Properties of untreated PKS.
\r\n\tThe human microbiota consists of a wide variety of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other single-celled animals that live in the body while microbiome is the name given to all of the genes inside these microbial cells. Recently, there has been renewed interest in the role played by microbiota and microbiome in both human health and human disease. A correct equilibrium between the human host and their microorganisms is important for an appropriate physiological function.
\r\n\tMicroorganisms have evolved alongside humans and form an integral part of life, carrying out a range of vital functions. They are implicated in both health and disease, and research has found links between bacterial populations, whether normal or disturbed, and the following diseases: asthma, cancer, diabetes, obesity, heart disease and, neurological and neurodegenerative diseases.
\r\n\tThe chapters of this book aim to present outstanding research on biochemical, genetics, clinical, molecular and behavioral fields about microbiota-gut-brain axis with emphasis in how neuropeptides such as brain derived factor (BDNF), substance P, calcitonin gene-related peptide and neuropeptide Y (NPY), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, somatostatin and corticotropin-releasing factor are also likely to play a role in the bidirectional gut-brain communication. In this capacity they may influence the activity of the gastrointestinal microbiota and its interaction with the gut-brain axis.
\r\n\tIt will be shown evidence that neuropeptides represents a challenge in understanding the complex interactions between gut and brain. Although their precise role in the microbiota-gut-brain axis has not yet been defined, neuropeptides play an important role in this respect. For instance, a growing field of work is implicating the microbiota-microbiome in a variety of psychological processes and neuropsychiatric disorders. These include mood and anxiety disorders, neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia, and even neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. These brain disturbances have been linked to molecular and biochemical alterations in the course of neurodevelopment so, the research in this area has established different approaches (nutritional, immunological, energy homeostasis), to find the role played by the gut microbiota-microbiome in the etiology of the aforementioned brain disorders.
In recent years, the increasing emission of CO2, SOx, and NOx has become a concern on the utilization of the world energy [1]. In the midst of limited availability of fossil fuels and high level of air pollution, energy efficient technologies are gaining importance, and gasification, being a highly efficient technology, has received significant attention [2]. Currently, coal is the main feedstock in gasification and is expected to be applied as the energy resource for many decades ahead. However, this direction is difficult to achieve due to the increase in energy demand that had caused the shortage supply and reduction of coal [3]. Consequently, one of the approaches is to utilize the biomass in thermochemical conversion such as pyrolysis, liquefaction, and gasification. The traditional use of biomass has been restricted to cooking and heating purposes, which has affected adverse impacts such as land degradation and desertification. However, the current use of biomass with a high-quality energy carrier transformed from raw biomass for electricity and heat production can substantially reduce emissions from the conventional power plants. This ability to convert raw biomass into convenient energy carriers increases the interest on biomass use for energy purpose, especially the lignocellulosic biomass [4].
Biomass is one of the capable renewable energy sources and is applied as solid, liquid, and gas fuels [5]. The biomass is an appealing concern worldwide, because of its nonedible characteristic, carbon neutrality, and relative abundance. Moreover, the rising worries about the effects of CO2 emissions from fossil fuels call for sustainable energy sources, such as biomass [6]. In Malaysia, oil palm residues are considered to be the most plentiful biomass and the greatest prospects for fuel generation. Malaysia produces about 47% of the world’s palm oil source and can be reflected as one of the world’s largest producers of palm oil. Therefore, Malaysia creates huge quantity of oil palm biomass including palm kernel shell (PKS), oil palm trunks, oil palm fronds, empty fruit bunches, and fibers as residues from harvesting and processing activities [7]. The PKS as one of the residues from oil palm industry generated about 4.19 MnT in 2016 [8]. Therefore, PKSs appear to have prominent capacities to become an alternative source of energy for the country.
However, the utilization of biomass, which is a renewable and environmental friendly resource during thermal conversion, imposed several problems. The untreated biomass has the drawbacks as follows:
Low energy content
High moisture and oxygenated compound
Hygroscopic behavior
Poor grindability
Likewise, it is reasonably challenging for straight application of untreated PKS as raw material for fuel production such as gasification or pyrolysis. Typically, the palm plantations and their processing plants are located in rural areas. Thus, the untreated PKS is opened to fungal attack and biodegradation through storage and transportation. The high moisture content also can interrupt the thermal conversion process for energy production [9]. The low energy density of PKS, normally 18 MJ/kg, with high moisture content typically around 10 wt.% as a result of its hygroscopic character, is a weakness of biomass [10, 11, 12]. As shown by the previous researcher [13, 14, 15], highly oxygenated biomass with high O/C ratio will lower the gasification efficiency in contrast with low O/C feedstock such as coal. Consequently, these properties of the untreated PKS were associated with several problems in biomass thermal conversion such as in gasification. As a result, prior to gasification, it might be attractive to transform the biomass characteristics.
A pretreatment method prior to thermal conversion is required in direction to reduce some of the aforementioned problems. Thus, torrefaction pretreatment appears to be an effective route. The thermal pretreatment or torrefaction at low temperature between 200 and 300°C, which operated in the nonappearance of oxygen, upgraded the untreated feedstock to more value feedstock. Nitrogen is generally used as carrier gas to provide a nonoxidizing atmosphere in most laboratory tests. Since torrefaction is conducted at conditions similar to those of pyrolysis that usually takes place between 350 and 650°C, torrefaction has also been known as mild pyrolysis [16]. The pretreated biomass has high calorific value and carbon fraction with low moisture content and O/C ratio compared to the untreated or original material. The energy value of pretreated material will increase with increasing carbon fraction and calorific value [17].
The previous studies have also shown other advantages of this torrefaction pretreatment, such as it improves feedstock hydrophobicity, homogeneity, and grindability [4, 18]. Satpathy et al. [19] found that the torrefied wheat and barley straw are more hydrophobic and the moisture uptake is reduced by 61–68% under suitable torrefaction condition. Torrefaction of marula seeds and blue gum improves the higher heating value and energy content of the biomass. The weight loss also increases when the torrefaction temperature increases due to moisture removal and hemicellulose breakdown, which produce H2O, CO, CO2, and other hydrocarbons [20].
