared with starch from cereals and tubers and considered as low glycemic index food for blood glucose control making them suitable for consumption by diabetic patients and those with an elevated risk of developing diabetes. Pulses are gluten-free, a very suitable option for patients suffering from celiac disease and persons who are sensitive to gliadin and glutenin proteins. Pulses are a valuable source of dietary fiber 5–37% including both soluble and insoluble dietary fiber. The monomers of dietary fiber present in legumes are glucose, galactose, rhamnose, arabinose, fucose, xylose, and mannose. Pulses also contain significant amounts of resistant starch and oligosaccharides, mainly raffinose, which have been reported to possess prebiotic properties. These are fermented to short-chain fatty acids by probiotics, helpful for improving colonic health and reducing the risk of colon cancer [11].
2.3 Dietary fiber in pulses
Pulses are an excellent source of dietary fiber and other complex carbohydrates. A wide variation is present in the amount of dietary fiber with a significant ratio of soluble and insoluble fiber. Depending on the specie, total dietary fiber ranges from 14 to 32% of dry weight [12]. Various types of dietary fiber present in pulses that include galacto oligosaccharides, long- and short-chain soluble and insoluble polysaccharides, and resistant starch. Insoluble dietary fiber is helpful in laxation while soluble dietary fiber is related to reducing the cholesterol levels and maintaining the post-prandial glucose level. Both types of fiber can act as prebiotics and are helpful in supplying nutrients to gut microorganisms. Fiber-rich fractions of pulses can be added to processed foods to increase their fiber content. Despite the nutritional and health-promoting effects, pulse fiber can also utilized to improve the textural properties by binding and retaining fat and moisture in food items [13].
Pulse fibers are important for individuals seeking a healthy, disease-free lifestyle. High-fiber and low-glycemic diets are important for preventing and treating many diseases/conditions including diabetes, constipation, heart complications, piles, and also some cancers. Furthermore, dietary fiber especially soluble dietary fiber has the ability to improve glucose tolerance and helps to lower the cholesterol by forming a gel lining along the intestinal wall that acts as a protective layer, thus decreasing the glucose and cholesterol assimilation into the blood stream while insoluble dietary fiber helps in increasing fecal bulk and stimulating normal laxation because it has low densities [14]. Pulses are an invaluable part of the human diet. Dietary fiber fractions of pules have found use in the bakery, meat, extruded products, and beverage industries as stabilizers, texturing agents, bulking agents, fat replacers, and emulsion stabilizers. Legume starch isolates have been employed as thickening agents in soups and gravies in the food industry [15].
2.4 Fatty acids composition of pulses
Pulses are generally low in fat, free from saturated fatty acids. The fat in pulses constitutes significant amounts of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The highest amount of poly unsaturated fatty acids of 71.1% in kidney beans and mono-unsaturated fatty acids of 34% in chickpeas are reported. The polyunsaturated fatty acids are present in legumes that include essential omega 6 linoleic acid and omega 3 alpha linolenic acid. These fatty acids must be included in diet because these are essential and cannot be synthesized in human body [16].
3. Antioxidant capacity of pulses
Pulses contain non-nutrient bioactive compounds such as phytochemicals and antioxidants include isoflavones, lignans, protease inhibitors, trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors, saponins, alkaloids, phytoestrogens, and phytates. Most of these chemicals are termed “anti-nutrients” and although they are nontoxic. Most of these anti-nutrients are heat-labile, and since pulses are consumed after cooking, they do not pose a health hazard. These anti-nutritional substances can be removed by different procedures such as boiling, soaking, de-hulling, steaming, roasting, fermentation, and sprouting before consumption.
Different studies have shown that many of non-nutrient components are phytochemicals that exhibit antioxidant characteristics, which play an important role in human body to protect from different diseases such as cancers, osteoporosis, heart diseases, and other degenerative diseases. The antioxidant capacity of pulses is helpful to prevent or stop the oxidative process that leads to many degenerative diseases. As such, the incorporation of pulses into human diets all over the world could offer protection against chronic diseases. Therefore, legumes, especially pulses, should be explored for the development of innovative, value-added products [17].
4. Pulse proteins
Pulses are well thought to be a good source having protein ranging from 20 to 40% d.m [18]. Proteins from different pulses vary in composition and structure and have different functional properties. The major proteins found in most pulses comprise globulins and albumins.
4.1 Globulins
Globulins are soluble in salt solutions, and albumins are soluble in water. Globulins accounts for 70–80% of seed protein. These are primarily storage proteins. These proteins are further divided into two types, i.e., Legumins and Vicilins, also called 7S and 11-12S globulins on the basis of their sedimentation coefficient. Molecular weight of legumins vary from 300 to 400 kDa. Legumins have higher amount of sulfur-containing amino acids (methionine and cysteine) as compared with Vicilins [19] Molecular weight of viciline is 145–190 kDa. These proteins are trimers of monomers either identical or nonidentical. This globulin does not have cysteine residue and thus lacks disulfide bond.
