\r\n\tBook, “Mites, Ticks and Humans", is written by keeping in vision non-availability of any standard text dealing in different aspects of acarology at one place. Separate chapters in this book are devoted to medical importance of mites and ticks; ectoparasites, endoparasites and disease transmitting mites; classification, biology and epidemiology of dust mites; manifestations, diagnostics and preventions of dust mites allergy; ticks transmission of disease causing pathogens; and measures to mitigate mites and ticks. Book will stimulate interest in the readers for more information about different mites and ticks affecting publics. The knowledge contained in the book may prove as best material for graduate and post-graduate level courses, teachers and researchers in entomology, pestss control advisors, professional entomologists, pesticide industry managers, policy planners, and other experts having interest in mites and ticks.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"1ab684433f948520e8e90a2e74e2801a",bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Sarwar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8964.jpg",keywords:"Basic biology, Diversity of lifestyles, Scabies, Mange, Ecosystem, Soil mite, Dust mites allergy, Asthma, Vectors, Dispersal or spreading modes, Pest management, Detection and survey",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 28th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 16th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 15th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 3rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 3rd 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"272992",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarwar",slug:"muhammad-sarwar",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272992/images/system/272992.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Sarwar, Principal Scientist, is in his thirtieth year of service with the Department of Agriculture, Government of Punjab. He is also currently working for the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. He completed his post doctorate in 2008, funded by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan from the Institute of Plant Protection in the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China. He has several hundred published papers to his credit and is recipient of the Shield award, letters of appreciation, and certificates of performance from faculty members of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China. In 2010, the Zoological Society of Pakistan presented him with the Prof. Dr. Mirza Azhar Beg Gold Medal. In 2011, the Pakistan Council for Science and Technology awarded him a Research Productivity Award.\n\nHis research activities focus on integrated pest management for rice, cotton, chickpea, and Brassica crops; predatory mites, ladybird beetles, Chrysoperla, Trichogramma, and parasitoids of fruit flies culturing as bio-control agents; integrated management of fruit flies and mosquitos; and other arthropod pest control methodologies. He has also researched vertebrate pest control, especially controls of rodents in field crops and storage. He was the first to explore thirty-six new species of stored grain mites belonging to eight genera, including Forcellinia, Lackerbaueria, Acotyledon, Caloglyphus, and Troupeauia in the Acaridae family; and Capronomoia, Histiostoma, and Glyphanoetus in the Histiostomatidae family. He also planned and designed research trials on the integrated management of cotton leaf curl virus (CLCV), pest scouting, pest monitoring, and forecasting. 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1. Introduction
The global and local multi-crisis has cast doubt on the old, dominant paradigms of recent centuries, including the capitalist, neoliberal growth paradigm that has caused great damage to ecosystems but has “charmed” significant portions of the population with the siren songs of products and ease of buying on credit and an excess of consumerist advertising. The renowned ecological economist Herman Daly refers to the growth problem in the following terms:
“Steady-state comes from the realization that the economy is a sub-system of a larger system, the ecosphere, which is finite, non-expanding, materially closed. It’s open to a flow of solar energy, but the Sun itself is non-growing. So those are the overall conditions of the parent system. If the subsystem keeps growing, it eventually coincides with the whole parent system, at which point it’ll have to behave as a steady state. Purists would force me to say quasi-steady, because there is of course development, continuous evolution and qualitative change. But the Earth itself is not getting quantitatively any bigger, and there comes a point in the expansion of a subsystem where it encroaches too much on the operation of the system as a whole. We convert too much of nature into ourselves and our stuff, and there’s not enough left to provide the biophysical life-support services that we need. Standard economics does not have any mechanism to register the cost of the economy’s scale, relative to the biosphere” ([1]: 35).
There is extensive international discourse on the ideology of growth. One of the authors who took on the problem early was Serge Latouche, in his book “The Bet for Degrowth”:
“We are likely living through the sixth mass extinction of species. They (plants and animals), indeed, disappear at a rate of fifty to two hundred a day, that is, at a rate 1,000 to 30,000 times greater than that of the hecatombs of past geological times. But, unlike in the preceding extinctions, human beings are directly responsible for the current “decrease” in living beings and could very well be its victims…
After a few decades of frenzied squandering, we have entered the storm… The acceleration of natural catastrophes – droughts, floods, cyclones – is already underway. The climate disorder will be accompanied by oil wars, which will be followed by water wars, as well as possible pandemics, not to mention predictable biogenetic catastrophes.
We also know that the cause of all this is our way of life based on unlimited economic growth. And, nonetheless, the term ‘degrowth’ sounds like a challenge or a provocation.
Thus, the term ‘degrowth’ is of very recent use in the economic, political, and social debate, although the ideas upon which it is based have quite a long history… The failure of development in the South and the loss of references in the North have led many thinkers to reassess the consumer society and its imaginary foundations, progress, science, and technology. At the same time, the increased awareness of the environmental crisis we are experiencing has added a new dimension. The idea of degrowth is also two-sided, as it has been shaped by both awareness of the ecological crisis and critiques of technology and development” (Serge [2]:9–15).
It is important to note that this author established very early the impacts that the growth policy has had on the planet and the threats it represents to species preservation, as well as eventual conflicts, including wars, resulting from the fight for dominance over resources, including water. Among the catastrophes, he even mentioned, in 2006, “possible pandemics,” mere years before the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic that is humanity is enduring. His book not only explains the meaning of degrowth, but also develops a strategy for achieving and advancing in a process of degrowth:
“Of the eight “R”s that make up the virtuous circle of building a serene degrowth society que (reassess, reconceptualize, restructure, redistribute, relocalize, reduce, reuse, recycle), reassessment is, logically, the first action and the basis of the process. However, relocalization is simultaneously the most strategic means and one of the main goals of reassessment. This translates, in a certain way, the old principle of ecological politics: think globally, act locally” ([2]:183).
With very good reason, Latouche holds that many important activities of daily life still take place, in many countries, at a microterritorial level. In addition, in recent years a great number of non-profit organizations, including cooperatives, agricultural communities, exchange networks, daycares managed by fathers and mothers, ethical banks, fair and solidary commercial movements, and resale shops have flourished:
“Initiating concrete alternatives to leave the dead-end street of development takes place, at first, locally. It is necessary to revitalize local terrain, in both the North and South, first, because, even on a virtual planet, until proven otherwise, life is lived locally, but also to depart from development and the economy and fight globalization …
Relocalizing is, evidently, producing locally, essentially products that satisfy the needs of the population from local business financed from savings generated locally.
Relocalization, from a revitalization perspective, certainly involves the ‘re-enclose/re-compartmentalize’ step. As much as possible, it is even desirable, as has been seen, to return to self-production. Self-production of energy is also a solid argument of relocalization. Renewable energy sources such as solar or wind are adapted to local implementations and uses. Losses due to transport and the theft of farmland are avoided. With the end of oil, producing and consuming energy as locally as possible will become a necessity” ([2]:188–190).
The strategy or core idea of possible escape from the crisis, which the author calls relocalization, coincides with various experiences recorded and analyzed throughout this book. In fact, interruptions to economic globalization and supply chains caused by the COVID-19 pandemic have increased the importance of the international discourse, in countries in both the North and South, on the need – even urgency – to redirect the focus to local and national spheres to resupply drugs, medications, vaccines, masks, and other essential products that, before the health crisis, used to be produced locally. However, such local production was abandoned by globalization that outsourced, with the support of governments and the interested action of multinational companies, some or all manufacturing processes, which were moved to countries or regions with “comparative advantages” – as argued for and applauded by neoliberalism – in terms of cheap labor (precarious work) and environmental deregulation (unprotected ecosystems and natural resources: mining resources, water resources, forests, soil, atmosphere, oceans, rivers human populations, etc.).
Relocalization obliges us to look to that which is nearby. To return our gaze and attention to our surroundings, to the socioecological spaces where life unfolds with its complex and interdependent social fabrics and interactions. It involves a return to real life, to the existential roots that join us as humans in living ecological niches.
In this regard, the anthropologist Alice Roberts gives us an interesting historical view of the processes of contact and interaction with the species that have shaped part of this civilizing process, which she calls “domestication”, concluding: “Every species exists in an ecosystem – we are all interlinked and interdependent,” as can be read below:
“Human history would have played out very differently if the other species we interacted with had been different – missing altogether, impossible to catch or domesticate, for example. We sometimes approach history as through we humans are so much the lords of our own destiny that external forces have little or no role to play. But the story of any species can never be told in isolation. Every species exists in an ecosystem – we are all interlinked and interdependent. And serendipity and contingency are woven into all the interactions that have played out in the course of our intertwined histories” (Alice [3]: 403).
The multi-crisis and the Covid-19 pandemic in particular are casting millions of people into poverty and absolute destitution: without jobs, dignified housing, health, education, incomes and social support to subsist and feed their families. They are the new poor who are joining those who are already poor. For these people, the creation of a universal basic income that covers the necessities of life is urgently needed. In addition, the relocalization of production activities, guided by the concept of the sustainable circular economy, which decreases entropy and social and environmental liabilities as much as possible, would contribute substantially to reducing poverty and social and environmental vulnerability. The multi-crisis, particularly the health crisis, obliges us to regard health as a foundation that structures the health of society and nature in interdependence.
The neoliberal strategy of hypergrowth, based on the “free” market, has made it necessary to think of new development strategies and look to the past for knowledge and practices that are more environmentally friendly.
The illusion of unlimited growth, fueled by economic theories, is among the paradigms being questioned in the 21st century, as unlimited growth in a planetary system with limited resources and the use of only gross domestic product as a valid indicator of the development of nations can no longer be considered sustainable, as it is known that this famous indicator does not consider the environmental degradation caused by the sort of development that economic growth promotes as the cornerstone of higher levels of global development [4]. The big question raised by planetary limits is whether greater prosperity can be achieved without necessarily growing [5].