Torrefaction temperature is one of the important parameters in torrefaction pretreatment [4]. Ibrahim et al. [21] found that the lower temperature and shorter residence time were the best treatment to achieve good physical properties with a relatively high energy yield. When treated at these conditions, the softwood mixture had the highest energy (95%), followed by the hardwood mixture (80%), then willow (79%), and finally eucalyptus (75%). Increasing the severity of the torrefaction conditions greatly improved the physical characteristics of the torrefied biomass, in terms of grindability properties and hydrophobicity. The optimum temperatures were reliant on raw material, and consequently, the effects specify that careful optimization is necessary for all feedstock types to increase the advantages of torrefaction at the same time preserving an adequate energy yield. As pretreatment conditions became more severe between temperature of 250 and 300°C, this led to a more qualified and energy-dense solid fuel with higher fixed carbon content, increased calorific values, and reduced hydrogen and oxygen contents [22]. By increasing the torrefaction temperature, the weight loss increased and bulk density decreased. The torrefied wood samples improved solid fuel property with high fuel ratio, which are close to lignite coal [23]. Mamvura et al. [20] found that the nonoxidative conditions with low heating rates and shorter residence time resulted in the best torrefied biomass. The increase in HHV together with increase in energy density for torrefied marula seeds during investigation intended that it is potential to co-conversion with coal making it a promising biomass source. Therefore, the pretreated or torrefied biomass, which has been improved in energy density, hydrophobicity, and grindability, overcomes the weakness of untreated biomass and is then driven to be applied in thermochemical conversion [4, 16].
Most of the biomass torrefactions applied the conventional electric heater, while there is an alternative technology designated microwave irradiation. Microwave technology has expanded remarkable importance in the thermochemical pretreatment of waste materials, including biomass, waste cooking oil, scrap tires, and others. Innovative fields are being exposed in which microwave can be applied as an alternative source of heating. The application of microwave in waste treatment originated about two decades ago. Therefore, it can be considered at an early stage of enlargement [24]. Microwave irradiation is an electromagnetic irradiation in the range of wavelengths from 0.01 to 1 m and the equivalent frequency range of 0.3–300 GHz. Normally, the microwave reactors for chemical synthesis and all domestic microwave ovens operate at 2.45 GHz frequency, which corresponds to a wavelength of 12.25 cm. Microwave irradiation has attracted much attention in recent years due to the advantages associated with dielectric heating effects. Microwave dielectrics are known as a material, which absorbs microwave irradiation; thus, microwave heating is called dielectric heating [25]. The pretreatment using microwave irradiation is an effective method for upgrading the biomass [26]. Unlike conventional heating technique in which heat gradually enters into samples over normal heat transfer mechanisms (convection, conduction, and radiation) [27], microwave irradiation employs electromagnetic energy to produce heat, which can enter deep into samples, permitting heating to initiate volumetrically [28]. Microwave irradiation has many advantages such as:
Noncontact heating
Energy transfer instead of heat transfer
Rapid heating
Selective material heating
Volumetric heating
Quick start-up and stopping
Wang et al. [30] utilized microwave irradiation to upgrade the properties of rice husk and sugarcane residues by varying different parameters, including microwave power level and processing time. They found that the suitable microwave power levels are proposed to be set between 250 and 300 W for the torrefaction of these two agricultural wastes. Also, with appropriate processing time, the caloric value is able to increase 26% for rice husk and 57% for sugarcane residue. Huang et al. [31] found that higher microwave power levels contributed to higher heating rate and reaction temperature and therefore produced the torrefied biomass with higher heating value and lower H/C and O/C ratios. The torrefied biomass or biochar probably substitutes coal due to high heating value and fuel ratio as well as low atomic H/C and O/C ratios. The microwave torrefaction of
Consequently, more research is required to entirely understand the characteristic of torrefied biomass using microwave irradiation prior to further thermochemical conversion. It is also necessary to understand the thermal decomposition of torrefied biomass during pyrolysis in thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) since, in the thermal conversion studies, the beginning stage involves the feedstock devolatilization. Therefore, in this study, the PKS was initially torrefied in microwave, and the properties of torrefied PKS were explored. Subsequently, the thermal decomposition and behavior of torrefied PKS during pyrolysis process using TGA were examined.
PKS as a biomass sample was obtained from United Oil Palm Mill Sdn. Bhd., Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia. The PKS is produced from the shell/kernel separator. The PKS sample was crushed and sieved through progressively finer screen to obtain particle sizes in the range of 200–400 μm. The untreated PKS sample was dried in an oven at 105°C for 24 h for rendering moisture-free and finally stored in an air-tight container until the experiments and analyses were carried out. The pre-drying is needed to avoid further biodegradation of the sample through storage since the moisture mass fraction of the raw PKS is relatively high [33]. Moreover, the pre-drying is used to simulate the industrial practice of sun-drying the materials before storage [6].
The torrefaction experiment was carried out in a domestic microwave oven (Samsung) with technical specifications of ~240 V and 50 Hz and a maximum power of 800 W. The microwave output power levels of 200, 300, 450, and 600 W were used in this study. The untreated PKS of 5 g was put in the sample crucible placed at the center of the microwave oven. Then, the nitrogen gas at a flow rate of 50 mL/min was purged in the reaction compartment to retain the inert atmosphere condition. After 10 min purging, the microwave system was turned on, and the microwave output power level was selected with respective processing time of 4, 8, and 12 min. The inert atmosphere condition was continued during the microwave irradiation. The power supply was turned off, and the nitrogen gas flow was stopped after the set processing time was achieved. The final temperature of the pretreated PKS was measured using infrared thermometer immediately after the pretreatment process. The final weight of pretreated PKS was measured once it reached the room temperature. The experiment under all of the studied parameters was repeated to confirm the measurement quality and repeatability of the achieved results.