4.2 Albumins
Albumins are most nutritive proteins in pulse seeds in terms of amino acid composition. Albumins are primarily composed of metabolic proteins including enzymatic and non-enzymatic proteins. Only 10–20% seed proteins are made up of albumins. These proteins are generally low in molecular weight (MW; 5–80 kDa) and higher in cysteine and methionine content than pulse globulins [19] Albumins may also contain some anti-nutritional components such as trypsin or chymotrypsin inhibitors, amylase inhibitors, hemagglutinins, lectins, etc.
4.3 Prolamins and glutelins
Prolamins and glutelins are present in minor quantity. Prolamins are soluble in alcohol, and glutelins are soluble in dilute acid/base. Protamine has high concentration of proline and glutamine, and glutelins have high concentration of methionine and cystine. Globulin is the major fraction of embryo and cotyledons of pulses [20].
5. Amino acids in pulses
All proteins are created from 20 different amino acid building blocks. Out of these 20, nine amino acids are those that cannot be produced by the body and are called “essential,” and they must be obtained from food source. Each amino acid within the body is associated with specific function. Lysine and arginine are found to be associated with the release of growth hormone in young children. In the early years of age, protein intake is positively associated with height and weight. Hence children with lower serum level of essential amino acids particularly arginine, glycine, and glutamine lead to stunting and wasting. Pulses can provide potential ingredient for the intervention in such types of ailments. Branch chain amino acids (BCAA), e.g., leucine, are reported to play significant role in regulating signaling pathways of muscle protein, valine for repair, and isoleucine in muscle growth. Likewise each amino acid performs a specific function during different life stages, from infancy to elders [21].
Legumes containing relatively low quantity of methionine, essential amino acid, compared with egg, red meat, or poultry meat, are suitable as complimentary source with low lysine-containing cereals such as wheat. It can be source of good-quality protein. Protein quality is defined by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) as the capacity of a food protein source and diet to meet the protein and essential amino-nitrogen requirements [22]. Quality can be evaluated in terms of amino acid composition and protein digestibility. It is essential to have a good balance of amino acids in order to synthesize enough protein in the cells to keep the body healthy. Dietary intake of proteinaceous meal comprising sufficient quantity of balanced is essential for adults as well as growing children. If the dietary intake of amino acids is unbalanced, the amino acid that is most limiting becomes the bottleneck for the amount of protein synthesized.
Pulse consumption not only fulfills essential amino acid requirement within the body besides that lower methionine intake is responsible for reduction in oxidative stress by decreasing mitochondrial ROS generation and damage of the liver, which would ultimately increase longevity by this dietary manipulation. Amino acid composition of some common pulses is given in the table comprising essential and non-essential amino acids (Table 1).
Pulses and legumes have been recognized as valuable since hundreds of years ago, as a low-cost source of high-quality protein products such as flour, concentrates, and isolates. However, the pulse flour application on an industrial scale is only limited to soybean proteins and to lesser extent pea protein products, owing to insufficient information regarding functional properties of other pulse flours. Being rich in protein, with essential amino acid composition along with dietary fiber and other micronutrients such as minerals, vitamins, and folates, pulses are best suited for the formulating and enrichment of food products [31].
Pulse flour as a whole or pulse flour fractions can be utilized in combination with staple cereals such as wheat, rice, barley, etc., to overcome the amino acid lysine deficiency, which is deficient in wheat (a most commonly consumed staple crop) and methionine deficiency in pulses, making complimentary to each other to overcome essential amino acid dearth. Due to low cost and comparative functionality, pulse and pulse proteins find their way in numerous industrial processing applications in cereal-based foods as well as in dairy and meat replacers’ food products having improved texture and finishing by increasing water absorption in dough and better.
Modification of protein through various methods of processing may reduce the protein denaturation and further value addition such as preparation of high-protein food supplements using defatted sesame seeds or flour, concentrates of mung bean, lentil, lupins, yellow pea utilized in baking as well as in dairy products. Application of heat, roasting, autoclaving, fermentation, frying, etc., brings more chances for further value addition [30, 32].
The enrichment of bread and other cereal-based confections with legume flours particularly in regions where protein utilization is inadequate has long been recognized [33]. Soybeans are most often modified into a paste, curd, or milk. Soy milk is suitable for lactose-intolerant consumers and emerges as a nondairy substitute for both milk and baby formula, who are unable to digest the lactose that naturally occurs in cows’ milk. Tofu, or bean curd, is prepared from curds of soy milk. A variety of other products such as soy cheeses, yogurt, sour cream, and other dairy spreads are prepared from this raw material. Chickpea, mung bean, yellow pea flours have great potential in dairy industry for preparing Imitation cream, ice cream, yogurt owing to their emulsifying abilities, and a host of other varieties. An ice cream–like desert called Tofutti is another well-known tofu product. These are especially welcome products for lactose-intolerant individuals as well as for those wishing to avoid the saturated fat in dairy products [34].
