Participants grouped by gender, educational level, age, labor market status, place of residence.
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Overheating its economy two years before and one year after joining EU, with an average annual GDP growth of over 6%, at the end of 2008, Romania was bitterly stroked by the world financial crisis. Unaccustomed with economic forecasts and foresights, low cohesion of its business environment, and lack of vision, Romania pasted the crisis in confusion and low self trust.
\n\t\t\tBut crisis almost past away and Romania is still not finding its own way and its place in EU and the world economy. The well trained workforce of the country is used efficiently mainly by foreign organizations, or left the country. Real cooperation between research organizations, universities and industry, almost doesn\'t exist. With a traditional regional low trust in government and own trade and professional organizations, it will be hard for the Romanian companies to be competitive in the future.
\n\t\t\tAnd new challenges are rising at the horizon. The developed countries observed that innovation driven countries past much easier the crisis than followers and strengthen their research and innovation policies and programs. More than this, the BRIC countries, which are counting for almost the half of the world population, developed and put in place very ambitious programs which have to bring those countries in 2020 to the innovation driven economy. The "Europe 2020" and the Chinese development program, for the same time horizon, which have to create 60% of the 2020 Chinese GDP by innovation, are good examples of those challenges.
\n\t\t\tThe concern about the chance of Romania and the measures to be taken to guide our country to the innovation driven economy is lasting from more than 15 years. The Romanian Association for Electronic and Software Industry - ARIES, and The Association for Promoting Electronic Technology - APTE made several surveys, studies, strategies and policy papers to support the innovation process and culture for the electronic and software industry of Romania.
\n\t\t\tAs methodology we used, both for analysis and synthesis of the strategies and policy papers the model developed by Prof. Michael Porter. But in the surveys we used also questions which came from our members and stakeholders, which reflect their needs and aspirations too. For the level of trust, which we are considering to be a crucial factor for how to shape the policy papers, we used the recommended questionnaire by Steven Covey in his book "The speed of trust". We consider that the culture issue, particularly the culture of innovation, is all the time the crucial factor to make a study or a policy paper which could shake and move people ahead.
\n\t\t\tOur intention is to follow the entire value chain of the Romanian business environment and to reveal the most important factors which jeopardize our way to the innovation driven economy and to design a road map which have to overcome most of our challenges. The resulting documents are not used only for advocacy purposes, but also to develop new services to the membership, or to shape the existing ones to the changing needs of them.
\n\t\t\tFor the moment we succeeded to analyze the national system of innovation, by gathering information on the trade legislation, rules, national and European programs, which are very influential and effective in our country, on research, IP, technology transfer and best practices from the entire world. Surveys we did mainly on the general data of our companies, human resources, cultural issues and the perception of our members regarding programs to be implemented or university curricula for engineering.
\n\t\t\tIn the future we are intending to extend our research on more sophisticated issues like clustering, cooperation synergies and new cultural approaches. We hope that in the future we will be able to make a research frame which will allowed us to conduct at least annually the surveys, to reshape each year our strategy and services to the membership.
\n\t\tEmbraced by the European integration fever, and the opportunities offered by it, Romanian and foreign companies, especially those coming from European Union, massively invested in sales, production and R&D capacities in the country. The business opportunities of the companies, domestic and foreign, overstressed the demand especially that related to the human resources. The human resources engaged in the industry rose almost three times, and the sophistication rose significantly especially in the foreign companies which have invested in Romania. Locations like Bucharest, Cluj Napoca and Timisoara were been considerate as cities with major lack of qualified human resources. The pressure of the demand raised the net wages of the high tech organizations, from about 400 Euros/month to almost 1.000 Euros/month. Even the number of graduates from the technical universities doubled in this period, 8.000 graduates/year, the number of university professors and the investment in university R&D, do not raised in the same proportion. According to a survey made by ARIES and the "Politehnica" University of Bucharest, the content and quality of the university curricula are considered totally inadequate to the actual needs of the employers.
\n\t\t\tIn accordance with the actual FDI rates and domestic new investments, the sophistication of the demand of human resources raised also significantly. Not only foreign MNC like Infineon, Continental, Microchip, Freescale and others invested in R&D, but many spin offs from those companies multiplied the know how which people got during their employment or expats coming back to their homeland to exploit the experience they got abroad. All those investments raised the capacity of the country to participate in the European research Framework Program and in other international and domestic programs. Even if the Romanian participation in those programs is still modest, each year we encounter significant growth and improvement.