The solid conversion (
where
The physical and chemical characteristics of the untreated and pretreated samples were analyzed. The elemental composition of the sample was examined using elemental analyzer CHNS-O Flash 2000. The elemental composition examines the carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and sulfur (S) contents. The oxygen content was analyzed by the different of total mass content. The sample of 2 mg was weighted and encapsulated into a tin capsule. The sample was placed in the sample loading chamber. During the analysis, the sample was dropped into a furnace held at 1000°C. At the same time the sample drops into the furnace, a dose of oxygen is released into the furnace. The sample was combusted by the heated oxygen-rich environment. The products of elemental analysis are CO2, H2O, NOx, and SOx. These gases, which were carried through the system by the helium carrier, will be swept through the oxidation tube packed with copper sticks (which removes oxygen), to complete the conversion to SO2. These gases are passed through four infrared detectors of C, H, N, and S, and the results were displayed as weight percent of C, H, N, and S.
The proximate analysis that analyzed the moisture, volatile matter, ash, and fixed carbon content was carried out using a Mettler Toledo thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) according to the standards of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). For each analysis, about 10 mg of sample was weighted using a microbalance and placed in a ceramic crucible. Next, this crucible was positioned in the furnace where the analysis was performed. The programmed TGA began by applying the heating rate of 20°C/min to heat the furnace from room temperature until the temperature reaches 950°C with a flow of an inert purified nitrogen gas at 100 mL/min. Then, the same heating rate was applied to increase the furnace temperature to 1300°C, and the gas being flowed at this combustion stage was changed to purified air. The trend of weight loss was recorded by thermogravimetry (TG) and derivative thermogravimetry (DTG). The data analysis was calculated based on weight loss procedure by the TGA software.
The Leco AC-350 bomb calorimeter was used to determine the calorific value (CV). The calorific value of a sample is determined by burning the sample in a controlled environment. The heat released by combustion is proportional to the calorific value of the substance. In the AC-350 bomb calorimeter, the weighed sample to be examined was located in a combustion vessel, which contains high-pressure atmospheric environment. The combustion vessel was surrounded by water and the sample is ignited. Succeeding that, the change in water temperature between pre-fire and post-fire was processed by the computer. The result was then being corrected for the length of fuse wire. The result, which is the calorific value, is then being shown on the display screen.
The Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra were recorded using a Perkin Elmer FTIR spectrophotometer. The spectral region from 4000 to 400 cm−1 was investigated. This spectrometer has a spectral resolution of 0.5 cm−1 standard with an accuracy in its higher wavelength of 0.01–3000 cm−1. The resulting spectrum represents the sample absorption, following in its molecular fingerprint, due to its own functional groups. The FTIR spectra provide a quick qualitative technique that uses the standard IR spectra to identify the functional groups of the sample. The fundamental properties of the untreated PKS are summarized in Table 1.
Properties of untreated PKS.
aCalculated by different.
The thermal decomposition of the untreated and pretreated PKS was discovered by pyrolysis using a Mettler Toledo TGA/DSC 1 STARe System. TGA provides a rapid method for determining the temperature-assisted decomposition profile of a sample and the kinetics of its thermal decomposition. A sample weight of 20 mg was inserted into 90 μL ceramic crucible. The pyrolysis temperature was raised from room temperature to 900°C. The experiments were conducted under heating rates of 10°C/min. The high-purity nitrogen with flow rate of 50 mL/min was used as a carrier gas to ensure the inert atmosphere during the pyrolysis process. The decomposition of the sample was analyzed using the TG curve, which showed the mass loss versus temperature and time curves of TGA experiment [34]. Also, the DTG curves, representing the rate of weight loss with the increasing temperature, indicated the determination of the decomposition and thermal characteristics of untreated and pretreated samples. Each untreated and pretreated sample was pyrolyzed at least twice. However, additional duplications were carried out where some inconsistencies were observed.
Figure 1 shows the temperature profiles of torrefied PKS at different processing time and microwave power levels. It shows that higher microwave power level contributed to increase the final temperature and heating rate. The torrefied PKS demonstrated increasing the final temperature and heating rate of 50.2–470.4°C and 12.6–117.6°C/min, respectively, when the microwave power level increased from 200 to 600 W in the first 4 min. These temperature profiles increased much steadily after about 4–8 min processing time. Conversely the temperature increment is not significant after 8–12 min processing time regardless the microwave power level. Therefore, higher processing time above 8 min was not necessary to upgrade the PKS. The microwave power level at 600 W with 4 min processing time was not suitable for upgrading the PKS, where it reached high heating rate of 117.5°C/min as the torrefaction requires heating rate equal or below 50°C/min [31].
Temperature profile of torrefied PKS at various processing time and microwave power levels.
Figure 2(a) and (b) represents the mass and energy yield of torrefied PKS, respectively. It can be seen that the microwave pretreatment decreased the mass and energy yield of torrefied PKS while applying higher microwave power at certain reaction time. For example, the mass yields of torrefied PKS for 4 min were 97.9, 96.1, 73.3, and 43.2%, while the energy yields were 100.5, 104.1, 84.9, and 52.8% at 200, 300, 450, and 600 W, respectively. The high mass and energy yield at 200 and 300 W were influenced from low reactivity at low microwave power level. While at moderate power level of 450 W, the mass and energy yield were reduced reasonably to 70.1 and 83.5%, respectively, at 8 min processing time. However, at a microwave power level of 600 W, the mass and energy yield extensively reduced toward 43.7 and 52.8%, respectively, at processing time of 4 min, because of the severe reaction at the high microwave power level. At the higher reaction temperatures, which also increase microwave power level, the volatilization reaction of biomass might become a predominant reaction during the pretreatment process. As a result, the mass and energy yield of biomass would be reduced. At operating condition of 450 W and 8 min, more than 70% of mass and 80% of energy have been remained in the torrefied PKS. This phenomenon should be due to the carbonization and volatilization reactions of biomass, which would take place at the same time during the pretreatment process.