The growing interest in gluten-free, vegan, and vegetarian diets has resulted in an increase in pulse consumption. Bread, a traditional and economical product commonly consumable food throughout the word as a main component of breakfast, is a source of calories and of complex carbohydrates, with a modest amount of essential amino acids such as lysine and threonine. Pulses flour must be included in combination to wheat flour for cereal-based commonly consumed products such as flat bread, leavened bread, pasta, croissants, crackers, chips, cookies, etc.
In many countries, mung bean is used to make mini sweet desserts of different shapes such as vegetables and fruits. Mung bean noodles and breads are also common. Mung beans are prescribed for patients in the hospitals and served with bread. Green gram has good nutritive value, and on germination, it is free of flatulence-causing agents.
Dietary diversification strategy involves combination of more than one type of food source especially diverse plant-based food to improve nutritional health of people who are suffering from malnutrition such as protein energy malnutrition [35]. Pulses and legumes can therefore complement each other when blended at optimum ratio in providing good-quality protein [36].
7. Role of protein in human body
Protein is involved in almost all the body functions taking place such as development of muscle, bone, skin, hair, etc. It makes up the enzymes that trigger many chemical reactions within the body, e.g., the hemoglobin is responsible for carrying oxygen in the blood. Protein plays an important role in growth and muscle building. Protein requirements increase during illness, pregnancy, breastfeeding, and after surgery or an injury. Enzymes are also protein in nature that control metabolic processes within and outside the cell. These enzymes’ functions are critical during the process of digestion, blood clotting, muscle contraction, and energy production [37].
Some hormones are also made up of proteins; these are chemical messengers that conduct communication between cells, tissues, and organs. Some hormones are insulin, glucagon, human growth hormone, antidiuretic hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone. Protein is helpful in maintaining the acid and base balance in body fluids including blood, gastric juice, etc. Proteins required to regulate body fluids as albumin and globulin are present in blood and are helpful to maintain body fluid by attracting and retaining the water. Protein is helpful in the formation of immunoglobulins or antibodies; these are necessary to fight against infections and play an important role in immune system. It also helpful in transporting nutrients, i.e., vitamins, minerals, blood sugars, oxygen, and cholesterol into cells, out of cells, and within cells. Proteins also play an important role in storing nutrients as ferritin is a form of protein that stores iron. Protein provides energy to body in the same amount as carbohydrates 4 g/kcal [38].
8. Outcomes of protein deficiency
Protein becomes deficit when intake of protein does not meet body requirement. According to an estimation, one billion people suffer from inadequate protein intake worldwide, protein deficiency is especially severe in Central Africa and South Asia, where up to 30% of children could not get sufficient amount of protein from their diet. Certain people in the developed countries are also at risk, who follow an imbalanced diet, as well as older people and hospitalized patients. Low protein consumption may result in compositional changes within the body that develop over a long period of time, such as muscle wasting. Kwashiorkor is the most severe form of protein deficiency. It often occurs in children in developing nations because of famine and lack of balanced diets. Protein deficiency can affect almost all aspects of body function [15].
Edema, characterized by swollen and puffy skin, is a classic symptom of kwashiorkor. Scientists believe it is caused by low amounts of human serum albumin and globulin, which is the most abundant protein in the liquid part of blood or blood plasma. When levels of albumin and globulin decrease in body, they are no longer able to regulate blood in blood vessels, and then fluid starts to build in spaces of cells, edema and swelling occur specially in stomach region [39].
Another common symptom of kwashiorkor is a fatty liver or fat accumulation in liver cells. Main cause of this is unknown, but some studies suggest that an impaired synthesis of fat-transporting proteins, known as lipoproteins, may contribute to the condition. Protein deficiency often leaves its mark on the skin, hair, and nails, which are largely made of protein as keratin protein present in hair. For instance, kwashiorkor in children is distinguished by flaky or splitting skin, redness, and patches of depigmented skin. Hair thinning, faded hair color, hair loss (alopecia), and brittle nails are also common symptoms [40].
Muscles are said to be body’s largest reservoir of protein. When dietary protein is in short supply, the body tends to take protein from skeletal muscles to preserve more important tissues and perform body functions. Over the time this lack of protein leads to muscle wasting. Even moderate protein insufficiency may cause muscle wasting, especially in elderly people. Bones gives support and shape to body, are also at risk when there is protein deficiency, and risk of fractures increases. One study in postmenopausal women found that a higher protein intake was associated with a lower risk of hip fractures. The highest intake of protein is linked to a 69% reduced risk of fractures [41].