2. Ecology of knowledges and community experiences: socio-eco potentials of development alternatives
In recent times, fortunately, awareness of the magnitude of the socioproductive, institutional, cultural, and environmental problems and crises faced by modern society has begun to emerge. These issues consist of a set of challenges related to a planetary crisis that have turned development alternatives into necessary, current, and urgent strategies. The challenges are complex because they are associated with structural, historically cumulative problems: injustices, inequality, authoritarianism, violence, plunder of nature and emissions of all types of unsustainable waste that, at present, no revolution or reform has been able to confront or resolve with due decisiveness, efficacy, and historical depth. This is the Anthropocene Era, characterized by profound socioeconomic, ecological, territorial, geological, political, and cultural transformation of the planet and society by human beings.
From this global reality arises the importance of researching and preserving traditional local knowledge. Scientists from different disciplines have recognized this importance, indicating that, due to its complexity, it must be treated as interdisciplinary topics, the understanding of which requires holistic knowledge that goes beyond the limits of monodisciplinary sciences.
In this sense, the science developed by academia is indebted to the experiences and knowledge fostered for centuries in various communities around the world, including those cultivated in Latin America, inherited from pre-Columbian cultures: a debt of recognition, awareness-raising and valorization of the forms of local production and life and the multiplicity of historical practices that reflect a better and more sustainable treatment of ecosystems.
Attaching epistemological importance to local practices and knowledges that have been present throughout the history of modern society, precisely in uncertain times of economic, social and climate crisis could well – from their scattered, fragmented existence that is questioned by capitalist mega-models, particularly the neoliberal model – represent possibilities and hopes of more sustainable development than that of the model that currently prevails in many countries and regions of the world.
To advance the discourse on the meaning of local ecological practices and knowledges, an understanding of the concept of ecology of knowledges, proposed by Boaventura de Sousa Santos, who delves into the diversity of knowledges, is of interest:
“It is premised upon the idea of the epistemological diversity of the world, the recognition of the existence of a plurality of knowledges beyond scientific knowledge. This implies renouncing any general epistemology. Throughout the world, not only are there very diverse forms of knowledge of matter, society, life and spirit, but also many and very diverse concepts of what counts as knowledge and the criteria that may be used to validate it” ([6]:50).
The author holds that this diversity of understandings and worldviews is situated in and arises from a territorial-political context exposed to constant inequalities and discrimination caused by capitalism and its model of colonial development, shaping what we typically understand as the North–South relationship. These knowledge systems that emerge can be called epistemologies of the South, understood as “demand for new production processes and valorization of valid knowledges, whether scientific or not, and new relationships among different types of knowledge, based on the practices of classes and social groups that have suffered systematic unjust inequalities and discrimination” ([6]:43).
According to Sousa Santos, the epistemologies of the South are based on two main premises: first, they have an understanding of the world that is broader and more comprehensive than that of the western view; second, it is necessary to understand that there is infinite diversity in the world, which includes diverse ways of being, thinking and feeling, multiple forms of building relationships among species, organizing, constructing an understanding of history, and producing various goods and services.
Based on these premises, it is understood that the responses of today’s society to the challenges posed by the global crisis must not be limited to a purely western – including critical western – conception of action, but rather must be broadened to include and understand the diversity of traditional and emerging knowledge systems that exist. The author rightly holds that a significant portion of these systems and experiences of traditional knowledge are “largely wasted because the theories and concepts developed in the global North and employed in the entire academic world do not identify such alternatives. When they do, they do not valorize them as being valid contributions towards constructing a better society” ([6]: 44).
Western knowledge has acted hegemonically in driving the development of modern science and technology parallel to the expansion of the capitalist development model, characterizing the recent history of a large portion of colonialized countries. The foregoing brought about the constitution of a system of scientific-technical knowledge charged with carrying out a “civilizing mission” in developing countries and regions, validating the hegemonic understanding of the domination of man over nature [7].
When addressing traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and scientific-technical knowledge (STK), we can visualize two currents that, in the words of Souza Santos, make up a duality of knowledges that historically have been related, with traditional knowledge – for centuries – having been practically relegated or rejected by formal science; only amid the current global crisis have some scientists come to look at and reflect on the adaptation capacity of indigenous peoples and rural societies, with particular attention to traditional ecological knowledges [8].
In the view of Mexican academic Enrique Leff [9], STK is a more recent current of knowledge, associated with the scientific-technological revolution, unleashed by the dynamics of capital and industrialization processes, where the extrapolation of knowledge in different times and contexts is appealed to.
In this dialogue between knowledge systems, Berkes et al. [10] define TEK as a “cumulative body of knowledge about the relationships of living things and their environment, evolving through adaptive processes” (2000: 1252). Other authors hold that this knowledge represents a cultural teaching-learning model in which the symbolisms and intergenerational transmission of information are the central elements; these elements ultimately construct worldviews through which peoples have interpreted the relationship between humans and nature [11, 12, 13].
These systems have developed a close relationship with the territories in which they exist, creating a bond that encapsulates the difference experiences of the commons of life. As David Bollier states: “These commons integrate economic production, social cooperation, personal participation and ethical idealism into a single package” (2016: 13). Valorizing the offerings of TEK, Hill et al. [14], state that traditional systems contribute to sustainability in various contexts, serving as a contribution to the study and conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services.
The same authors carry out a characterization of TEK systems based on three key facets: first, this type of knowledge has a holistic component, as it addresses economic, political, and cultural aspects such as governance, family institutions, practices regarding use of available resources, and various worldviews, as well as rituals and languages. The second characteristic of TEK is that it is diverse, and while there are some occupations and groups that exist all around the world (farmers, fishers, traditional doctors, etc.), they present different cultural systems that are constructed in and adapted to diverse ecosystems. Finally, traditional ecological knowledge systems are governed by different cultural institutions, with each generating and applying its own systems of validation, rules, and coexistence [14].
The role of TEK in the survival of traditional communities is defined by authors such as Gómez-Baggethun et al. [15], who emphasize that these social structures provide elements that allow an understanding of how to adapt to changes a territory is undergoing. Alzate et al. [16] state that “one of the main ways which TEK contributes to building resilience in socio-ecological systems is by promoting bio-cultural diversity” ([16]:340). Thus, research processes that address this knowledge must be aimed at including territorial actors and generating knowledge co-construction relationships [17].
It is precisely this traditional knowledge that represents a new analysis perspective, of great value for the re-understanding of the relationships that human communities establish in and with a territory, allowing more sustainable management and governance of resources such as water. This management can also be complemented by new water technologies that allow more sustainable, efficient, and horizontal modes of production for local needs.
García Flores [11] reviews and discusses how sociocultural factors are important in natural resource management, again highlighting the mechanisms through which traditional knowledge is learned and spread, specifically through language, observation, and practical experience. The foregoing is evidence of the relationships that rural societies and indigenous peoples have developed over centuries, in which “people carry out everyday tasks, expressed in activities that affect the obtainment of sustenance and other benefits” ([18], cited in García Flores [11]: 262).
The practices and knowledges developed by these peoples also represent the embodiment of elements associated with local identity. María Ester Grebe highlights that “ethnic identity and self-recognition of the indigenous person is greater in meeting and interaction spaces” ([19]: 66); these aspects make up the basis of the cultural institutions that are constructed by indigenous peoples, influenced by the current migratory pressure that moves communities to urban spaces, which ultimately weakens knowledge systems.
When all these elements are considered in practical terms, TEK represents an eco-cognitive potential of great value for moving forward a process of new understanding of and interaction with ecosystems, while also driving processes of co-construction, dialogue, and productive collaboration with modern scientific-technical knowledge.
Interesting experiences regarding the interrelationship between the traditional and the scientific-technical are highlighted by Šūmane et al. [20], who offer the example of TEAGASC, an Irish research and education agency that carries out joint work between farmers and researchers, allowing ongoing feedback and the implementation and validation of new technologies in agricultural systems and advancing sustainable education initiatives. Meanwhile, Miguel Altieri and Víctor Toledo complement and confirm this – positive – trend in stating that many traditional systems have resisted the passage of time, which has allowed the documentation of a “successful and resistant indigenous agricultural system” ([21]: 593); such practices allow, for example, low agrochemical use and high yields over time. Interaction between traditional knowledge and technical knowledge produces synergistic effects, leading to better sustainability models generated on a local scale.
Common practices for indigenous communities and rural societies such as vegetable gardens or small farms, seasonal crops and irrigation techniques are some of the many and varied examples of dynamics that have allowed these groups to manage their resources since pre-Hispanic times. In fact, the “the diversified use of geographic space allowed rural populations the possibility of coping with variability in access to resources… thereby decreasing vulnerability to environmental disturbances” ([22]: 262).
Local practices, knowledges, and experiences regarding territorial governance and solutions to various socioecological problems that affect modern society represent important spaces for community management of social coexistence and coproduction of goods and understandings, but for them to be truly effective and continue into the future, the support of local and state institutions is required. The COVID-19 pandemic has shown that the state has been an absent figure in many societies, including Chilean society, as a result of the extreme application of neoliberal orthodoxy that favors the role of the market, which does not exactly operate under standards of justice or equity. Nor does the market understand the functioning of ecosystems, the limits of growth, or solutions to pandemic diseases. Something similar has also been observed in politics and among the elites of organized power. The absence of the state, especially in the social, work, health, and education spheres, has been felt strongly among the most vulnerable populations, which are all too abundant in Latin America, resulting in increasing levels of poverty, anxiety, desperation, and vulnerability.
To come out of the multi-crisis well, a new type of state is required: close to citizens, indigenous communities, young people, boys and girls, women, workers, and producers; institutions that promote the deglobalized and sustainable circular economy, that are open to dialogue, innovative, promote research at all education levels, and protect nature and its ecosystems, the providers of life, are required.
Finally, in the context of the current evolution of modern society, information accumulation and development of scientific knowledge and new, efficient technologies, there are enormous possibilities and opportunities to establish a synergistic, positive interrelationship between scientific findings and traditional knowledges produced, tended to, applied, and preserved as genetic and cognitive banks by various peoples, especially indigenous communities around the world.
The COVID-19 health crisis and climate change in particular represent enormous new challenges for the appearance and valorization of inter-knowledges.