(a) Mass yield of torrefied PKS at various microwave power and processing time, (b) Energy yield of torrefied PKS at various microwave power and processing time.
The CV is one of the main parameters for fuels to be used in subsequent thermal conversion. Figure 3 shows the CV of torrefied PKS at different microwave power levels for 8 min processing time. The CV of untreated PKS was 18.2 MJ/kg. At the microwave power level of 450 W, the torrefied PKS had the highest CV of 20.5 MJ/kg, which was 12.6% higher than untreated PKS. Commonly, higher microwave power level contributed to higher CV of pretreated feedstock. However, when the microwave power level increased from 450 to 600 W, the CV of torrefied PKS decreased. This may infer that when the reaction temperature is over 400°C due to higher microwave power levels (referring to Figure 2(b)), the fixed carbon content of biomass reduced resulting in the decrease of calorific value of torrefied PKS.
Calorific value of torrefied PKS at various microwave power with 8 min processing time.
The torrefied PKS at 8 min processing time was chosen for proximate analysis. Figure 4 shows the effect of microwave power level on moisture, volatile matter, and fixed carbon, respectively, of torrefied PKS. Generally, it can be seen that the moisture content and volatile matter decreased with increasing microwave power, in comparison to the untreated PKS. The results showed the characteristics of the torrefied PKS were altered due to high moisture content of untreated sample and its ability in absorbing microwave radiation. However, the fixed carbon of the torrefied PKS increased, with increasing microwave power level. The fixed carbon of the pretreated sample noticeably increased, representing a modification in quantity of energy per unit mass, which is related to the calorific value. Moreover, the decrease in volatile matter and moisture was observed. Since, the microwave pretreatment increases the carbon content, the fuel ratio of the irradiated samples eventually increased. This phenomenon was due to drying, volatilization, and decomposition of biomass feedstock during the pretreatment at higher microwave power.
Volatile matter, fixed carbon and moisture content of torrefied PKS at various microwave power level with 8 min processing time.
The ratio of fixed carbon to volatile matter content, which is the fuel ratio, can indicate the accurate feedstock for thermal conversion. The fuel ratios of torrefied PKS at different microwave power levels with 8 min processing time are presented in Figure 5. After microwave pretreatment, the fuel ratios of pretreated materials significantly increased with increasing microwave power level. The fuel ratios of torrefied PKS increased from 0.48 to 2.85 when the microwave power levels increased from 200 to 600 W. The fuel ratio of 1.1 for pretreated PKS at 450 W is comparable with typical fuel ratio of bituminous coal, which is around 1.0–2.5 [35].
Fuel ratio of torrefied PKS at various microwave power with 8 min processing time.
The torrefied PKS at 8 min processing time was chosen for ultimate analysis (carbon and oxygen content). Figure 6 shows the effect of microwave power level on carbon and oxygen content of pretreated PKS. In general, the results indicate that oxygen decreased and carbon increased with the increase in microwave power level. The oxygen was reduced up to 43% of pretreated PKS. On the contrary, carbon was increased up to 52 and 62% for torrefied PKS at the highest microwave power level of 600 W. The decrease in oxygen contents was generally attributable to the destruction of the hydroxyl group (–OH) in PKS during pretreatment, which consequently produced solid hydrophobic fuel. Eventually, by removing oxygen using microwave irradiation method, the energy density of the torrefied PKS increased.
Carbon and oxygen content of torrefied PKS at various microwave power with 8 min processing time.
Due to the decomposition and elimination of volatile matter during pretreatment process, the oxygen mass fraction of the pretreated products will be lowered. Therefore, as illustrated in Figure 7, the O/C ratio of all torrefied samples was lower than that the untreated sample. As the microwave power level increased, the O/C ratio of torrefied PKS is gradually reduced as more volatile matter is being released as a result of the continuous decomposition process. The reduction of the atomic ratios also indicates the measures of conversion efficiency and oxidation degree of pretreated products [16].
O/C ratio of torrefied PKS at various microwave power with 8 min processing time.
The torrefied PKS at 8 min processing time with microwave power of 200, 300, 450, and 600 W were chosen for functional group analysis. The chemical structure difference of untreated and pretreated PKS at various microwave power level was characterized using FTIR as shown in Figure 8. The FTIR spectra of untreated and pretreated PKS are similar in shape, but the intensity of the peaks is different. A broad peak at 3400 cm−1 for untreated PKS was associated to the hydroxyl group (–OH). These –OH groups exist with alcohols and phenols. The –OH peaks were remarkably decreased with the increase of the microwave power. The peaks at 2920 and 2880 cm−1 indicated aliphatic methylene groups. The peak intensity of pretreated PKS was smaller than raw PKS at higher microwave power of 450 and 600 W. The carbonyl group (C=O) bonds were observed at 1750 cm−1 corresponding to various acids, aldehydes, and ketones, which were formed by decomposition of cellulose and hemicellulose. The peak was smaller at higher torrefaction temperature, which was linked with breakdown of hemicellulose. Peaks at 1550 cm−1 present alkenes of C=C stretching. The most concentrated peaks were observed in the range of 1500–1000 cm−1 and assigned to C=O stretching and O–H deformation at organic compounds containing oxygen (alcohols, phenols, and ethers). Aromatic groups are represented by peak 790 cm−1 for PKS.
FTIR spectra of the untreated and pretreated PKS.