Besides maintaining muscle and bone mass, protein is essential for body growth. Thus, growing age deficiency or insufficiency is especially harmful to children who require a steady supply of protein. In fact, stunting is the most common sign of childhood malnutrition. In 2013, an estimated 161 million children suffered from stunted growth that reaches up to 38.9 million during 2020. Stunted growth is also one of the main characteristics of kwashiorkor in children. Similarly the rate of wasting rises from 149.2 million to 203.6 million during this decade. A protein deficiency can also affect the immune system. Impaired immune functionality may increase the severity of infections. For instance, one study in mice showed that following a diet consisting of only 2% protein was associated with a more severe influenza infection, compared with a diet that provides 18% protein [42].
9. Role of pulses/legumes protein in human health
Pulses can play an important role in food systems to provide global food security and fulfill the nutritional needs in future. Food systems fail to provide safe, sufficient, nutritious food to all due to urbanization, climate change, and increase in population [43]. Leguminous family is highly appreciated as it is a cheap and safe source of nutrients especially protein. Compared with different maize, that is a staple in different regions of world, pulses are a better and effective source of protein and are rich in micronutrients such as iron, zinc, thiamin, folate, and niacin. Nutrient concentration varies in different varieties, locations, and between grains. Human nutrient consumption and status clearly depend on the bioavailability of nutrients. Furthermore, pulses are a good source of essential amino acids especially in lysine (∼64 mg/g of protein) and threonine (∼38 mg/g of protein), which are complementary to most staple foods, helpful to improve the quality of protein of diet. Pulses offer potential health benefits where future demand of nutritious and cheap food commodities is increasing because of lack of resources and undernutrition [7].
Protein requirements is not same for everyone; it depends on many factors including body weight, muscle mass, age, and physical activity. The recommended daily allowance of protein is 0.4 g per pound of body weight and 0.8 g per kg of body weight. Athletes required a greater amount of protein ranging from 0.5 to 0.6 g per pound of body weight (1.2–1.4 g per kg), required for muscle maintenance and training recovery. Pulses contain 21–25% protein and provide double amount as compared with cereals [44].
Protein is a most satiating macronutrient than fat and carbohydrates, and it is present in a high amount in pulses. Protein elicits the secretion of satiety-related hormones in the small intestine such as peptide YY, Glucagon such as peptide-1. Fiber and protein both are helpful to control satiety; pulses are rich in both fiber and protein and ideal to reduce caloric intake and managing obesity [45].
Pulses are recommended by Canadian and American government agencies as part of a healthy diet. Both Canada’s Food Guide (CFG) and the USDA MyPlate nutrition guides place pulses in the meat and alternative group. Animal protein is expensive and not acceptable for many people due to their beliefs and lifestyle. Pulse protein could be a great choice for vegetarian people and meet their essential requirements of amino acids for physiological processes and growth of children. Pulses supply a good amount of protein when consumed with cereals [46].
10. Protein digestibility of pulse-based diet
Protein digestibility can be defined as the percentage of protein or AA intake, absorbed by the digestive tract. It can also predict the estimated individual AA bioavailability [47, 48]. When protein-containing food is consumed, digestion begins from the stomach, and it triggers the release of the hydrochloric acid in the stomach by the partial cells of gastrointestinal mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract. Released acid activates the pepsinogen and converts it into active form, i.e., pepsin. This pepsin can break down the polypeptides into di- and tripeptides, which are ultimately broken down into amino acids; within the duodenum amino acids travel to the liver through hepatic portal vein and undergo de-amination. Amine groups are cleaved to form urea. The amino acids are simultaneously converted into non-essential amino acids or carbohydrate and fats or catabolized directly to energy. Since protein cannot be stored within the body, metabolism of amino acids is completed within few hours. If neither of these actions occurs, then it is released from the body in the form of urine or urea nitrogen contents (Figure 1) [49, 50].
Figure 1.
Catabolism of protein.
When we come to digestibility of pulse-based diet, it is evident that some type of anti-nutritional factors inhibit the digestibility and availability of protein to the body. These may be some types of protein inhibitor components such as trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors that arrest the functionality of proteolysis. Trypsin is a digestive enzyme, and the presence of this inhibitor interferes with normal protein digestion in humans. Presence of less digestible protein fractions, high levels of insoluble fiber, and high concentrations of anti-nutritional factors lowers the digestibility of protein. However, processing, cooking, and germination improve the digestibility of pulses. The preparation involves soaking, autoclaving, roasting, fermentation, and germination to reduce anti-nutritional factors (phytic acid, tannins, and polyphenols), which inhibit mineral absorption and protein bioavailability [50, 51, 52].