3. Challenges of global climate change: inter-species collaboration and universal basic income
Climate change, irreversibly underway, demands that we move beyond the human visions of the industrial fossil era. The few decades (probably between 20 and 30 years!) that remain before reaching the – impassable – limit of 1.5 or 2 degrees of global temperature increase (as established by the Paris Agreement of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change of December 2015, signed by 195 countries), require urgent thinking of new post-Anthropocene visions and more sustainable action. Climate change and the COVID-19 pandemic are undoubtedly the most serious, complex problems faced by humanity and the planet. They are very difficult to solve, especially the former. In fact, due to the advanced state of CO2-emission accumulation, climate change can only be slowed. Indeed, since the beginning of the Industrial Age, the concentration of CO2 emissions has increased exponentially, significantly altering historical climate variability cycles. In the year 1000 (A.C.) the CO2 concentration was 280 ppm (parts per million), a quantity that remained stable for thousands for years. This CO2 volume was indispensable – as a stable greenhouse gas level – to maintaining temperature levels that made – make – natural and human life on the planet Earth possible and sustainable over time. However, in mid-2020, the CO2 concentration reached 420 ppm. According to data from 2017 the countries responsible for the greatest quantities of CO2 emissions were: China (1; 28% of total emissions) followed in descending order by the United States (2; 14%), India (3; 7%), Russia (4; 5%), Japan (5; 3%), Germany (6; 2%), South Korea (7; 2%), Iran (8; 2%), Canada (9; 2%) Saudi Arabia (10; 2%), Indonesia (11; 2%), Mexico (12; 1%), Brazil (13: 1%), South Africa (14; 1%), Australia (15; 1%), Turkey (16; 1%), the United Kingdom (17; 1%), Italy (18; 1%), France (19; 1%), Poland (20; 1%) [23].
Twenty-first century society faces major, cumulative transformations that continue to occur, including climate change. Altogether, it is a profound multi-crisis, which can be characterized as the socio-environmental-climate and health crisis of the Anthropocene Era. Indeed, global climate change currently presents a geological dimension of risky alteration of the planet. Thus, it is a planetary threat for far-right political forces and governments to cling to neoliberal fossil capitalism, irresponsibly ignoring the dire consequences of the crises. Stager dates the beginning to the Anthropocene Era precisely to the start of the Industrial Age:
“The Anthropocene began during the 1700s when our greenhouse gas emissions started to change the atmosphere significantly” ([24]: 17).
Meanwhile, the COVID-19 pandemic is casting millions of people into poverty and absolute destitution: without jobs, dignified housing, health, education, incomes, and social support to subsist and feed their families. They are the new poor who are joining those who are already poor. The absence of the state, especially in social, work, health, and education spheres, has been felt strongly among the most vulnerable populations, which are all too abundant in Latin America, resulting in increasing levels of poverty, anxiety, desperation, and vulnerability.
However, the slowing of outsourcing-driven globalization and the temporary interruption of supply chains caused by the COVID-19 pandemic have increased the importance of the international discourse, in countries in both the North and South on the need – even urgency – to shift the focus to the local and national spheres to resupply drugs, medications, vaccines, masks, and other essential products that, before the health crisis, were produced locally.
Overcoming the multi-crisis will be a complex challenge: it will require new cultures, leadership, visions, public policies, lifestyles and forms of development. The Anthropocene Era crisis could give rise to a transition to a new age, demanded and hoped for by millions of defrauded citizens outraged by malaise and mobilized in different parts of the world: they demand healthy, quality living conditions and development underpinned by common goods such as water, basic foods, the atmosphere, oceans, clean air, good social relationships, biodiversity, green production, and renewable energy.
More substantial solutions with future prospects would require, for example, the creation of a universal basic income that covers the basic necessities of life. Universal Basic Income represents the social condition of resilience.
“By ‘basic income’ we mean an income paid by a political community to all its members on an individual basis, without means test or work requirement” ([25]: 25).
Poverty has accompanied humanity throughout its history. According to Rutger Bregman:
“Where 84% of the world’s population still lived in extreme poverty in 1820, by 1981 that percentage had dropped to 44%, and now, just a few decades later, it is under 10%” ([26]:11).
For centuries, inequality has been a problem that has affected millions of people: it has been expressed in poverty, discrimination, marginalization, mistreatment, bad jobs, low incomes, poor health, poor diets, and, indeed, low life expectancy. For many, life has become endless suffering, frustration, hopelessness, fear, and anxiety.
Nonetheless, in the second half of the 20th century and the early 21st century, the situation has improved substantially for certain social sectors, but there remain enormous differences and sociological inequalities, with millions of people struggling to survive in conditions of vulnerability and poverty. This reality affects families of workers, the unemployed, and the impoverished middle class. Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic has produced new poor people.
The universal basic income is one of the valid alternatives to confront the problems of poverty and social exclusion in the 21st century. It is an idea that has gained importance in different regions and countries:
“When I first began writing about basic income, most people had never heard of it. Now, only three years later, the idea is everywhere. Finland and Canada have announced large-scale experiments… And in my own country, the Netherlands, no fewer than twenty municipalities are putting basic income into action” ([26]: 241).
In this regard, it is interesting to note that already in 1948, in Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, one could read about the topic:
“1. Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control” (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Art. 25, United Nations [27]).
This United Nations declaration practically enshrines social rights as a human right.
In conservative quarters it is argued that under this policy no one would work and that financing it would be impossible. But the cited basic income defenders have carried out studies on the enormous costs of the bureaucracy that handles poverty, unemployment, and hundreds of subsidy measures. Neoliberalism, meanwhile, subsidizes big businesses (through taxes on the exploitation of nonrenewable resources such as mining resources) and maintains undignified policies of provisional and temporary vouchers – so-called “targeted policies” to partially “make up for” market deficiencies. COVID-19, a true tragedy, has unmasked the lie and inefficiency of these neoliberal policies and raised a cry for the implementation of a universal basic income that actually protects vulnerable people in times of multiple crises and pandemics, which cause uncertainty and anxiety in most of the population. Basic income will not discourage people from working. It is merely a basic support that will allow people, through decent work, to aspire to a better quality of life and personal fulfillment and secure their futures.
Another possible way to a solution is the relocalization of production activities, inspired by the concept of the sustainable circular economy, which decreases entropy and social and environmental liabilities as much as possible, and would contribute substantially to reducing poverty and social and environmental vulnerability. The multi-crisis, particularly the health crisis, compels us to regard health as a foundation that structures the health of society and nature in interdependence. Relocalization obliges us to look to that which is nearby. To return our gaze and attention to our surroundings, to the socioecological spaces where life unfolds with its complex and interdependent social fabrics and interactions. It involves returning to real life, to the existential roots that join us as humans in living ecological niches.
Finally, collaborating rather than competing against each other will make us greater, more human, and happier as people and communities. Collaboration represents virtue and nobility that emanate from the depths of human nature. It is also a natural form of inter-species collaboration in the biosphere. Human life, since its conception, has been ontological collaboration, the foundation of the human being that can only achieve fulfillment as a person through interrelationships with others and nature.
In this regard, in 2020 the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recommended recognizing and applying indigenous and local knowledge to combat the negative impacts of climate change on agriculture:
“Agricultural practices that include indigenous and local knowledge can contribute to overcoming the combined challenges of climate change, food security, biodiversity conservation, and combating desertification and land degradation (high confidence). Coordinated action across a range of actors including businesses, producers, consumers, land managers and policymakers in partnership with indigenous peoples and local communities enable conditions for the adoption of response options (high confidence)” ([28]: 31).
4. The commons as a life reserve: sense of community, collaboration, identity, and adaptation to crisis
In times of multi-crisis, such as that we are living through, the need arises to reflect on different alternatives – beyond those we have already pursued – that we could draw upon to confront the unknown scenarios to come. This crisis is also one of thought, current paradigms, science, and even the future we face; therefore, no one today can claim to have “the answer” to the crisis. The scale of the global crisis does not admit magical formulas or simple answers, and much less does it leave room for definitive, conspiratorial, or fundamentalist answers or strategies, which usually emerge in times of crisis and human anxiety and desperation.
Indeed, various alternatives have emerged, of varying relevance and influence in this complex reality; many of these paths will be – are already are – pragmatic responses to problems. For example, the hunger that affects millions of people in the world as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing social crisis have given rise to thousands of soup kitchens, community meals, spaces springing out of human solidarity, an innate intangible good in human nature that, appears precisely when governments, in various countries, offer neither rights nor protection to all people.
This solidarity rooted in the foundation of communities represents a life reserve that must be cared for and applied at all times to create a just, sustainable, and enduring social order for future generations. According to David Bollier, such experiences are instances of the commons in life, and they “represent a practical paradigm of self-help and collective gain. The commons is essentially a parallel economy and social order that quietly but confidently affirms that another world is possible. And more: we can build it ourselves, now” (2016: 13). These same practices reaffirm and give insights into the possibility of building a new paradigm.
The global crisis of the Anthropocene Era could give way to the emergence of a new age, one of life and development rooted in common goods such as water, the atmosphere, oceans, clean air, good social relationships, biodiversity, green production, and renewable energy. There are different traditional representations of the commons, including the legal representation, which tends to limit the concept to certain global goods such as water, air, or knowledge, and that rooted in philosophy, which links the commons to the universal, posing the idea that the commons belongs to all of society [29].
Other core values in thought on a new paradigm based on sustainability and ecological knowledge systems are collaboration and trust, which are human spheres that contribute par excellence to the development of social life and personal fulfillment. American sociologist Richard Sennett [30] has researched the historical course of cooperation, acknowledging its strengths and weaknesses; according to the author: “natural cooperation begins with the fact that we can’t survive alone. The division of labour helps us multiply our insufficient powers, but this division works best when it is supple, because the environment itself is in a constant process of change” (2012: 107).
Meanwhile, structural inequality and digital socialization limit the abilities of new generations, which are naturally more equipped to fully connect with each other and cooperate more deeply. At the same time, isolation and hierarchical authoritarianism at work weaken the sense of cooperation by creating mistrust. In contrast, teamwork strengthens collaborative capacities. Sennett states that current forms of capitalism promote the fragmentation of institutions, giving way to short-term work, which weakens relationships and collaborative support; the promotion of such practices builds the idea of a “perverse solidarity,” narrowing spaces for a “dialogic” and empathetic interrelationship among members of the community, which runs counter to the history of the social human being, as, according to the author, we are “capable of cooperating more deeply than the existing social order envisions” ([30]: 329. Cited in [31]).