\n\t\t\tA significant lag behind is registered still in open innovation and technology transfer. If in the most developed countries university innovation means over 50% revenues, in Romania, technology transfer, spin offs and acquisition of innovative companies are almost inexistent. The Romanian universities and research centers do not passed a radical transformation to become real resource centers for human resources or new products for the market. Their research and innovation experience and know how of them are still missing and the trust of the business environment in their competences is also very low.
\n\t\t\tIf we are taking into consideration that Israel is producing more than 45% of its GDP from innovation, and the 2020 horizon of China is to produce more than 60% of its GDP by innovation, we can imagine at which challenges are obliged the Romanian industry.
\n\t\t\tA significant lack of government services to support the competitiveness of the companies acting in the country and especially a low interest and appetite of the local governments to rise and support the local competitiveness is also an impediment for the self trust of the companies. Science and technology parks are totally missing, and the related support services of the governments, which abound in the developed countries, are also missing. For this reason, the clustering and their synergetic effects are in an incipient phased development.
\n\t\t\tHowever it has to be mentioned the program of the Ministry of Economy, Commerce and Business Environment to support the internationalization of the Romanian companies by trade missions and participation at international fairs of more than 500 companies per year, and the branding of different industries, which really has a real impact in contracting on foreign markets and on the image and trust in our country. In the last three years of crisis the export of our country rose over 50%, in contrast to the domestic market which diminished more than 15%.
\n\t\t\tA similar important vector for the competitiveness of the Romanian companies, during the integration fever, was also the significant growth of the internal market, which became four times larger as before this process, assuring more market and product expertise for the emerging domestic companies and the size of the FDIs. A significant importance of this extension was the public and private investment in the information and knowledge society.
\n\t\t\t2009 started with the financial crisis, strongly moderating the explosive expansion of the Romanian companies. Companies like Siemens and Alcatel Lucent diminished significantly their operation in Romania. Recently, Nokia closed its production facility in our country. All MNC which operate in our country significantly diminished their expenses, beginning with promotion and ending with the operational ones. Luxurious headquarters are not anymore a fashion and a significant number of employees had to change their job.
\n\t\t\tEven if the Romanian companies do not reported significant drawbacks, they had to reduce their manpower or to freeze it at the level before the crisis. A large number of SMEs, especially micro enterprises closed the doors. Even if they are not employing a significant number of human resources, the signal given by them was very negative, especially for the young entrepreneurs. However, in full period of crisis, a number of companies, especially the innovative ones, reported significant growth and increase of employee\'s number.
\n\t\t\tDespite the strong negative effects, the crisis revealed that the old chip qualified labor offer of Romania, in the close neighborhood of Western Europe, is not anymore competitive and a new approach focused on innovation is the only reliable and lasting solution of any company acting in our country.
\n\t\tAfter a decade of the twenty first century the entire world face unprecedented challenges of his history. Traditional and emergent or modern cultures of the entire world are fertilizing and influencing each other, creating by synergetic effects new cultures, approaches and thinking stiles. Doe to the modern transportation and communication means, people and cultures are in permanent contact in real time. Effectively, perception and understanding distortions are coming from cultural and thinking stiles differences of the different actors of the world. The internet and other communication means, included people all over the world, not far away isolated, in the world communication concert.
\n\t\t\t\tSurely, the thinking and the decision making stile or responsibility assuming and the competitiveness of nations are strongly influenced by the globalization. If today we are speaking about regional, national or transnational competitiveness like European Union, North America or Far East, surely, in several decades we will speak about global competitiveness of the communities as vectors of world development and stability.
\n\t\t\t\tBut globalization has also quantitative and structural effects which, in the near future, will strongly influence the quality of our life. In less than two or three decades, billions of people will be integrated in the innovation driven economy, and billions of people around the world will work and think in a global knowledge environment. If today we are speaking about a targeted 3% of the GDP, the biggest part of the innovation and knowledge in the developed countries, probably in few decades, those activities will count over 50% of the world GDP. Generation and valuation of knowledge will be the most important activity of the world.
\n\t\t\t\tThe most important challenges of the globalization are linked to the individual readiness to understand globalization phenomenon and structures, to shape measures and take decisions, and to have the capacity of analysis, synthesis, integration and implementation, in accordance with the needs and cultures of the national, regional and professional communities which they are representing. Also the organic structure of the communities and the rise and speed up of their analytic, synthetic and harmonization capacity will be in the near future crucial because pioneering will surpass the follower\'s strategy.