Starch present in pulse grains provides certain health benefits due to its high amylose content. It promotes the formation of resistant starch that cannot be hydrolyzed during digestion. Dietary fiber remains undigested in the small intestine; afterward, it is fermented by the microbiota in the colon that is helpful in controlling weight management, diabetes, and has cholesterol-lowering effect. Fruits and vegetables rich in promoter substances (ascorbate and beta-carotene) for mineral absorption should be taken to enhance micronutrient content and bioavailability. When processed, cooked, or heat-treated, the process of protein digestion by gastrointestinal enzymes as the inhibitory effect on proteolytic enzymes is inactivated [30]. Cooking or heat treatment increases the enzyme activity 2–3 times, chelating activity was also found to be increased in different legumes by cooking. Overall, the total antioxidant capacity values denoted the increased electron donating capacity of the legume seed proteins after digestion with GI enzymes, which could thus act as better radical chain terminators or free-radical stabilizers, when legumes and pulses are treated with heat application [53]. Overall the nutritional value and bioavailability of nutrients, proteins, minerals, phenolic or antioxidant capacity, are increased or improved by processing methods applied to grains as compared when consumed in raw form.
11. Conclusions
Pulses are becoming the corner stone of food and agriculture industry by the time as the awareness of plant-based protein over animal-based protein is revealed and global food security needs to provide balanced diet are publicized. The role of lentils, chickpea, beans, and other pulses becomes even more significant. Future projections suggest 23% global increase in consumption of high protein, high-fiber legumes. To satisfy this need, multidisciplinary approach is required toward research and development sector; efforts in increasing pulse production and consumption lead toward the sustainable food security goal in regional and national food system. Research is needed to identify pulse varieties and innovative processing approaches to develop complimentary food products with balanced available nutrients. Diet diversity and effective processing conditions can improve the nutrient availability and ultimately help to overcome malnutrition and protein deficiency.
Acknowledgments
No funding is provided by any institute or university for this publication.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"malnutrition, pulse proteins, amino acid, bioavailability, digestibility, value addition",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79168.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79168.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79168",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79168",totalDownloads:0,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,dateSubmitted:"July 31st 2021",dateReviewed:"August 18th 2021",datePrePublished:"August 10th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"October 28th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Nutritional profile of pulses has significant importance in human diet with respect to protein and mineral quality and bioavailability. Protein energy malnutrition is widespread throughout the world especially among the developing countries. Pulses being rich in macronutrients such as protein from 20 to 26% and low in calories are most suitable for product development for target-oriented population. During last decade, the demand for pulse-based products with high protein and fiber, low glycemic index, and gluten free with more antioxidant showed increasing trend by the consumers. Drift of end-use application of pulses generated interest for research in all disciplines such as breeding, agronomy, food, and nutrition, etc. A great share of plant protein in human diet may be a critical step for reducing dependence on animal origin protein source. This chapter will review contribution or choice of plant-based protein from legumes or pulses with good-quality protein based on amino acid composition. Additionally, this overview can give insight into the development of new product with balanced nutritional quality and high protein contents as a potential protein supply for malnourished population.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79168",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79168",signatures:"Saima Parveen, Amina Jamil, Imran Pasha and Farah Ahmad",book:{id:"12236",type:"book",title:"Legumes Research- Volume 2",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Legumes Research- Volume 2",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez and Dr. Alfonso Clemente",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12236.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-915-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-914-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-916-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Nutritional importance of pulses",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Micronutrients in pulses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Carbohydrates in relation to pulses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Dietary fiber in pulses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Fatty acids composition of pulses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Antioxidant capacity of pulses",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Pulse proteins",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Globulins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2 Albumins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.3 Prolamins and glutelins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Amino acids in pulses",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"6. Application of pulses in processing industry",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"7. Role of protein in human body",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"8. Outcomes of protein deficiency",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"9. Role of pulses/legumes protein in human health",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"10. Protein digestibility of pulse-based diet",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"11. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Graham PH, Ranalli P. Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Field Crops Research. 1997;53:131-146 https://org/doi:10.1016/s0378-4290(97)00112-3'},{id:"B2",body:'Papa R, Acosta J, Delgado-Salinas A, Gepts P. A genome-wide analysis of differentiation between wild and domesticated Phaseolus vulgaris from Mesoamerica. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 2005;111:1147-1158 https://org/doi:10.1007/s00122-005-0045-9'},{id:"B3",body:'Shimelis EA, Rakshit SK. Proximate composition and physicochemical properties of improved dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) varieties grown in Ethiopia. LWT- Food Science and Technology. 2005;38:331-338. 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His PhD work was on design and characteristics of a multiple-beam reflected system and its applications in surface micro-topography measurement. He worked for two years as a postdoctoral scientist at the Optical metrology laboratory of the Mechanical System Engineering, University of Chonbuk, Jeonju, South Korea, where he continued his research on optical metrology. In 2012 to 2013, he worked as a postdoctoral scientist for camera calibration at Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Lille, Lille, France. He joined the Department of Physics at the University of Tokushima, Tokushima, Japan, as a designated researcher in the field of optical frequency comb and terahertz technology from 2014 to 2016. Then he joined the Optholomology Departement, Ohio State University, to continue the work of optical metrology for six months. In 2017, he worked again for one year as a research professor at the Optical metrology laboratory of the Mechanical System Engineering, University of Chonbuk, Jeonju, South Korea, where he worked on optical metrology with PolarCam. He visited the Xi’an institute of optics, China two times for two months and worked with parallel phase shifting. He is now working at the Engineering and surface metrology laboratory, National Institute of Standards (NIS), Egypt. In the early years his research was focused on multiple-beam interferometry for surface metrology. In recent years his interest has shifted to digital holographic microscopy, terahertz imaging, optical frequency comb, and super-resolution microscopy and their applications in medicine. 