All these reflections lead us to put the focus on the community as an ideal space to seek a good quality of life, but this idea is in direct conflict with the current situation, in which these relationship spaces must struggle to survive; Sennett’s theory states that elements such as faith, identity, and informal sociability are the keys for communities – especially among poor or marginalized portions of the population – to build support networks, establishing the values and limits of the relationships that are developed. According to the author, “these limits are political and economic; value, on the other hand, is social. Although the community cannot completely fulfill a life, it promises important pleasures” ([30]: 383).
The crisis invites us to search for alternative ways of life and development crisis. Against this backdrop, Buen Vivir or Sumak Kawsay, historically practiced by Andean peoples, has emerged, or, more precisely, has been resignified and revalorized [32]; indigenous people of the south, such as the Mapuches, call it “Kume Mongen.”
According to Diego Ancalao [33], professor and scholar of the Mapuche worldview, these Kume Mongen or Buen Vivir proposals require one to move beyond current ideologies that, however legitimized they are, have failed; an example is capitalism, which alludes to the free use of money as the center of development. The main difference of the Mapuche – and indigenous in general – worldview is the center of development, as these peoples place life at the center, understood as the only way of sustaining or species over time.
The current crisis makes us redirect the development focus and reminds us of the fragility of life; facing a climate change scenario and the pandemic teaches society an important lesson: “that we are all undoubtedly equal and that the value of life is primordial” [33].
An understanding of these visions directs us to the formation of an economy of the common good, about which Christian Felber [34] states that “in regard to our friendships and everyday relationships, we thrive when we live in accordance with human values: the building of trust, honesty, esteem, respect, empathy, cooperation, mutual help and sharing” (2014: 29). Such a perspective moves away from the logics laid out by the free market economy, which is based on competition, which ultimately unleashes values such as envy and greed, principles that, in large part, have led us to a complete, catastrophic transformation of the world, dividing us as individuals and a society.
Felber states that in the future, the values that have allowed the existence of society to date must be repositioned as the backbone of economic relationships, with our attention turned to the main human values, those we have highlighted and that center the search for the common good and cooperation [34].
These values – cooperation, respect, empathy, solidarity – have been at the foundation of the historical constitution of the human being, whether forming one’s closest circles or giving rise to an endless multiplicity of communities with different characters or orientations, while also lending importance to the condition of being a society and constructing the different rationalities present in the world; among the various spaces for communal relationships, we can mention neighborhood (grassroots organizations, community meals, for solidarity purposes), ethnic, youth, school, athletic, regional/local, academic and institutional (non-profit NGOs, associations), and production (family gardens) communities and socioenvironmental movements; it can be stated that in every human activity values that are not governed by individualism, selfishness, gain, accumulation of power, and commercial competitiveness are put into action and flourish. Furthermore, common sense values that are true gifts, similar to the previously mentioned ecosystem services, circulate. These relationships are not based on a monetary value; rather, they require only reciprocity from those involved.
In this case, the commons can be spoken of as reserve of life, collaboration synergies, and relational democratic governance. The global crisis demands exactly these commons, that which makes up part of social/natural life, but has historically been expropriated from local contexts. Nonetheless, many disadvantaged families make use of these valuable human and natural resources – the commons – to survive the dire pandemic and environmental emergency.
However, while it is relatively easy to talk of the commons, it is more difficult to understand the process of “enclosure of the commons” that culture and sources of traditional values are subjected to by the capitalist market, especially the neoliberal market, raising the question of how this enclosure process occurs. David Bollier [35] states that, faced with the uncontrolled power of the markets:
“it becomes quite clear that the privatization and commodification of our shared wealth is one of the great unacknowledged scandals of our time. This process is often called the enclosure of the commons. It’s a process by which corporations pluck valuable resources from their natural contexts, often with government support and sanction, and declare that they be valued through market prices. The point is to convert resources that are shared and used by many to ones that are privately owned and controlled, and treat them as tradeable commodities” ([35]: 43).
A review of the history of common goods shows that they have been present throughout practically all human history, with their presence and application merely hidden in some periods, mainly by the prevailing rationality. In the Roman Empire, shortly after the year 500, universal common goods such as air, running water, and the coast were already recognized. These rights, arising in Rome and ratified in the Magna Carta, laid the groundwork for what today is discussed in international law, and in their time ensured the sustainability of communities and the environment that surrounded them [36].
It is paradoxical, not to mention curious – and absurd – that, in the 21st century, we are still discussing the public or private nature of resources such as water and, of course, many other natural resources that have historically been recognized as common, public goods. In this regard, the Chilean discussion is important, but the country must learn from the past, including its own history, and modernize the legal status of natural resources such as water its approach to defending them; water in particular is scarce and diminished as a result of institutional management, extractive production activities, and the negative impacts of climate change.
The history of the commons continues to unfold, despite the enclosures being carried out by large multinational companies, with the complicity of governments; this history must be recognized by governments in the same way that societies have already recognized it, rooting and recognizing the different expressions associated with these common goods. Recognition or particular attention has been given to only some commons, ascribing a traditional character to them, with the focus on natural resources such as water, forests, arable land, or biodiversity.
These commons that have been recognized and are the focus of contemporary research seek to solve the problems of sustainable access, management, and distribution of natural resources; it is here that some communities and bioregions have experimented, using their local knowledge systems. Thus, many examples have emerged, which, according to Bollier [36] ultimately develop “a socio-ecological system that blends social customs and practices with the natural dynamics of a river, forest or farmland” (2014: 128).
The commons that operate outside the market system are vital for around “two billion people in the world” ([36]: 129). The massiveness of the commons that are present and operate in different territories is accompanied approaches to local self-determination of these communities, which are a means of celebrating and protecting their distinct identity-forming elements, reaffirming their sense of rootedness.
David Bollier [36] highlights some examples of these commons that have been valorized by local communities. In Peru, the Potato Park, created as a “landscape conservation commons,” has given Andean indigenous groups the possibility of exercising their right to manage a variety of endogenous species of this tuber, maintaining the productive heterogeneity developed by the ancient Incas: “Officially known as an Indigenous Biocultural Heritage Area (PBCI), the Potato Park authorizes 7,000 villagers from six indigenous communities (Amaru, Chawaytire, Cuyo Grande, Pampalaqta, Pau-Paru and Sacaca) to jointly manage their communal land for their collective benefit” ([36]: 130).
Another interesting example, worthy of repeating, comprises ways of preserving traditional knowledge, driven by commoners in India, who have created the Traditional Digital Knowledge Library, a platform that acts as an organizer and database of ancestral medicinal knowledge, in addition to serving as a means of resisting the advancing pharmaceutical patent market. A third example highlighted by Bollier consists of the legal instruments created by South African lawyers called “biocultural community protocols,” which are also intended to conserve the expressions associated with traditional ecological knowledge systems [36].
There are certainly numerous valuable experiences with commons in various corners of the globe; indigenous communities in Chile have maintained and continue to develop ancestral practices guided by these commons in different aspects of life: in agriculture, along coastlines and riverbanks, in forests, and through countless rites, traditional customs, unique institutions, religious worldviews, and community social relations. The preservation of these ways of life has resisted colonialism and the interventionist power of the modern state and big businesses, with little support from current government institutions.
As we have seen, such experiences have taken place in many countries, and the global crisis has lent them greater visibility, highlighting their effectiveness at confronting some of the basic problems of the population. In the face of the absence of or abandonment by the state, the population resorts to these common experiences and knowledges, mobilizing millions of people motivated by ancestral culture and armed with good feelings and innovative initiatives.
The commons are not relics of a “premodern” past that must be wiped off the map and removed from socio-productive life; on the contrary, the commons, relevant in many places and regions in the world, represent a true life reserve and hope for change from the current prevailing way of life. They represent deep-rooted cultures endowed with powers and values capable of confronting the great problems and challenges presented by the global crisis. Of course, their solution is neither “magical” nor the only solution; rather, it is simply one of the many valid alternatives that, to the extent that it has survived many previous crises throughout history, also contains innate strength to face the current crises. That which survives does so because it has the internal and ecological strength to achieve survival; therefore, it should not be undervalued. Instead, the commons should be resignified and revalorized as solid spaces for opportunities for a new start and a sustainable future.
The commons comprise a socio-natural, historical foundation that, along with basic income and good social life, provide greater security and can decrease existential anxieties, making them a crucial supporting condition for the human and community resilience of the social being.
5. Resilience of the social being and good public policies: adaptation capacities amid disasters, anxieties, and pandemics
The modern age, in philosophical and sociological discourse, is considered the age of uncertainty. The crisis of reason – and its diverse rationalities – as an absolute instrument to understand and direct human activity that rules us up to the present day, introduced uncertainty to life. No longer would anything be certain. Reason could cause one to question anything. According to Hegel, reason would play the historical-idealist role – understood as an immanent process – of self-comprehension of the world or self-affirmation, in the words of Habermas. Meanwhile, Max Weber defined this process as the “disenchantment of the world.” Adorno, in defining the role of sociology in modern life, refers to “revealing” reality, showing it as it really is at its core that is hidden by the system of domination. Ulrich Beck conceptualizes the global risk society when referring to the evolution of the capitalist world and its self-exposure to insecurities and risks that are intra-systematically organized by the powers that be. Edgar Morin developed the theory of complex thought specifically to confront the risks of the blindness of positivist, linear thought and overcome the uncertainties an threats of epochal collapse. And Boaventura de Sousa Santos, in his Epistemologies of the South, appeals to the ecology of knowledges and inter-knowledge to face the environmental and development crisis.