\n\t\t\tInnovation was, is and will be the universal vector of development and competitiveness of the human communities, from the beginning of history to the end of the human kind. Communication and information in a broader sense, and the related technologies, were been and still are the innovation drivers in the entire world. From the beginning of history and today, there are no groups of people or communities to impose them self in front of others without innovation. From the abstracting, formalization, processing, diffusion and infusion of information, to the modern technologies, everything is related to innovation. This essential innovation, brought people much closer to each other, developing synergetic effects for the development of the social structures, communities and welfare, which permitted the innovation for other common needs.
\n\t\t\t\t\tEven if it appear to be exaggerated, in the modern sense of the notion\'s acceptance, the support and diffusion systems of innovation are present also at the early human societies, but especially at the early states, by standards, rules and laws, later on by techniques and technologies. As more powerful was the innovation, as larger and more lasting was the society which made it. That type of innovation for the development of societies and communities, by specialized institutions for security, regulation and law, locally or central, are mutually recognized by any member of the community, accepted as universal standards.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe narrow sense of innovation, even if it is totally dependent on the broader sense, means mostly technology and process innovation, more recently also business model innovation, and very recently, coming back to the roots, social innovation. The most important components of the innovation, analyzed by most countries, and on which are concentrated the majority of policies, are education of human resources and R&D.
\n\t\t\t\t\tWe are willing to stress on the crucial importance of the innovation culture and attitude, which make the difference between nations.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe most important challenges of the technology, process and business model innovation, of any nation, are the financing of the human resources education, the R&D activities and infrastructure, and the development and assimilation of new standards. Also challenges are related to the access to the information, diffusion and communication of information, intellectual property right, and the increase of the learning capacity of people during there entire lifecycle. If in the twenty century, government responsibility on innovation was mainly in the most developed nations, today, almost al governments are dealing with this issue because it became a life or death problem. In less than two decades, half of the people of the world will live in an innovation driven economy. And social innovation and culture of innovation will become crucial to support national or community global competitiveness.
\n\t\t\t\t\tIf in the previous subchapters we describe the challenges in a general sense, because they are common for any nation, in the following subchapters we will refer more specific to our country.
\n\t\t\t\tThe Romanian university education is based on a French German model from the beginning of the twenty century, largely accepted and implemented by many countries from central and Eastern Europe. It is a model which brought outstanding outcomes supporting the modernization of this part of Europe. The competitiveness of its graduates was been worldwide recognized during the last century, and still used as fresh and educated human resources in the most developed countries. Several scientist from this region were been excellent researchers recognized in the entire world, and even Nobel Prize awarded, including Romanians. Examples as Henry Coanda, which made in France the first jet propulsion airplane of the world, and Prof. Gheorghe Samachisa which developed several patents for the flash memory, or Prof. Gheorghe Palade in California which was awarded with Nobel Prize for his contribution to the physics are only few of the outstanding Romanian scientist recognized worldwide. And many others, less known are enriching the human knowledge heritage in our country and worldwide.
\n\t\t\t\t\tBut the university education system was not reformed from about 70 years. Doe to the old and strong organizational culture, it was almost impossible to reform anything in the university educational system. Not even the Bolognia Declaration adoption, or any other type of reform do not succeeded. In general, any change came up against with hostility.
\n\t\t\t\t\tEven if the entire world is concerned about the life long learning, and the European Commission released significant funds for it through numerous programs, the corresponding curricular development are very poor at the Romanian universities.
\n\t\t\t\t\tIf in the first decade after the revolution this approach do not harm, because the entire Romanian economy dropped over 50% and nobody cared about, in the first decade of the twenty first century, the industry began to rise rapidly, benefiting from significant foreign and domestic investments, the tensions between the business and university environments rose significantly. The communication between the two environments is relatively poor doe to the lake of associative structures. The exchange of experiences, content and good practices are poor and mainly based on interpersonal communication and not on communication between communities which are caring about each other.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFirst 2004, ARIES, The Romanian Association for Electronic and Software Industry, a trade professional organization, articulated the first innovation related strategy of the industry, university education and research included. Later on was funded the EPETRAN association of the electronic faculties of Romania, which is a forum of best practice sharing and communication with the industry. This initiatives and the fundation of the Export Council and more recently the National Competitiveness Council, where university, industry and public bodies are gathering discussing about the future developments and cooperation are real hopes of our country for its future competitiveness and community cohesion. Also very encouraging is the recent Employers Commission of ARACIS, the national university accreditation body of Romania, which comprise professional, trade professional and companies, concerned about the new European standards of accreditation.