The torrefied PKS at 8 min processing time with microwave power of 300, 450, and 600 W were chosen for thermal decomposition in TGA. The analysis of pretreated sample at 200 W was not chosen because its characteristic was similar with the untreated sample as discussed in the earlier section. The DTG curve of untreated and pretreated PKS is presented in Figure 9. The untreated and pretreated PKS showed three noticeable peaks existed in the DTG curve. The main DTG peak at temperature range of 50–130°C indicated the moisture removal of the samples. The second DTG peak is located at 292 and 347°C, which referred to the maximum decomposition rate of hemicellulose and cellulose, respectively. After pretreated at microwave power level of 300 W, the peak was at 292°C and decreased slightly. However, the peak at 292°C moved to higher temperature at 373°C and significantly increased in the peak height. When the microwave power was increased to 450 and 600 W, the peak at 292 disappeared. Although the peak at 292°C moved to higher temperature at 373°C and significantly increased the peak height when pretreated at 450 W, there was a reduction in peak height after pretreated at 600 W. It is obvious that the second peak disappearance represents the hemicellulose lost at higher microwave power level at 450 W and above, whereas the third peak showed the cellulose retained, but the intensity was different. It is inferred that partial part of the cellulose and lignin remains and is not decomposed by the torrefaction using microwave irradiation [30].
DTG curve of the untreated and pretreated PKS.
This study presents the properties of torrefied PKS using thermal pretreatment via microwave irradiation. The torrefied PKS underwent physical and chemical modifications, which include mass reduction, rise in energy content, and change in chemical compositions. The increase in microwave power level showed the significant effect, which decreased the mass and energy yield of torrefied PKS. As the microwave power level increased, the moisture, volatile mater, oxygen content, and O/C ratio decreased. Among the microwave power-level variation studies, the carbon content and calorific value were enhanced to 55.94% and 21.20 MJ/kg, respectively, at microwave power of 450 W. The peak intensity of oxygenated functional group was reduced with the increase of the microwave power as presented in FTIR spectra. The TGA analysis has correlated the thermal decomposition with hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin in torrefied PKS. The research can be concluded that the PKS can be upgraded via MI pretreatment to a value-added feedstock at microwave power of 450 W with processing time of 8 min. Thus, the torrefied PKS has the prospective to be applied in thermochemical conversion such pyrolysis, liquefaction, and gasification or co-conversion with coal.
This research project is funded by the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia, under Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2017/TK10/UITM/02/11). The authors acknowledge Universiti Teknologi MARA and Universiti Malaysia Perlis for providing facilities during the research work.
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Protein is a necessary nutrient, but not all protein-rich foods are equally represented, and you may no longer require as much as you believe. Protein, together with carbs and fat, is one of the three essential crucial components. Protein is made from more than 20 amino acids that assist create and repair muscle fiber, so that it is known as the “building blocks” of your body. Adults should consume at least 0.8 g of protein per kg of body weight each day or little over 7 g every 20 lb of body weight. In 2005, it was projected that 20% of children under the age of five in the lowlands were overweight [1]. Even though southern Asia has the biggest number of children (74 million), East Africa and South East Asia have the highest stunting rate [1]. When nations with a stunting frequency of at least 20% were included, approximately 36 mainly consisted of 90% of all retarded young children [1].
According to various reports from Germany, the U.N, and French during the previous century, acute malnutrition was more prevalent among the hospitalized pediatric patients in Germany, the United Kingdom, the United States, and France [2, 3, 4]. Pawellek and colleagues discovered that 24% of children in a German major government hospital were underweight (90th percentile weight for height), with 17.9% mild malnutrition, 4.4% moderate malnutrition, and 1% severe, using Waterlow’s criteria. Undernutrition was found in 40% of patients with chondrogenesis, 34% of patients with infection, and 33.3% of patients with cystic fibrosis, 28.6% of patients with heart disease, 27.3% of patients with cancer treatment, and 23.6% of patients with gastrointestinal disorders [3]. Protein is necessary for proper growth and the avoidance of malnutrition.
The population of the world is predicted to double by 2063, from around 6.5 billion currently to 13 billion. Because proteins are the only one of three macronutrients in our diet (the others being carbohydrates and fats), ensuring that adequate protein is available to feed the world’s population is crucial. Proteins are made up of a variety of amino acid residues that are required for tissue growth, repair, and replenishment. Protein costs are rising as a result of societal shifts such as rising wages, increasing population, and living standards, where the value of proteins in healthy aging is well recognized [5, 6], as well as a growing recognition of the needs of protein in a healthy diet. Economic urban development is generating significant population dynamics nutritional status, particularly in moderate and high countries, with developing countries accounting for the majority of global increases in demand for animal-based meals [5].
Vegetables are not only the most energy effective in the green house, but they are also a major source of energy, nutrients, elements, protein, omega-3 fatty acids, and widely accessible energy for global agricultural production. Over 3000 plant species have been utilized for food by humans over history, with at least 50 species being farmed for business reasons. Nevertheless, approximately 20 different vegetable crops support the majority of the world’s population. Vegetables produce two-thirds of all dietary protein on the planet. Table 1 shows that cereal crops, especially, provide a significant amount of protein to the global protein supply. The data are derived from FAO and Agro state sites [7].
Protein (g) | Protein (%) | Energy (Kcal) | Energy (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total plant | 46.1 | 65 | 2277 | 84 |
Cereals | 33.7 | 47 | 1385 | 51 |
Pulses, nuts | 6.0 | 8 | 109 | 4 |
Starchy roots | 2.0 | 3 | 141 | 5 |
Other vegetables | 2.5 | 4 | 46 | 2 |
Fruits | 0.8 | 1 | 65 | 2 |
Total animal | 25.0 | 35 | 433 | 16 |
71.1 | 100 | 2710 | 100 |
Worldwide relative importance of various food groups and per capita intake.