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He is co-founder of ALLBESMART, a tech start-up focused on smart cities and territories.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"193042",title:"Prof.",name:"Sanichiro",surname:"Yoshida",slug:"sanichiro-yoshida",fullName:"Sanichiro Yoshida",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Southeastern Louisiana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"197181",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Didie",slug:"david-didie",fullName:"David Didie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Southeastern Louisiana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"197182",title:"Dr.",name:"Jong-Sung",surname:"Kim",slug:"jong-sung-kim",fullName:"Jong-Sung Kim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Southeastern Louisiana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"197183",title:"Dr.",name:"Ik-Keun",surname:"Park",slug:"ik-keun-park",fullName:"Ik-Keun Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Southeastern Louisiana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"partnerships",title:"Partnerships",intro:"
IntechOpen has always supported new and evolving ideas in scholarly publishing. We understand the community we serve, but to provide an even better service for our IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we have partnered with leading companies and associations in the scientific field and beyond.
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ALPSP
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The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
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OASPA
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\\n\\t
The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
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STM
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\\n\\t
The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
\\n
\\n\\n
COPE
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
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\\n\\n
Creative Commons
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
\\n
\\n\\n
Crossref
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\\n\\t
Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
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Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
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Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
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CLOCKSS
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CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
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Counter
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COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
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DORA
\\n\\n
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DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
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iThenticate
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iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
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Enago
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IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
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IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
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Straive
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Straive is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
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Amazon
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Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
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DHL
\\n\\n
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IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
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United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact
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The Compact is designed to inspire action among publishers. Launched in collaboration with the International Publishers Association, the Compact aims to accelerate progress to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. Signatories aspire to develop sustainable practices and act as champions of the SDGs during the Decade of Action (2020-2030), publishing books and journals that will help inform, develop, and inspire action in that direction. Learn more here
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River Valley Technology
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River Valley Technology is the world’s first XML-based publishing solution from submission to peer review to production and to final hosting, giving full control to publishers, with full transparency of data.
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Figshare
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Figshare is an online open access repository where researchers can preserve and share their research outputs, including figures, datasets, images, and videos. It is free to upload content and free to access, in adherence to the principle of open data.
The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) is the largest association of scholarly and professional publishers in the world. Its mission is to connect, inform, develop and represent the international scholarly and professional publishing community. IntechOpen has been a member of ALPSP since 2016 and has consequently stayed informed about industry trends through connecting with peers and developing jointly.
\n
\n\n
OASPA
\n\n
\n\t
The Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) was established in 2008 to represent the interests of Open Access (OA) publishers globally in all scientific, technical and scholarly disciplines. Its mission is carried out through exchange of information, the setting of standards, advancing models, advocacy, education, and the promotion of innovation.
\n
\n\n
STM
\n\n
\n\t
The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers (STM) is the leading global trade association for academic and professional publishers. As a member, IntechOpen has not only made a commitment to STM's Ethical Principles.
\n
\n\n
COPE
\n\n
\n\t
The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of misconduct in research and publication. IntechOpen has been a member of COPE since 2013 and adheres to the COPE Code of Conduct and Best Practice Guidelines, ensuring that we maintain the highest ethical standards.
\n
\n\n
Creative Commons
\n\n
\n\t
Creative Commons (CC) is a nonprofit organization that enables the sharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legal tools. IntechOpen uses the CC BY 3.0 license for chapters, meaning Authors retain copyright and their work can be reused and adapted as long as the source is properly cited and Authors are acknowledged.
\n
\n\n
Crossref
\n\n
\n\t
Crossref is the official Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Registration Agency for scholarly and professional publications with a goal of making scholarly communications more effective. IntechOpen deposits metadata and registers DOIs for all content using the Crossref System. IntechOpen also deposits its references and uses the Crossref Cited-by service that enables researchers to track citation statistics.
\n
\n\n
Altmetric and Dimensions from Digital Science
\n\n
\n\t
Digital Science is a technology company serving the needs of scientific and research communities at key points along the full cycle of research. They support innovative businesses and technologies that make all parts of the research process more open, efficient and effective. IntechOpen integrates tools such as Altmetric to enable our researchers to track and measure the activity around their academic research and Dimensions, to ease access to the most relevant information and better understand and analyze the global research landscape.