As the modern age has arisen marked by uncertainty and insecurity, the individual feels thrust into an uncertain future that he must try to understand and somehow adapt to if he wants to survive and achieve a certain level of wellbeing or even happiness. In other words, to enter modernity means to enter unknown terrain of human fulfillment, which of course causes insecurities and anxieties over present and future life, historically reinforced by tragedies and catastrophes of various sorts, as expressed very well by the authors Evans and Reid:
“Catastrophically speaking, the prevailing mode of contemporary affect is a state of normalised anxiety. Fear of course remains a constitutive element. But it is anxiety which is more apt in explaining the well-being of the resilient subject. Anxious conditioning is default setting for a system which is insecure by design” ([37]: 128).
The exponential increase in socio-natural disasters, particularly those fueled by global climate change and, currently, the terrible human impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, has led to frequent use of the concept of resilience as a human capacity to resist catastrophic events and readapt to new situations of vulnerability and existential uncertainty. It is a form of appeal to immanent capacities, to the human and social capital of people and communities to confront grave problems and threats to life and planet Earth. Thus, it is very enlightening to refer to the terms in which renowned psychologist Sula Wolff defines resilience:
“Resilience is an enduring aspect of the person. Genetic and other constitutionally based qualities both determine and are in turn modified by life experiences. Good intelligence plays a major part, as does an easy, adaptable, sociable temperament which, together with an appealing appearance, attract positive responses from others which in turn contribute to that inner sense of self-worth, competence and self-efficacy that has repeatedly been identified as a vital component of resilience. The sources of such positive responses are threefold: primary relationships within the family; the network of relationships with adults and children outside the family; and competence and achievement” (Sula Wolff [38], cited by [37]:139–140).
Resilience is naturally a very important human capacity when facing a multi-crisis, threats, and catastrophes, but it is not enough as a lone, isolated resource. Furthermore, as the author notes, resilience depends on genetic, inherited factors, good families, and good socialization, but it also depends on external factors and determinants, especially the sociocultural and ecological conditions in which one must live, which can benefit or harm the development of personality, self-esteem, and, therefore, resilience capacities.
The passage from uncertainty and human suffering and anxieties to the enjoyment of greater and better levels of certainty and personal and community security also depends on the quality of the sociocultural environment, especially good public policies, basic state protection of children, young people, adults, women, and indigenous communities, as well as the ecosystems – their biodiversity – in which human life unfolds interdependently. The COVID-19 pandemic has hit the population unevenly. According to preliminary assessments, the most vulnerable populations, those without adequate infrastructure, good housing, space to spread out, economic resources to endure and survive job losses, that live in areas without drinking water and local primary health services (hospitals, clinics), that do not have access to healthy food or green areas, or simply lack social support networks, as often happens with seniors; these most disadvantaged, social sectors, poor or impoverished by the pandemic, have been – are – the people, families, and communities that have suffered the most terrible consequences of the spread and mutations of COVID-19. They have suffered the most infections and losses in their families and closest social circles. Indeed, in Latin America there are millions of people who, abandoned by the neoliberal state, have suffered grave consequences of the pandemic. But this has also occurred in developed countries, in the countries of the so-called “North.”
Good public policies that are concerned with and strengthen the social being and human life and protect ecology and common goods are fundamental pillars for facing the crucial moment that humanity, communities, and the planet are living through with strength, scientific knowledge, physical and mental health, innovation, and human sensitivity and opening new paths to present and future socioecological sustainability.
6. Concluding remarks
In this chapter we discuss the illusion and threat of unlimited growth on a finite planet with limited resources. The neoliberal model has driven this trend during the last 40 years in Latin America and other regions of the world, bringing some economic prosperity, but under an unequal distribution of benefits and environmental degradation. It is then about moving towards a model of sustainability in harmony and respect for nature and reestablishing a new relationship between society and nature. In that sense, a potential path to recovery is to look back, turn to traditional and ecological knowledge that could help modern society increase resilience and move towards a more sustainable society, preventing the collapse of the planet and providing quality life to the population.
Now, to open towards a more eco-human society, it is necessary to deal with the narcissistic culture present historically and in various ways in social and institutional life, as Lasch has studied in depth:
“Narcissism is, realistically, the best way to deal with the stresses and anxieties of modern life. Current social conditions tend to bring out narcissistic traits that are present to a greater or lesser degree in each of us. These conditions have also transformed the family, which shapes the underlying structure of the personality. A society fearful of having no future probably pays scant attention to the needs of the next generation, and the ever-present sense of historical discontinuity - the ruin of our society - falls with devastating consequences on the family.”
The perception of the world as a dangerous and restrictive place, although it originates from a realistic understanding of the insecurity of modern social life, is reinforced by the narcissistic projection of aggressive impulses. The belief that society has no future, which implies a realistic perception of the dangers that threaten it, incorporates at the same time the narcissistic ineptitude to identify with posterity or to feel part of the historical flow”([39]: 74–75).
For its part, according to this author, the prevailing social bellicosity in modern society - which would tend to produce antisocial men and women - would weaken social ties, as a reflection of a narcissistic defense of dependency. The author places narcissism in a permanent struggle between the desire/illusion of self-sufficiency of the human being and the dependence imposed by its own limits and life in society. Furthermore, he rightly argues that modern capitalist society “makes explicit and reinforces the narcissistic traits of everyone” ([39]: 280). This trend is clearly expressed for example in the promotion of aggressive mass consumer behaviour, fashions, individualistic competitiveness and, in general, in the ontological belief of individuality. Lasch sees the way out of this kind of existential dualism in the limits:
“The great hope for emotional maturation seems to lie, then, in a recognition of our need and dependence on people who, despite this, continue to be different from us and refuse to submit to our whims. It rests in an acknowledgment of others, not as a projection of our wishes, but as independent entities with their own wishes. In a broader sense, it rests on accepting our limits” ([39]: 291).
Sennett reinforces the approach to the dissolution of social ties, by analyzing the type of capitalism that drives the human character with the strategy of “Nothing in the long term” that is especially applied to work:
“How can long-term goals be pursued in a short-term society? How to maintain lasting social relationships? How can a human being develop an account of his identity and life history in a society made up of episodes and fragments? The conditions of the new economy are fed by an experience that drifts in time, from one place to another, from one job to another. If I could establish Rico’s dilemma (labor flexibility situation of a worker analyzed by the author) in broader terms, I would say that short-term capitalism threatens to corrode his character, especially those aspects of character that unite human beings. each other and give each one of them a feeling of a sustainable self” ([40]: 25).
For Sennett, the flexible strategy of “Nothing in the long term” - destabilizing the subject - of capitalism, can be counteracted through the construction of the community, which also constitutes a historical counter-trend, which cultivates trust, security, collaboration and, it facilitates null human emancipation.
In a broad and sociological sense, it is also necessary to recognize that narcissistic tendencies.These are social constructions - as Lasch also recognizes in a way - disorganizing collective life and functional to the establishment of domination systems.
For his part, for Adorno, human life is essentially coexistence; the human being is a neighbor rather than an individual, he relates first to others rather than to himself; it exists thanks to the other, it is what it is thanks to the others; It does not exist primarily defined by an indivisibility and particularity, but thanks to the fact that it participates in others and can communicate with others. The individual is a moment of relationships, in which he lives, before he perhaps once decides for himself. This relationship is not something external, but something of his own, internal to himself; within social relationships individual life acquires meaning. Furthermore, the individual biography of each person is a social category [41].
Precisely, the traditional experiences and visions explained in this work constitute historical tendencies for the construction of life in common, true non-capitalist spaces, which represent hopes for a better human life, which coexists and shares goods with ecosystems.
In this sense, Buen Vivir, a traditional vision of the Andean peoples, could represent a path towards transformative, socio-ecological change, which we must promote by returning to the local commons and rebuilding the human community in its diversity and interdependence with ecosystems. COVID 19 can represent a catalytic drive for these relocation and movement processes in a bottom-up approach, that is, from the local to the regional and global scale. Collaboration and synergies are essential to move towards better means and quality of life.
A less materials-intensive, circular economy approach that maintains the usefulness of resources for longer, but at the same time generates less waste and pollution, can help advance towards sustainability goals, as well as provide more space. to natural environments that allow their ecological self-reproduction, even in regulated coexistence with urban environments. Proper consideration of the conservation of local commons is a cornerstone for achieving community sustainability and resilience in these times of pandemic and multi-crisis, including, by the way, the global climate. By providing individuals, families and communities with the basics to live, through a universal basic income -recognized as a human right of the 21st century-, we will ensure the basis for prosperity, cohesion and social peace, avoiding unworthy aspects, suffering and depressing poverty, as well as avoiding environmental degradation. The strengthening of social resilience that stops the disastrous impacts of climate change and the pandemic that generally hits the poorest and most vulnerable, should be the fundamental basis for the definition of good public policies. Finally, it is necessary to move towards better public policies that aim to reduce the impacts of the current crisis on the population, that decarbonize economic activity and significantly reduce the ecological footprint of the development model.
Acknowledgments
This article is part of the research and sponsored by the Center for Water Resources for Agriculture and Mining, CRHIAM/ANID/FONDAP/15130015.