Table 2 illustrates the amounts of necessary amino acids in various dietary sources, with the most restricting amino acids in protein sources meals shown in bold. The necessary protein lysine is significantly lower in vegetable-food protein classes than in animal nutrition, as can be shown. Children can thrive as well as recover from acute malnutrition if carefully prepared meals based exclusively on vegetable food sources are supplied. As a consequence, vegetable meals can supply the critical components needed for optimal health and function in the correct ratios and combinations. Protein sources meal combinations have the potential to be nutrient dense. Despite the soybean’s reduced sulfur content, soya, peanut and sesame flour, and cereal grains, for instance, are mostly poor in lysine. This suggests that oil-seed proteins, especially soy proteins, might be used efficiently for most cereal grains to enhance protein properties. Data from the FAO and the US Department of Agriculture are included in Table 2 [8].
Food source | Threonine | Tryptophan | Lysine | Sulfur amino acids |
---|---|---|---|---|
mg/g protein | ||||
Legumes | 38 ± 3 | 12 ± 4 | 64 ± 10 | 25 ± 3 |
Cereals | 32 ± 4 | 12 ± 2 | 31 ± 10 | 37 ± 5 |
Nuts, seeds | 36 ± 3 | 17 ± 3 | 45 ± 14 | 46 ± 17 |
Fruits | 29 ± 7 | 11 ± 2 | 45 ± 12 | 27 ± 6 |
Animal foods | 44 ± 6 | 12 ± 6 | 85 ± 9 | 38 ± 7 |
The presence of the amino acid content of different food protein source.
This is entirely dependent on the individual’s age, exercise level, weight, medical history, and desired outcomes. People who are sedentary have distinct needs, adults have different requirements, and athletes possess different needs. Assessments of protein requirements, as according to FAO/WHOIUNU [9], refer to metabolic activities that last for a long duration. Though protein and amino acid requirements are usually expressed as daily rates, this is not always the case, and this does not mean that they must be ingested every day. To preserve muscle mass and function, as well as to fight osteoporosis, the aged require a larger protein consumption than younger people [10, 11]. Although current guidelines recommend a protein consumption of 0.8 grams per kilogram body weight per day (g/kg/d) [12], it is been shown that fit and healthy seniors need a protein intake of 1.2 g/kg/d to avoid age-related weight gain and function [13, 14]. There is presently no evidence on the usual protein consumption of healthy and active older adults, including any potential differences between males and females, to our knowledge. Figure 1 shows how protein requirements differ depending on the individual [15].
Protein intake requirements on a daily basis.
Because our bodies are unable to manufacture critical amino acids, we must obtain them from food. Some amino acids found in proteins could not be used by our bodies. Figure 2 shows many forms of amino acids [15].
Types of amino acids with their importance.
When a person consumes vegetable-based protein, their nutritional needs are higher than when they consume animal protein. Figure 3 depicts the protein requirements for the plant. Vegetable-based proteins that include essential amino acids and branched-chain amino acids include soy, pea, and rice. These are complete proteins that are hypoallergenic and gluten free. Proteins are essential components of human diets because they aid in the maintenance of muscle mass, the regulation of immune responses, the healing of cells, and the enhancement of communication. Proteins are important components in functional meals because of their helpful activities in terms of delivering different proteins in the human diet, such as stiffening and meshing capability, emulsion, fizzing, water retention, and body fat [16, 17].
The protein requirements including essential amino acids and branched-chain amino acids.
Figure 4 shows a wide range of vegetable-based proteins derived from several sources. These can be extracted from low-cost and ecological sources such as agricultural wastes and crop and oil industry by-products, which can help to achieve food security [16].
Major plant-based protein sources.
Because of the varied metabolic requirements of certain tissues, rats, and humans have varying amino acid requirements. The fact that the protein-energy ratio of animal proteins (or a combination of proteins) does not reach its maximum value but rises when methionine is added supports the notion that rodents have a higher sulfur amino acid need than humans. The consumption of a protein in people can be measured by monitoring the fecal matter and urine nitrogen (N) losses; it is predicated on the nitrate adjustment study premise. These studies indicated that some vegetable proteins, particularly beans and wheat, are underappreciated. Wheat’s net protein utilization was calculated to be 41% when compared to egg protein. In humans, data show that most vegetable sources of protein have true digestibility in the 80–90% range, with references having lower digestibility (e.g., “rice, cereal”: 75% and “rice, polished”: 88%) and others having higher digestibility (e.g., “wheat, refined”: 96%, “soy protein isolate”: 95%). When protein percentage is purer, vegetable protein is much more digestive. Instead of looking at total nitrogen levels, per specific amino acid’s digestion should be studied, as this has been suggested for many years. Because some protein acids personal digestion fluctuates or is lower than that of others for several reasons, average digestion is an insufficient proxy with each protein bioavailability.
The digestibility of various dietary proteins was found to be between 89 and 95 % in investigations using advanced techniques. The findings were 89 %–92 % for soy protein isolate, pea protein flour or isolate, wheat flour, and lupine flour, which were close to those reported for eggs (91%) and meat (90 –94 %), but somewhat lower than those published for milk protein isolate (95 %). When absorbed at a level that fulfills the entire protein needs (e.g., 0.66 g/kg weight), a dietary protein with an amino acid score offers precisely the exact quantities of proteins that satisfy metabolic requirements and at a ratio in which no amino acid limits utilization of others. Lysine in grains and sulfur amino acids in beans typically emerge as restricted AAS stands for Amino acid score of vegetable protein. A closer analysis of the literature discloses that lysine rates are reduced or near zero in cereals such as sorghum, wheat, triticale (47, 49, and 62%), and rice (80%), and also low in few more both these sources (walnuts and almonds: 60%). In contrast, it is high or extremely high in other sources, notably legumes (e.g., pea: 168 %; fava bean: 152 %; soybean: 134 %) and animal proteins (milk: 168 %; beef: 193 %; egg: 160 %) [18].