\n
\n\n
CLOCKSS
\n\n
\n\t
CLOCKSS preserves scholarly publications in original formats, ensuring that they always remain available and openly accessible to everyone.
\n
\n\n
Counter
\n\n
\n\t
COUNTER provides the Code of Practice that enables publishers and vendors to report usage of their electronic resources in a consistent way. This enables libraries to compare data received from different publishers and vendors.
\n
\n\n
DORA
\n\n
\n\t
DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
\n
\n\n
iThenticate
\n\n
\n\t
iThenticate is the leading provider of professional plagiarism detection and prevention technology and is used worldwide by scholarly publishers and research institutions to ensure the originality of written work before publication. IntechOpen uses the iThenticate plagiarism software to ensure content originality and the research integrity of our published work.
\n
\n\n
Enago
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen collaborates with Enago, through its sister brand, Ulatus, one of the world’s leading providers of book translation services. Their services are designed to convey the essence of your work to readers from across the globe in the language they understand.
\n\t
IntechOpen Authors that wish to use this service will receive a 20% discount on all translation services. To find out more information or obtain a quote, please visit https://www.enago.com/intech
\n
\n\n
Straive
\n\n
\n\t
Straive is the market leader in technology-driven solutions for the extraction, enrichment and transformation of content assets. IntechOpen publishing services are designed to meet the unique needs of Authors. As part of our commitment to that objective, we have an ongoing partnership agreement for production solutions.
\n
\n\n
Amazon
\n\n
\n\t
Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
\n
\n\n
DHL
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen has partnered with DHL since 2011 to ensure the fastest delivery of Print on Demand books.
\n
\n\n
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact
\n\n
\n\t
The Compact is designed to inspire action among publishers. Launched in collaboration with the International Publishers Association, the Compact aims to accelerate progress to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. Signatories aspire to develop sustainable practices and act as champions of the SDGs during the Decade of Action (2020-2030), publishing books and journals that will help inform, develop, and inspire action in that direction. Learn more here
\n
\n\n
River Valley Technology
\n\n
\n\t
River Valley Technology is the world’s first XML-based publishing solution from submission to peer review to production and to final hosting, giving full control to publishers, with full transparency of data.
\n
\n\n
Figshare
\n\n
\n\t
Figshare is an online open access repository where researchers can preserve and share their research outputs, including figures, datasets, images, and videos. It is free to upload content and free to access, in adherence to the principle of open data.
\n
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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The effect of factors (such as, nanoparticle size, nanofluid concentration, flowrate of nanofluid and geometry of channel containing nanofluid) influencing the efficiency of PV systems has been discussed. Collective results of different researchers indicate that the efficiency of the PV/T systems (using nanofluids as coolant) increases with increasing flowrate. Efficiency of these systems increases with increasing concentration of nanofluid up to a certain amount, but as the concentration gets above this certain value, the efficiency tends to decline due to agglomeration/clustering of nanoparticles. Pertaining to the most recent studies, stability of nanoparticles is still the major unresolved issue, hindering the commercial scale application of nanofluids for the cooling of PV panels. 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Conventional heat-transfer fluids (HTFs) such as water, ethylene glycol, oils and other fluids are typically low-efficiency heat dissipation fluids. Thermal management is a key factor in diverse applications where these fluids can be used, such as in automotive, microelectronics, energy storage, medical, and nuclear cooling among others. Furthermore, the miniaturization and high efficiency of devices in these fields demand successful heat management and energy-efficient materials. The advent of nanofluids could successfully address the low thermal efficiency of HTFs since nanofluids have shown many interesting properties, and the distinctive features offering extraordinary potential for many applications. Nanofluids are engineered by homogeneously suspending nanostructures with average sizes below 100 nm within conventional fluids. This chapter aims to focus on a detail description of the thermal transport behavior, challenges and implications that involve the development and use of HTFs under the influence of atomistic-scale structures and industrial applications. Multifunctional characteristics of these nanofluids, nanostructures variables and features are discussed in this chapter; the mechanisms that promote these effects on the improvement of nanofluids thermal transport performance and the broad range of current and future applications will be included.",book:{id:"6514",slug:"microfluidics-and-nanofluidics",title:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics",fullTitle:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics"},signatures:"José Jaime Taha-Tijerina",authors:[{id:"182402",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:"Jaime",surname:"Taha-Tijerina",slug:"jose-taha-tijerina",fullName:"Jose Taha-Tijerina"}]},{id:"61556",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74426",title:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics: Science, Fabrication Technology (From Cleanrooms to 3D Printing) and Their Application to Chemical Analysis by Battery-Operated Microplasmas-On-Chips",slug:"microfluidics-and-nanofluidics-science-fabrication-technology-from-cleanrooms-to-3d-printing-and-the",totalDownloads:1872,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The science