\n',keywords:"Local knowledge, relocation, nature, interdependence, collaboration, pandemic, uncertainty, climate change, adaptation, resilience, commons, Anthropocene",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77510.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77510.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77510",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77510",totalDownloads:232,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:2,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:36,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"March 19th 2021",dateReviewed:"May 20th 2021",datePrePublished:"July 12th 2021",datePublished:"November 3rd 2021",dateFinished:"July 12th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The pandemic afflicting the world is accompanied by a social, economic, political, cultural, and climatic multi-crisis. It is the crisis of the Anthropocene Era and modern paradigms. Modern society is in a complex situation. The responses to the multicrisis, including the pandemic, will probably come from the revalorization and resignification of experiences and socioecological knowledge of communities. Their historical experiences, currently fragmented by modernization processes, will be able to intercommunicate and, with resilient energy, open new possibilities for human and planetary life. It will be a great transformation, in which old and new models of development will be in tension. These tensions will also be expressed in the form of social and political radicalization and result in conflicts over natural resources, especially water, natural forests, ecosystems, and productive land. Human and planetary life is seriously threatened. Intellectual and scientific activity must connect with the ecological knowledge of local communities to defend human and natural life.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77510",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77510",book:{id:"10814",slug:"anxiety-uncertainty-and-resilience-during-the-pandemic-period-anthropological-and-psychological-perspectives"},signatures:"Jorge Rojas Hernández, Patricio Silva Ávila and Ricardo Barra Ríos",authors:[{id:"291624",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Hernández",fullName:"Jorge Rojas Hernández",slug:"jorge-rojas-hernandez",email:"jrojash.1975@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Gesellschaft",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"414334",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Barra",fullName:"Ricardo Barra",slug:"ricardo-barra",email:"ricbarra@udec.cl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Concepción",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"423510",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricio",middleName:null,surname:"Silva Ávila",fullName:"Patricio Silva Ávila",slug:"patricio-silva-avila",email:"dummy+423510@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Ecology of knowledges and community experiences: socio-eco potentials of development alternatives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Challenges of global climate change: inter-species collaboration and universal basic income",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The commons as a life reserve: sense of community, collaboration, identity, and adaptation to crisis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Resilience of the social being and good public policies: adaptation capacities amid disasters, anxieties, and pandemics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Concluding remarks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Daly, H. & Kunkel, B. (2019) Ecologías de escala. New Left Review, N°109, Pp.88-105. https://newleftreview.es/issues/109/articles/herman-daly-benjamin-kunkel-ecologias-de-escala.pdf'},{id:"B2",body:'Latouche, S. (2006). La apuesta por el decrecimiento. ¿Cómo salir del imaginario dominante? 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Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany
Sociology Department, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Concepción, Chile
Water Research Center for Agriculture and Mining (CRHIAM), Chile
CLACSO Latin American Council of Social Sciences: “Prácticas Emancipatorias, Metodologías Decoloniales y Transformadoras”, Argentina
Thematic Network “Transnational change, social inequality, intercultural exchange and aesthetic manifestations: the example of Patagonia. Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, DAAD, Germany, University of Concepcion, Chile
Master in Regional Sciences, University of Concepcion, Chile
Doctoral Program in Environmental Sciences UdeC, Chile
Water and Society Cluster CRHIAM Clúster, Chile
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Ricardo Barra Ríos",address:null,affiliation:'
Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Concepcion, Chile
EULA-Chile Centre, Chile
CRHIAM Centre, Chile
Millennium Institute on Coastal Socio Ecological Systems SECOS, Chile
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1. Introduction
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been described as the importance of pursuing environmental and social goals involving all shareholders and not just financial goals [1].
In a similar context, the concept of sustainability also comes up. Both CSR and sustainability are widely used terms. According to [2], sustainability requires us to “meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (page 41). Therefore, CSR is the contribution of companies to sustainable development efforts, taking into account the impact of their social and environmental actions and their contribution to the improvement of society as a whole and of the surrounding environment [3].
CSR has been studied over the years with a special emphasis on the benefits it does generate in the company’s financial performance. Many authors who have addressed the relationship between CSR and financial performance have come to different conclusions. Many claim that there is a positive relationship [4, 5, 6], others argue that the existing relationship is negative [7, 8], while others claim that there is no relationship at all [9]. These differences may be due to the lack of theoretical support behind the hypotheses formulated and the limitations in the design and size of the sample and the variables used [10]. Also, Davidson and Worrell [11] state that sometimes doubtful CSR indexes or inappropriate techniques are used, which may contribute to the mix results found in the literature.
Our main motivation to study this topic is directly related to the growing concern of companies with the environmental and social issues, since there is a greater understanding that being socially responsible increases their reputation and image, thus generating short-, medium-, and long-term benefits. In addition, most studies on the relation between CSR and finance performance focus on a single industry or country.
Therefore, the main objective of this chapter is to analyze whether companies that pursue CSR-based policies have a higher level of financial performance compared to those that do not in an international sample. A separate analysis of this relationship will also be conducted and will be focused on the last financial crisis period in order to figure out whether or not companies sharing these environmental and social concerns have higher financial performances than their peers. To this end, 266 companies from 15 European countries were analyzed in a 10-year period from 2007 to 2016.
Results suggest that companies pursuing CSR-based policies have, on average, higher financial performance than those that do not. In the same way, during the period of financial crisis, companies pursuing CSR-based policies are found to have outperformed other companies in line with existing literature trends [12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
The study is divided as follows: Section 2 reviews the literature in order to have the theoretical support for the development of the hypothesis; Section 3 presents the sample selection process and the methodology used; Section 4 describes and analyzes the results obtained, and lastly, Section 5 presents the main conclusions.
2. Literature review
2.1 Sustainability and social responsibility—the same?
The concept of sustainability has undergone some changes in terms of approach, theories, and terminology. Its emergence was primarily due to a greater focus on existing environmental problems, but this concept has changed over time and gained a new perspective, including two further strands, the social and the economic [17]. In the past 15 years, scientific debate regarding sustainability has grown, focusing on the intertwining between the economic, environmental, and social goals [18]. Companies have begun to refer to this concept using different terminologies such as “sustainable development,” “sustainability,” “corporate social responsibility,” or “corporate responsibility.”
According to [19], the concept of sustainability that embraces the three trends listed above is called triple bottom line or three Ps: planet (environmental), people (social), and profit (economic). Each strand interconnects with the others in order to establish a balance of responsibility where all interests are balanced, thus generating value for the company. In the same way, over time, the concept of CSR has won the attention of companies and their shareholders, along with a new meaning, since companies have realized that their business purposes have broadened beyond the economic purpose of generating profit for its shareholders, now encompassing the interests of all stakeholders [20]. Indeed, according to [18], companies must consider the stakeholders’ expectations and decisions. These authors highlighted the stakeholders’ involvement and their role in the strategic management of organizations as a relevant topic for academic scholars. Also, Del Giudice et al. [21] underlined the crucial role played by owner-managers when engaging in sustainability activities jointly with employees and other stakeholders.
Currently, the pressure on business is high, and shareholders are increasingly asking companies for information not only on the economic and financial performance but also on their environmental and social concerns [22, 23, 24, 25]. Thus, a greater transparency about the CSR activities is expected by shareholders [26]. In fact, with the emergence of greater environmental and social concerns, a greater emphasis on business transparency and accountability began to emerge. Following these new expectations, stakeholders are demonstrating a growing interest on sustainability performance and thus there is an increasing pressure on businesses to report on sustainability [18]. The nonfinancial reporting, together with the financial reporting, aims to provide shareholders “with the picture of corporate positions and activities on the economic, environmental and social fronts. In short, such reports attempt to describe company’s contribution toward to sustainable development” [27], page 9).
Moreover, Cucari et al. [26] highlighted the importance of companies having a CSR committee. Indeed, through a CSR committee, companies can better plan and implement sustainable projects, enhancing the awareness and involvement of the stakeholders and ensuring the quality of the reporting process.
As can be seen, although sustainability has emerged from environmental problems and CSR from the emergence of social problems, both have a common intention, since their ultimate goal is to balance on both sides.
2.2 Benefits and limitations of pursuing a CSR-based policy
There are many reasons for pursuing a CSR-based policy. Kurucz et al. [28] define four reasons:
Cost and risk reduction—environmental investments can lead to cost and risk reduction for the company, as there is present and future compliance with environmental legislation [29]. Building positive relationships with the surrounding community also results in reduced risks and costs [29].
Competitive advantage—Singha et al. [30] suggest that environmental ethics influences environmental performance and competitive advantage. Competitive advantage is built thanks to the business commitment and adoption of CSR activities in order to meet the stakeholder’s requirements. One of the most commonly used examples in literature is consumer loyalty. Pivato [31] shows that increased consumer loyalty is often the result of the adoption of CSR activities by companies. Also, socially responsible companies attract more investment. Certain investors avoid companies that do not fulfill their defined values and mission, which break the law and its principles [32].
Reputation development—Smith [33] argues that CSR activities attract investors, consumers, and workers and explains that many workers prefer to work in companies that are more socially responsible. Brammer and Pavelin [34] underline the great importance of disclosing social responsibility reports.
Value creation—Value creation through CSR practices enables companies, on the one hand, to meet the demands of all shareholders and, on the other hand, to pursue operations inherent to its core business. By enabling the involvement of all related parties and meeting their demands, the company can achieve a greater financial performance with the support of all through new opportunities and solutions [35].
However, the adoption of strategies that meet the concept of CSR may involve certain costs for companies, such as the implementation of quality control equipment, the purchase of environmentally friendly equipment. Hence, it is necessary to analyze the benefits and the risks and costs of applying CSR in the business world.
2.3 Relationship between CSR and financial performance
For any company, when costs or investments of any kind are incurred, the financial return is always analyzed, that is, an investment is considered good when it generates future benefits. Thus, in order to fully understand whether the application of the CSR concept has a positive impact on the company, a link must be established with the future benefits it may bring (or not) to the company’s financial performance. Thus, the relationship between CSR and corporate financial performance is a relevant topic in business management literature.
There is evidence of a positive relationship between CSR and financial performance [12, 14, 15, 16]. A good financial performance results in good social performance as companies that are more profitable have more resources to invest in social activities. On the other way, greater investment in social activities attracts more and better resources, conscious consumers, and a higher reputation, further generating greater competitive advantage over other companies.
Today, companies view reputation as an extremely important factor that must be maintained and protected [3]. A greater focus on CSR makes the company more appealing to investments and consequently leads to a higher financial performance [36], given that the current investors are aware of the importance of social, environmental, and economic concerns. Some authors also argue that there are larger investments in companies with better social performance [37]. Similarly, Eccles et al. [38] come to the conclusion that it really matters to invest in CSR. Companies that do so have a higher financial performance, creating greater value for all their shareholders, given that they gain loyal consumers and more committed workers. On the other way around, Singha et al. [30] highlight that committed workers and top management, along with sustainable environmental management practices, enhance the firm’s environmental performance and that, in turn, will positively influence its competitive advantage.
However, others authors, based on the shareholder theory, claim that the relationship between CSR and finance performance is negative because the company’s motto is the creation of profit for the shareholder and that is not consistent with the increased costs of social responsibility activities [39, 40]. Also, the incremental costs from social responsibility activities may lead to losses in the company’s competitive capacity [41]. Following this point of view, CSR activities have a negative impact on the financial performance and therefore reduce the shareholder benefits.