\n\t\t\t\t\tIf in the last decade of the twenty century and the first decade of the twenty first century, the main preoccupation of the Romanian universities was the assimilation of the triple size number of students, by enlarging the existing old universities and new universities, the next decade, the most important thing to be solved, will be the adaptation and matching of the university curricula to the real needs of the stakeholders and the development of the competitive research capabilities to support the national innovation effort.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe previous strategy, to raise the number of students and graduates was adequate for the business model based on chip labor cost. Entering the European Union, the business opportunities diversified and sophisticated very much, the old model beginning to show its limits. Companies which came to Romania several years ago for the educated chip labor cost are leaving more and more our country, and more and more domestic and foreign companies are investing and orienting toward innovation.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe most important challenges related to the human resources competitiveness and the sustainable curricular structures are determined by the structure of the professional organizations of the two environments, the quality and competitiveness of their content, the intensity and quality of their cooperation and trust and synergy between them. The introduction of a demand based funding of the public universities and faculties will motivate surely the opening of the universities to the business environment, which will drastically lower the actual conservative behavior. Also imposing evaluation criterions of the public universities related to the post university curricula for life long learning, to the research outcomes to support the national innovation and cooperation for knowledge and best practice sharing with the business environment will strengthen the interest of both parts to cooperate in their benefit and the trust which have to speed up their efficiency and reputation. Nevertheless a significant shift in attitude and culture related to the new world tendencies will be the key to success.
\n\t\t\t\tBefore the First World War, we can not speak about a competitive Romanian R&D, even if the second industrial revolution already consecrated the universities as main vector of knowledge and innovation for the new competitive industries of US and Germany. Between the two World Wars, on the base of the German model, the university research is developed, mainly for the natural sciences and the first state owned foundations for research funding appears. Still, most of the Romanian scientist distinguishes oneself in the developed countries like France, Germany and UK.
\n\t\t\t\t\tAfter the Second World War, especially in the sixtieth and seventieth, were been funded very numerous technology research institutes, based on the Soviet model, very similar to the German one. The major differences between the German and the Soviet model was the strict political control of the hierarchy of the institutes, not all the time based on competences, a strict isolation from the university research and from each other, and an unnatural command of the state. In contrast, the German model means national foundations controlling individual institutes linked in a network and strongly related to the needs of the stakeholders and related to the university research. The university research was strongly diminished and restricted. The disjunction between universities and research institutes brought different evaluation standards and equivalents. Simple researcher was equivalent with university assistant, Principal Researcher III with lecturer which had to have also a doctoral degree and Principal Researcher I, equivalent with university professor, even if the first do not had to prove didactical activities. Those differences implied, during the time, excessive over employment, reduction of interest for innovation and focus on marginal themes and missions, implying a very low efficiency of innovation; too many efforts for insignificant outcomes.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe quasi general collapse of the Romanian industry in the first five years of democracy, the diminishing of the GDP with over 50% and the general confusion, characterizing that period, implied a systematic lowering of the government research funds for more than ten years. The number of researcher drastically diminished, several research institutes were been sold (privatized) especially for real estate interests and many researchers emigrated to US and other developed countries, mainly in Europe, or reoriented them self toward universities, private companies and other activities. The patenting activity is also diminishing significantly in that period.
\n\t\t\t\t\tAt the beginning of the twenty first century, the first university research oriented programs was launched. Also the first sophisticated and innovation driven public procurement appears mainly in the field of information and knowledge society, implying Romanian workforce for their development. The constant positive growth of the Romanian economy and the European integration perspective in 2007 brought significant resources to the Romanian budget. The public research funds rose in that period from 0.1% of the GDP to almost 0.8% in 2008. Also the share of the university research reached 70% of all public research funds. Unfortunately, the crisis stroke bitterly our country and the R&D public fund dropped again to around 0.2% of the GDP. In compensation, the Romanian participation in the European Framework Programs rose, and the first innovation driven projects in the frame of the Structural Funds appears, supporting the competitiveness of the Romanian economy and of the companies.
\n\t\t\t\t\tUnfortunately not even this flourishing period, which lasted five years, do not brought significant structural changes to Romanian R&D. The R&D outcomes, both from universities and research center network, are still not valuated by technology transfer, spin offs or on the IP market.