Vegetable proteins can also be used to generate bioactive peptides. Most vegetable-based proteins, however, are insoluble in water due to their poor wettability, intricacy, and vulnerability to pH, osmotic pressure, and temperature, limiting their application. Flaxseed, soy, and pea proteins are examples of vegetable proteins with varied percentages. The presence of antinutrients with in form of individual plant residuals is a disadvantage of vegetable proteins. These compounds are produced by vegetables and have biological functions such as protecting vegetables from bugs, infections, fungi, and other organisms. Some of these changes can also assist to mitigate the negative effects of antinutrients [19]. Figure 5 shows plant protein utilization issues and challenges. To overcome challenges of vegetable-based proteins to date, modifications tactics have been used to circumvent these difficulties. Protein modification is the process of changing a protein’s chemical composition or a few chemical units using particular procedures to enhance its techno-functionality and bioactivity. The advantages and disadvantages of each of the physical techniques of protein change used yet for vegetable proteins will be examined separately. Plant-based protein utilization and challenges are shown in Figure 5.
Plant-based protein utilization issue and challenges.
Heat is among the most common methods for significantly modifying the structure and sensory attributes of vegetable proteins. Protein unwinding is aided by a low-temperature environment, resulting in an intermediary molten globule state with improved functioning. Extreme heat stability, on the other hand, causes permanent changes in protein structures, resulting in hydrolysis and aggregating
Microwave frequency is less than chemical bond rate [22], and the approach can change the protein without disrupting its core structure, making it attractive as a classification scheme before further physical methods. The microwave approach has also been used to regulate the immune system of vegetable proteins. A significant drop (24.7%) is found in soya mutagenicity by microwave heating at 600 W for 10 min [23]. The activity of chemicals released by dipolar and ionic movement in the existence of an RF field impacts protein function. Radiofrequency (RF) like the microwave is premised on heat production and impacts protein function
It is the fourth form of matter could be generated at a wide range of temperatures and tensions
Vegetable proteins | Animal proteins |
---|---|
Adjustable for CKD patients | Non-adjustable |
Lower cholesterol | Higher in cholesterol |
Reduced blood pressure | Increase blood pressure |
Lower the obesity | Increase risk of obesity |
The utilization of vegetable and animal proteins in disease status.
The expected increase in the world population to 9 billion people (United Nations Population Department, 2000, 2050—medium version) defines the growth plan. As a result, not only does the quantity of food necessary change, and so will the food groups required, as well as their major contributors to nutrition. Predicted protein consumption seems to be of key significance, with forecasts that global demand for animal protein will quadruple by 2050 [34], raising concerns about food management and sustainable development. This is partial because it is widely acknowledged that animal meals emit more greenhouse gasses than vegetables, which are affected by temperature. The fact that rapid growth for animal protein is likely to rise land stress due to the requirement to generate more animal feed adds to the problem. As a result, the clearance of land, lakes, and natural grassland to farming land would rise, negatively impacting greenhouse gasses emissions, diversity, and other essential natural ecosystems [35]. Excess supply of proteins is fueled by social and economic developments including such rising incomes, increase in urbanization, and population growth, in which the importance of proteins to health and longevity is commonly understood [5, 6], as well as awareness of the function of protein in a balanced diet. Economic growth and urbanization are causing large shifts in demographic nutritional status in middle to low nations especially in developing nations accounting for such bulk of worldwide increases in costs for animal-based meals [6]. Protein isolate synthesis, on the other hand, has a smaller impact on the environment but is a long-term alternative since it consumes less fuel, produces less pollution, requires less land, and uses less water. Animals are not efficient kilo converters of the proteins they ingest; thus, manufacturers should provide vegetables to animals to make animal proteins. It is the typical switching frequency of veggie to animal protein is 10 to 1, which indicates that 10 pounds of feed protein is required to create 1 pound of animal protein. Foods high fiber and low in fat are common in vegetable-based diets. A high-fiber, low-fat diet has been demonstrated in multiple trials to reduce the risk of certain malignancies, including colon, breast, and prostate cancers.
Our ever-increasing world population necessitates the availability of low-cost protein. As per world population projections, we will have to deliver protein to nearly nine billion by 2050. Accessibility to low-cost protein sources is critical for sustaining the growing world population while reducing environmental harm. Vegetable proteins have obvious health advantages. Vegetable proteins have been shown to reduce our risk of cardiovascular disease. Incorporating soy protein into your diet may also aid in the prevention of heart disease. Packaged beef should be designated as a “human carcinogen,” according to a research published by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Meat, on the other side, has been deemed “possibly carcinogenic to humans.” While the exact evidence is inconclusive, iron absorption is assumed to play a key role in N-nitroso-compound processing, the formation of lipid oxidation, and a probable cytotoxic impact. The demand for agricultural production would likely be higher to population growth and the moral imperative to provide enough, healthy, and inexpensive food for everyone. By 2050, simply supplying 2900 kcal mean food production with 50% of the proteins coming from animal protein will roughly treble grain consumption. Furthermore, economic expansion, coupled with someone who can afford its desire for an excess of animal goods and poor eat conversion, may drive up prices even more. The purposeful decrease of animal protein intake as well as the replacement of animal proteins with protein sources could be used as a temporary fix to lessen the social change caused by the existing agricultural system. The worldwide market for protein foods is expected to be different combinations of that of the United States. The industry for protein isolate components is growing due to a number of factors. Food producers are reacting to the rising costs for meat-restricted, protein foods among the wellness Boomer Generation and other consumers. Animal food prices are high and variable, placing pressure on global food makers to come up with new ways to reduce expenses.
Our world’s expanding population necessitates the availability of low-cost protein. As per population projections, by 2050, we would be supplying protein to roughly 9 billion individuals. The availability of low-cost protein sources is critical for feeding the world’s growing population while reducing environmental stress. Vegetables are popular on the market right now. As per market research firm Frost & Sullivan, the U.S. protein-ingredients market alone is expected to produce about $4.5 billion in sales in 2008 (43.3% vegetable proteins and 56.7% animal proteins) and is expected to increase at an annual growth rate of nearly 5%. Barriers are there in shifting from animals to vegetable protein. The transition from animal to vegetable meals is not without its challenges, or at least four have been identified [36]. Change is difficult because social factors oppose it beef has a high social position and that it is the average human’s wish to consume high up food given the correct financial circumstances. Lobby groups inside the meat manufacturing chain are significant, and economic concerns against reform are considerable. The advanced technologies required to generate innovative protein sources foods are lacking. Because the animal protein supply chain has been designed for using all by-products for generations, eliminating meat on a broad scale might just have a significant impact on linked production systems, perhaps canceling out most of the putative environmental benefits.