and phenomena that become important when fluid-flow is confined in microfluidic channels are initially discussed. Then, technologies for channel fabrication (ranging from photolithography and chemical etching, to imprinting, and to 3D-printing) are reviewed. The reference list is extensive and (within each topic) it is arranged chronologically. Examples (with emphasis on those from the authors’ laboratory) are highlighted. Among them, they involve plasma miniaturization via microplasma formation inside micro-fluidic (and in some cases millifluidic) channels fabricated on 2D and 3D-chips. Questions addressed include: How small plasmas can be made? What defines their fundamental size-limit? How small analytical plasmas should be made? And what is their ignition voltage? The discussion then continues with the science, technology and applications of nanofluidics. The conclusions include predictions on potential future development of portable instruments employing either micro or nanofluidic channels. Such portable (or mobile) instruments are expected to be controlled by a smartphone; to have (some) energy autonomy; to employ Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning, and to have wireless connectivity for their inclusion in the Internet-of-Things (IoT). In essence, those that can be used for chemical analysis in the field for “bringing part of the lab to the sample” types of applications.",book:{id:"6514",slug:"microfluidics-and-nanofluidics",title:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics",fullTitle:"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics"},signatures:"Vassili Karanassios",authors:[{id:"60925",title:"Prof.",name:"Vassili",middleName:null,surname:"Karanassios",slug:"vassili-karanassios",fullName:"Vassili Karanassios"}]},{id:"57228",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71002",title:"Thresholding Algorithm Optimization for Change Detection to Satellite Imagery",slug:"thresholding-algorithm-optimization-for-change-detection-to-satellite-imagery",totalDownloads:1682,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"To detect changes in satellite imagery, a supervised change detection technique was applied to Landsat images from an area in the south of México. At first, the linear regression (LR) method using the first principal component (1-PC) data, the Chi-square transformation (CST) method using first three principal component (PC-3), and tasseled cap (TC) images were applied to obtain the continuous images of change. Then, the threshold was defined by statistical parameters, and histogram secant techniques to categorize as change or unchanged the pixels. A threshold optimization iterative algorithm is proposed, based on the ground truth data and assessing the accuracy of a range of threshold values through the corresponding Kappa coefficient of concordance. Finally, to evaluate the change detection accuracy of conventional methods and the threshold optimization algorithm, 90 polygons (15,543 pixels) were sampled, categorized as real change/unchanged zones, and defined as ground truth, from the interpretation of color aerial photo slides aided by the land cover maps to obtain the omission/commission errors and the Kappa coefficient of agreement. The results show that the threshold optimization is a suitable approach that can be applied for change detection analysis.",book:{id:"6126",slug:"colorimetry-and-image-processing",title:"Colorimetry and Image Processing",fullTitle:"Colorimetry and Image Processing"},signatures:"René Vázquez-Jiménez, Rocío N. Ramos-Bernal, Raúl Romero-\nCalcerrada, Patricia Arrogante-Funes, Sulpicio Sanchez Tizapa and\nCarlos J. 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The first part of this chapter demonstrates and explains a third category of solid-liquid separation physics whereby particles spontaneously localize or cluster into small regions of fluids by taking the clustering phenomena in stirred vessels as an example. The second part of this chapter discusses particle classification phenomena due to shear-induced migration. 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These kinds of systems are known as the vortex yarn spinning systems. The air-jet spinning methods have been developed since it is possible to eliminate the movable elements as the spindle and the traveler in ring spinning or the centrifuge in rotor spinning. The success of Murata vortex spinning (MVS) system which is the newest system after all studies of air-jet systems has been much acceptable especially for the spinning ability of 100% cotton in high speeds (500 m/min) and the yarn structure resembling ring yarn structure rather than rotor yarns. This study summarizes the historical background of vortex spinning, the spinning principle and the structure of the yarn spun on this system, as well as the factors influencing the yarn quality and finally the developments in vortex spinning technology.",book:{id:"6028",slug:"vortex-structures-in-fluid-dynamic-problems",title:"Vortex Structures in Fluid Dynamic Problems",fullTitle:"Vortex Structures in Fluid Dynamic Problems"},signatures:"Gizem Karakan Günaydin and Ali Serkan Soydan",authors:[{id:"186277",title:"Dr.",name:"Gizem",middleName:null,surname:"Karakan Günaydin",slug:"gizem-karakan-gunaydin",fullName:"Gizem Karakan Günaydin"},{id:"186607",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Serkan Soydan",slug:"ali-serkan-soydan",fullName:"Ali Serkan Soydan"}]},{id:"59009",title:"Thermal Transport and Challenges on Nanofluids Performance",slug:"thermal-transport-and-challenges-on-nanofluids-performance",totalDownloads:1758,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Progress in technology and industrial developments demands the efficient and successful energy utilization and its management in a greater extent. 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Such portable (or mobile) instruments are expected to be controlled by a smartphone; to have (some) energy autonomy; to employ Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning, and to have wireless connectivity for their inclusion in the Internet-of-Things (IoT). 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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