Considering the trend in literature according to which companies pursuing policies based on corporate social responsibility have a higher level of financial performance compared to those that do not, we formulated our hypothesis as follows:
Hypothesis: Companies that pursue CSR-based policies have a higher financial performance compared to those that do not.
3. Data and methodology
3.1 Sample and data collection
The sample was obtained from the STOXX Europe 600 Index and the information was accessed during February 2018. Financial information was taken from Bureau Van Dijk’s Amadeus database, version 14.07. Additional data was taken from FTSE Group and World Bank.
Our measure of CSR is based on The STOXX Europe Sustainability Index, a subset from the STOXX Europe 600 Index. It aggregates the selected companies according to a sector-business analysis together with sustainability assessments based on environmental, social, and economic criteria. The assessment is considered positive if the combination of company valuation and sector valuation results in a shaded matrix field in the Sarasin Sustainability Matrix [42].
From the initial sample of 600 companies, all those belonging to the public and financial sectors were excluded due to their specific rules and legislation, thus avoiding possible bias in the results. Companies for which it was not possible to calculate all the variables under study were also removed.
Besides, in order to avoid bias due to the extreme values found, outliers were also removed. Outliers are defined as the values of the variables below percentile 5% and above percentile 95%. Therefore, the final sample used for the study consists of 266 companies, with a total of 2660 observations.
Through the analysis of the sample composition by country (Table 1), we can see that most of the companies are from the United Kingdom with 84 companies (32%), France with 50 companies (19%), and Germany with 36 companies (14%).
Country
Number
% of Total
The United Kingdom
84
32
France
50
19
Germany
36
14
Sweden
17
6
Switzerland
17
6
Spain
14
5
Denmark
12
5
Finland
10
4
The Netherlands
8
3
Belgium
4
2
Norway
4
2
Italy
3
1
Portugal
3
1
Austria
2
0
Ireland
2
0
Total
266
100
Table 1.
Sample by country.
According to the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), the 266 companies were divided into 14 sectors. The most represented sectors are the professional, scientific, and technical services sectors with 85 companies (32%), followed by the industrial and other services sectors with, respectively, 53 companies (20%) and 34 companies (13%) (Table 2).
Sector
Number
% of Total
Mining and quarrying
11
4
Utility vehicles
0
0
Building and construction
9
3
Industrial
53
20
Retail trade
20
8
Transportation
11
4
Information
25
9
Real estate
6
2
Professional, scientific, and technical services
85
32
Administrative services, support, and waste management
3
1
Health care and social assistance
1
0
Art—entertainment and recreation
4
2
Hospitality and food services
4
2
Other services
34
13
Total
266
100
Table 2.
Sample by sector.
3.2 Empirical model
Prior research on CSR has measured financial performance using accounting-based measures or market-based measures (e.g., see [14, 43, 44]). As accounting-based measures, those authors have used return on equity (ROE) and return on assets (ROA) and, as market-based measures, they use the Tobin’s Q . These two types of measures can capture the two dimensions of financial performance: the short-term through ROE and ROA [15] and the long-term and future evaluation through Tobin’s Q [14]. Indeed, several authors choose to use Tobin’s Q in order to study the relation between CSR and financial performance in a long-term perspective [39, 45].
Following previous studies, financial performance is measured by both ROE and ROA as accounting measures of short-term financial performance. ROE provides information on how efficient the company is in using its shareholder’s invested capital [39], while ROA measures the efficiency that comes from using all company’s assets during a fiscal year, that is, the ability to generate earnings [15]. Both profitability ratios are based on the company’s net income over a given fiscal period because it is what effectively “remains” after all expenses are deducted from the income obtained, thus presenting the impact of financial policies and also the tax burden incurred by companies in different countries. We also use Tobin’s Q as a market-based measure of long-term value which has proven to be an important variable to assess the future financial performance [46].
Therefore, based on [43], three estimation models were developed to test the hypothesis:
CSR is a dummy variable that assumes the value 1 if the company belongs to the STOXX Europe Sustainability Index and value 0 otherwise. The STOXX Europe Sustainability Index aggregates companies based on their sustainability ratings. The index i represents each of the companies in the sample, and the index t refers to the year. The estimation method used was the pooled Ordinary Least Squares. We controlled for unobserved country and year heterogeneity using country and year fixed effects. The standard errors were grouped by company in order to correct the presence of autocorrelation.
Based on prior literature, the following control variables were chosen: Size, Leverage, Industry, Country, Financial Slack, and Crisis. Size is a relevant control variable since larger companies are assumed to have more visibility, and to generate a greater impact with their operations [47], they are more likely to adopt CSR policies compared to small companies [12, 23]. Financial leverage was also taken into account since high debt levels lead to high levels of financial leverage causing a negative impact on financial performance [48]. In line with this conclusion, [12] also showed that this negative impact continued to persist when financial leverage was introduced in a CSR regression.
In addition, the type of business activities [49] as well as the level of economic development of a country [50] may be related to a higher or lower CSR. Indeed, companies developing activities with high social and environmental impacts tend to adopt more CSR policies compared to others. Besides, companies with high liquidity are more likely to adopt CSR policies compared to others with less liquidity that can only focus on their own business activities [51]. Appendix 1 provides more detailed information about variables’ measurement.
4. Result analysis
4.1 Descriptive statistics
Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics of the variables for the total sample. ROE, ROA, and Tobin’s Q present averages of 14.0, 5.4, and 97.6% and medians of 13.5, 5.1, and 0.786%, respectively. Regarding the standard deviation statistical measure, the values are small regarding the averages of each of the variables and do not show huge discrepancies, suggesting a certain normality in the sample distribution.
Variáveis
Mean
Median
Max.
Min.
Standard deviation
ROE
0.140
0.135
0.720
−0.879
0.139
ROA
0.054
0.051
0.210
−0.786
0.058
Tobin’s Q
0.976
0.786
3.55
0.024
0.709
Size
6.855
6.831
8.121
4.817
0.569
Leverage
0.585
0.595
0.909
0.001
0.159
Financial lack
1.510
1.332
5.865
0.072
0.823
Table 3.
Descriptive statistics for the whole sample.
Furthermore, it is possible to observe that companies have, on average, a level of indebtedness of approximately 59%, suggesting that they rely more on external capital than on equity to meet the asset needs. In terms of the current liquidity, that is, the ability to meet short-term liabilities, the result is higher than 1 (1.51), which means that companies have a favorable short-term financial situation.
In a next step, we divided the sample into two subsets, companies that pursue social responsibility-based policies (SRSE) and those that do not (NRSE). Tables 4 and 5 present the values for the SRSE and NRSE, respectively.
Variables
Mean
Median
Max.
Min.
Standard deviation
ROE
0.156
0.147
0.582
−0.767
0.131
ROA
0.061
0.056
0.210
−0.786
0.060
Tobin’s Q
1.073
0.882
3.55
0.024
0.749
Size
6.974
6.969
8.046
5.315
0.499
Leverage
0.616
0.618
0.907
0.065
0.148
Financial Slack
1.419
1.306
5.728
0.072
0.719
Table 4.
Descriptive statistics for SRSE.
Variables
Mean
Median
Max.
Min.
Standard deviation
ROE
0.099
0.094
0.72
−0.879
0.148
ROA
0.037
0.036
0.198
−0.399
0.049
Tobin’s Q
0.724
0.597
3.368
0.024
0.516
Size
6.809
6.762
8.121
4.818
0.589
Leverage
0.573
0.587
0.909
0.001
0.163
Financial Slack
1.545
1.349
5.865
0.114
0.858
Table 5.
Descriptive statistics for NSRSE.
It is possible to observe that the SRSE shows, on average, higher values than the NRSE for all financial performance measures, which means that, on average, SRSE has a higher financial performance compared to the NRSE. Moreover, the average of Tobin’s Q in SRSE is higher than 1, while in NSRSE it is lower than 1, suggesting that companies pursuing social responsibility-based polices are more valued by the market.
For the remaining variables, on average, SRSE is larger than NRSE and the debt ratio is higher for SRSE compared to NRSE by approximately 4 percentage points (61.6% for SRSE and 57.3% for NRSE). On the contrary, Financial Slack presents higher value for NRSE (current liquidity of 1.545) on comparing to SRSE (current liquidity of 1.419).
Table 6 shows the results of the mean equality test of the dependent variables ROE, ROA, and Tobin’s Q . Results suggest that there is statistical evidence to assert that the means are different between SRSE and NSRSE, since the p-value is 0.000 in all dependent variables.
Companies
Number
ROE
ROA
Tobin’s Q
SRSE
740
0.156
0.061
1.073
NRSE
1920
0.099
0.037
0.724
p-Value
0.000
0.000
0.000
Table 6.
Mean t-test results.
The correlation between the different variables is presented in Appendix 2. Most of the variables do not show strong correlations with each other and are statistically significant at 1%, except for the correlation of the Leverage and Low Impact variables, which are statistically significant at 5%.
The dependent variables ROE, ROA, and Tobin’s Q are positively correlated with the independent variable CSR, suggesting that firms that pursue CSR activities have higher financial performance. Regarding the control variables, Size, Low Impact, Country, and Financial Slack are positively related to the dependent variables, suggesting that companies with higher financial performance values are larger, have low environmental impacts, belong to countries with high economic development, and have higher liquidity values. On the other hand, the dependent variables are negatively correlated with Leverage, Medium Impact, and High Impact, meaning that companies with high debt values and higher environmental impact have lower financial performance values.
A multicollinearity test was performed by calculating the variance inflation factors (VIFs). The values are less than 10, suggesting that there are no multicollinearity problems.
4.2 Relationship between CSR and performance level
The main results of the three linear regressions estimated, Eqs. (1)–(3), are presented in Table 7.
Regarding the coefficient of the independent variable CSR, it assumes positive values for all models, with statistical significance at 5%, suggesting that companies that pursue CSR-based policies have a higher financial performance compared to those that do not. This is most visible in model 3 as the coefficient has the highest value.