Vegetable proteins are more long-lasting and sufficient to meet the demands of a rapidly growing population. Vegetable proteins are more adaptable and can be altered in response to health issues than animal proteins. In this chapter, we focused on vegetable protein because the consumption of protein is increasing as the world’s population expands. The population of the globe is anticipated to double by 2063, from 6.5 to 13 billion people. Rapid urbanization and rising protein consumption have exacerbated the problem, leading to an increase in malnutrition among children. As a result, we must meet our protein requirements in order to develop healthy and combat malnutrition. We will underline that everyone’s protein requirements, as well as the demands for vegetable and animal proteins, are unique. Animal protein sources are not sustainable as the world’s population expands; thus, we cannot meet our protein demands only from them. In this chapter, we reviewed how vegetable protein sources are more stable and sufficient for meeting our protein requirements. Vegetable diets produce more greenhouse emissions than animal meals because they are affected by temperature. The fact that rapid development of animal protein production is expected to create land stress due to the requirement to produce more animal feed exacerbates the problem. As a response, land, lakes, and natural grassland conversion to farming land would rise, posing a threat to greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity, and other essential natural ecosystems. Vegetable proteins are promoted as more sustainable, disease-adjustable, and cost-effective than animal proteins. We made the switch from animal- to vegetable-based protein. There are various challenges to overcome when it comes to employing vegetable proteins. As a result, we looked at numerous methods for using vegetable protein and its derivatives to meet amino acid deficiencies, including heating, ohmic heating, microwave, radiofrequency, and extrusion, among others.
We thank the digital library GCUF for providing access to the publication.
There is no conflict of interest as declared by all authors.
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by",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10475",title:"Smart Biofeedback",subtitle:"Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d2bd9997707c905959eaa41e55ba8f1",slug:"smart-biofeedback-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Edward Da-Yin Liao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10475.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3875",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward Da-Yin",middleName:null,surname:"Liao",slug:"edward-da-yin-liao",fullName:"Edward Da-Yin Liao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8059",title:"Neurostimulation and Neuromodulation in Contemporary Therapeutic 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by",editors:[{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8751",title:"Somatosensory and Motor Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"86191c18f06e524e0f97a5534fdb2b4c",slug:"somatosensory-and-motor-research",bookSignature:"Toshiaki Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8751.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70872",title:"Prof.",name:"Toshiaki",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"toshiaki-suzuki",fullName:"Toshiaki Suzuki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9347",title:"Neuroimaging",subtitle:"Neurobiology, Multimodal and Network Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3479e76c6ac538aac76409c9efb7e41",slug:"neuroimaging-neurobiology-multimodal-and-network-applications",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9347.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8938",title:"Inhibitory Control Training",subtitle:"A Multidisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd82354f3bba4af5421337cd42052f86",slug:"inhibitory-control-training-a-multidisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo and Massimo Bartoli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8938.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6998",title:"Synucleins",subtitle:"Biochemistry and Role in Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b4b802fec508928ce8ab9deebd1375f",slug:"synucleins-biochemistry-and-role-in-diseases",bookSignature:"Andrei Surguchov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6998.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"266540",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Surguchov",slug:"andrei-surguchov",fullName:"Andrei Surguchov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:65,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"46296",doi:"10.5772/57398",title:"Physiological Role of Amyloid Beta in Neural Cells: The Cellular Trophic Activity",slug:"physiological-role-of-amyloid-beta-in-neural-cells-the-cellular-trophic-activity",totalDownloads:5886,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:null,book:{id:"3846",slug:"neurochemistry",title:"Neurochemistry",fullTitle:"Neurochemistry"},signatures:"M. del C. Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81998",title:"Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation",slug:"understanding-the-neuropathophysiology-of-psychiatry-disorder-using-transcranial-magnetic-stimulatio",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103748",abstract:"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe and non-invasive tool that allows researchers to probe and modulate intracortical circuits. The most important aspect of TMS is its ability to directly stimulate the cortical neurons, generating action potentials, without much effect on intervening tissue. This property can be leveraged to provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Using multiple patterns of stimulations (single, paired, or repetitive), different neurophysiological parameters can be elicited. Various TMS protocol helps in understanding the neurobiological basis of disorder and specific behaviors by allowing direct probing of the cortical areas and their interconnected networks. While single-pulse TMS can provide insight into the excitability and integrity of the corticospinal tract, paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS) can provide further insight into cortico-cortical connections and repetitive TMS (rTMS) into cortical mapping and modulating plasticity.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar and Nand Kumar"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. 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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. 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Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. 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Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. Physiology research may be linked to development, aging, environment, regular and pathological processes, adaptation and evolution, exercise, or several other factors affecting, or involved with, animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"306970",title:"Mr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Tamadon",slug:"amin-tamadon",fullName:"Amin Tamadon",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002oHR5wQAG/Profile_Picture_1623910304139",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bushehr University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:21,paginationItems:[{id:"80761",title:"Extractions Methods and Biological Applications of Essential Oils",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102955",signatures:"Sonu Kumar Mahawer, Himani, Sushila Arya, Ravendra Kumar and Om Prakash",slug:"extractions-methods-and-biological-applications-of-essential-oils",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"81545",title:"Physiochemical Properties of Essential Oils and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104112",signatures:"Sunil Kumar Yadav",slug:"physiochemical-properties-of-essential-oils-and-applications",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"81067",title:"Encapsulation of Essential Oils and Their Use in Food Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103147",signatures:"Hamdy A. 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It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. 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