Regarding control variables, most have statistically significant coefficients at 1% except for the Leverage and Financial Slack variable in model 1 which is statistically significant at 5%; Size and Financial Slack in model 2, which is statistically significant only at 10% and 5%, respectively; and Financial Slack which has a statistically significant value at 5% in all models. The expected signal for all variables is also confirmed. Thus, the Size variable has a positive coefficient for all models, which means that assuming everything else remains constant, larger companies show higher financial performance. The Leverage variable has a negative coefficient in all models, which means that the higher the corporate indebtedness, the higher the leverage level and consequently the lower the financial performance, confirming the studies of Waddock and Graves and Capon et al. [12, 48]. Given the industry in which companies operate and the impact they have on environmental and social levels, it can be stated that the Low Impact variable has a positive coefficient for all models and the Medium Impact and High Impact variables present negative coefficients also for all models.
Regarding the Country variable, it has a positive coefficient for all the models, suggesting that firms in the countries with the highest level of economic development have higher financial performance. Finally, the Financial Slack variable also has a positive coefficient for all models, meaning that companies with higher working capital values have a higher financial performance.
Based on R2 values, the first model explains 13.0% of the total variation of the ROE, the second one 17.9% of the total variation of the ROA, and the third one 31.3% of the total variation of the Tobin’s Q . The third model shows the highest value, which is in agreement with the study by [52].
Finally, the models are valid in the explanation of the ROE, ROA, and Tobin’s Q measures because the p-value of the F-statistics is equal to 0.000 in all the models which means that the hypothesis of joint nullity of the independent variable coefficients can be rejected.
In conclusion, the results support our hypothesis that companies pursuing CSR-based policies have a higher financial performance compared to those that do not, both in the short-term (ROE and ROA) and in the long-term (Tobin’s Q).
4.3 Impact of financial crisis in financial performance
Given that most of the previous studies look at the relationship between CSR and financial performance in periods of nonfinancial crisis, it would be interesting to understand how this relationship works during periods of recession. In fact, the last economic and financial crisis (2009–2013) was considered by many as the worst financial crisis since the Great Recession of 1930 with a huge impact on the lives of companies, notably on their financial performance [53].
According to [54], financial crisis affects negatively corporate financial performance. During these periods, investors are more concerned about financial performance and the disclosure of CSR information may minimize this concern [55].
In order to focus on the effects of crisis on the financial performance of companies pursuing CSR policies, a modification was made to the models, including the Crisis dummy variable and a Crisis * CSR interaction variable. This modification makes the impact of the financial crisis on the relationship between CSR and the financial performance more clear [52].
Table 8 presents the main results of this additional analysis. We chose not to present the results for the remaining variables to make it simpler.
Relation between CSR and financial performance: Impact of crisis.
Statistical significance at 10%.
Statistical significance at 5%.
Statistical significance at 1%.
There is statistical evidence that, in years of crisis, companies with SRSE have a higher financial performance compared to NRSE, since the coefficient of the interaction variable Crisis * CSR is positive and statistically significant for the three models studied. Thus, keeping all other factors constant, in the years of financial crisis, it appears that the ROE for the SRSE is on average 0.072 higher than ROE for the NRSE, the ROA is 0.02 higher, and the Tobin’s Q is 0.114 higher, on comparing to the NRSE. The Crisis variable has a negative and statistically significant coefficient in all models, suggesting that the NRSE in the years affected by the financial crisis showed a reduction in financial performance. During the years of financial crisis, the SRSE presented an average increase of 0.038 units (0.072–0.034) in model 1, an increase of 0.008 units (0.020–0.012) in model 2, and an increase of 0.004 units (0.114–0.110) in model 3.
Given that the financial performance of SRSE decreased less than the financial performance of the NRSE during the period of crisis, it was possible to conclude that during the period of financial crisis, the financial performance of companies adopting CSR-based policies suffered fewer negative impacts compared to the financial performance of companies that do not. These results are in line with [56], which concluded that with the onset of the subprime financial crisis, the positive relationship between financial performance and CSR was disappearing but that was inverted when companies began implementing CSR strategies.
5. Conclusions
Companies pursuing corporate social responsibility policies have realized how important is to build and protect their corporate reputation through the use of corporate social responsibility policies, leaving behind the idea of the traditional company that focused on financial performance only.
This study was conducted to understand whether companies pursuing policies based on social responsibility outperform those that do not as well as how financial performance of both types of companies was affected by the financial crisis. Companies that have a good relationship with society, as the activities they perform improve the quality of life and the environment, are probably better accepted by the market and therefore are in a better position than the rest of companies.
The results suggest that indeed, on average, companies that pursue policies based on corporate social responsibility have higher values of financial performance compared to companies that do not pursue these policies, both in the short-term (ROE and ROA) and in the long-term (Tobin’s Q). This is in line with the studies by Griffin, Margolis and Walsh, and Orlitzky et al. [4, 5, 6].
During the period of crisis, it is possible to conclude that all companies suffered a reduction in financial performance. However, this reduction is less negative in companies that pursue policies based on corporate social responsibility. In fact, this group of companies maintained their performance above the others even during this period of crisis, which meets the findings of Marti et al. [52].
This study contributes to the existing literature on social responsibility and corporate financial performance by providing an overview of the positive aspects of “betting” on social responsibility policies and the resulting benefits. It also contributes to the literatures that study the impact of financial crisis on the relation between corporate social responsibility and finance performance. Thus, it highlights the idea that socially responsible companies benefit from a stronger reputation and image and are therefore better accepted by society, which in turn generates short- and long-term benefits.
The main difficulty found when preparing this study was the lack of information on the variables used, which contributed to reduce the size of the sample. Also, the lack of information made it impossible to use some important variables such as research and development. Therefore, our results should be interpreted with some caution.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful for the financial support from FCT-Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (Portugal), national funding through research grant (UIDB/04521/2020).
A.1 Appendix 1. Variables description
Variables
Calculation
Dependent variables
ROE
Ratio between net income and equity
ROA
Ratio between net income and total assets
Tobin’s Q
Ratio between market capitalization and total asset value
Independent variables
CSR
Dummy variable that assumes the value 1 if the company belongs to the STOXX Europe Sustainability Index and value 0 otherwise
Dummy variable assuming value 1 if the company is located in a country with a high gross national income growth rate and value 0 otherwise. Information was taken from World Bank.
Financial Slack
Current ratio (current assets divided by current liabilities)
Crisis
Dummy variable that assumes value 1 for the 2009–2013 period data and value 0 otherwise.
\n',keywords:"corporate social responsibility, financial crisis, financial performance, STOXX Europe 600, Tobin’s Q",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73206.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73206.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73206",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73206",totalDownloads:618,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 28th 2020",dateReviewed:"August 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"September 15th 2020",datePublished:"March 16th 2022",dateFinished:"September 14th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The main objective of this study is to analyze whether companies that pursue corporate social responsibility (CSR)-based policies have a higher level of financial performance compared to those that do not. Additionally, we study the effect of the last financial crisis on the relationship between CSR and financial performance in order to figure out whether or not companies sharing these environmental and social concerns had higher financial performance than their peers. To do so, three empirical models are designed, combining both traditional accounting measures (return on equity and return on assets) and a measure sensible to market values (Tobin’s Q) to assess the financial performance. A sample of 266 listed companies, from 15 European countries and 14 industries, listed on the STOXX Europe 600, is analyzed. Results suggest that companies pursuing CSR policies financially outperform their peers, and these results are supported even during the financial crisis period. This study highlights the idea that companies pursuing CSR policies put a considerable effort on building a stronger corporate reputation which in turn generates short- and long-term benefits, leaving behind the idea of the traditional companies that focused only on financial performance.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73206",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73206",signatures:"Cristina Gaio and Rita Henriques",book:{id:"9032",type:"book",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Corporate Social Responsibility",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-939-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-938-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-940-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"321584",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gaio",fullName:"Cristina Gaio",slug:"cristina-gaio",email:"cgaio@iseg.ulisboa.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"328223",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Henriques",fullName:"Rita Henriques",slug:"rita-henriques",email:"ritafuentes@iseg.ulisboa.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Literature review",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Sustainability and social responsibility—the same?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Benefits and limitations of pursuing a CSR-based policy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Relationship between CSR and financial performance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Data and methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Sample and data collection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Empirical model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Result analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Descriptive statistics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Relationship between CSR and performance level",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3 Impact of financial crisis in financial performance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"A.1 Appendix 1. 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Social reporting by companies listed on the alternative investment market. Journal of Business Ethics. 2008;79(3):345-360'},{id:"B50",body:'Ho FN, Wang HMD, Vitell SJ. A global analysis of corporate social performance: The effects of cultural and geographic environments. Journal of Business Ethics. 2012;107(4):423-233'},{id:"B51",body:'Myers SC, Majluf NS. Corporate financing and investment decisions when firms have information that investors do not have. Journal of Financial Economics. 1984;13(2):187-221'},{id:"B52",body:'Marti CP, Rovira-Val MR, Drescher LG. Are firms that contribute to sustainable development better financially? Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management. 2015;22(5):305-319'},{id:"B53",body:'Gunn JL., Khurana IK. Stein SE. Determinants and consequences of timely asset impairments during the financial crisis. Journal of Business Finance & Accounting. 2018;45(1-2):3-39'},{id:"B54",body:'Yu S, Lee N. Financial crisis, politically connected CEOs, and the performance of state-owned enterprises: Evidence from Korea. Emerging Markets Finance & Trade. 2016;52(9):2087-2099'},{id:"B55",body:'Mia P, Al MA. Corporate social disclosure during the global financial crisis. International Journal of Economics and Finance. 2011;3(6):174-187'},{id:"B56",body:'Ducassy I. Does corporate social responsibility pay off in times of crisis? An alternative perspective on the relationship between financial and corporate social performance. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management. 2013;20(3):157-167'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Cristina Gaio",address:"cgaio@iseg.ulisboa.pt",affiliation:'
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Based on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
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Based on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
The Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. His research interests include biochemistry, oxidative stress, reactive species, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, reproductive hormones, phenolic compounds, female infertility.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"41",type:"subseries",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. 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