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn this very moment, The National Agency for Science, Technology and Innovation, is the main public financing institution of the Romanian R&D. The organization is leaded from the beginning by people coming from the old research institutes and from the universities, with insufficient knowledge and low commitment to the real needs of the emerging Romanian industry or other stakeholders. Their constant conservative attitude to preserve the survival, interests and the former "status quo" of these organizations, delay the reform. The cooperation with the business environment is almost inexistent. In comparison with ARACIS, the national body for higher education accreditation and other government and nongovernmental organizations, this one do not expressed any interest for the cooperation with the business environment or other stakeholders to improve the situation.
\n\t\t\t\t\tIt have also to mention that the business environment don\'t was really interested about the outcomes of the Romanian research, being focused on the low cost labor opportunity which is not requiring too much sophistication or innovation. First in the last two years, doe to the rise of the wages and lower interest for chip labor cost in this region, companies began to switch for more innovation and IP development.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe main challenges for the Romanian R&D are related to structural changes, attitudes and overall and organizational culture and behavior. So long as the stakeholders, companies, local authorities and government organizations interested in sophisticated public acquisitions, do not have the authority to say anything for the structure and destination of the research funds, and can\'t step in anyhow for the evaluation and attribution methods of the funds, a significant change or improvement are not to be expected. The link of the R&D activity with the innovation support infrastructure, based on performance criterions is essential to ensure the efficient valuation of its outcomes.
\n\t\t\t\tEven if the second industrial revolution is strongly related to R&D, research were been made mainly in own research laboratories by vertical integration or by close cooperation with the university environment. The third industrial revolution brought new actors like SMEs, and new attitudes and business models like specialized R&D companies and institutions and externalization of those activities to specialized organizations. Based on the US experience and success, after the Second World War, by its massive investments in military R&D with extensions through spin offs and technology transfer to civil applications, all developed countries, and recently almost all states of the world, implied them self directly more and more to support the national competitiveness by public financing of the R&D activities. Missis Chancellor, Angela Merkel, at the opening ceremony of CeBIT 2010, sad that Germany will spend in that year 3% of its GDP for R&D. All the states from the world are currently in an unprecedented competition to find the required funds to support directly the national effort for R&D.
\n\t\t\t\t\tBut very soon, everybody stated that this financing is not enough if they are not putting other efforts to support the speed up of the rapid valuation on the market of the R&D activities\' outcomes by supporting innovation. From the early fifties of the twenties century, US begun to build with public funds and public private partnership the cohesion and synergetic entities and clustering services like science and technology parks, business incubators and related support services for mach making, internationalization, technology transfer, IP and many others. The Silicon Valley initiative around the Stanford University demonstrated its viability and sustainability over the time. Its success inspired and still is inspiring the entire world.
\n\t\t\t\t\tBy multiplying the success of Silicon Valley in many other states, the US created a strong network nationwide, which was enriched later on with other networks of technology transfer services, national laboratories and consulting services. Also private fund were been attracted and new institutes were been created to facilitate the diffusion of knowledge, new business foundation, and externalization of studies and specific strategies.
\n\t\t\t\t\tDuring its development, by assuming new functions and missions, the European Union developed also such networks like Enterprise Europe Network or funds to support common strategies and to facilitate synergies and clustering. Compared with US, the EU is focusing mainly on know how transfer, knowledge and best practice diffusion and valuation of the R&D outcomes in the frame of the Union. The national initiatives could be supported by structural funds or they could be the responsibility of the national governments. Both, US and EU created independent specialized institutions like National Science Foundation and European Innovation Institute.
\n\t\t\t\t\tUnfortunately, out of several Romanian organizations involved in several European support programs, Romania is not excelling at this chapter too. Except of several enthusiasts, which have also European experience, the National Science, Technology and Innovation Agency\'s program turned out mostly in real estate business as real support of the Romanian innovation.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe main challenges of the Romanian innovation support infrastructure are related to the public private partnership, finance of the national research institutes or laboratories, financing facilitation, support services and business ethics including cultural and attitude shift toward the world best practices. At national level those issues are almost unknown. Identification of the needs related to R&D and innovation, in public private partnership, and design and financing of the corresponding services in accordance with the local needs and conditions could support in the near future the local and national innovation and competitiveness.
\n\t\t\t\tIn my country business ethics is a foreign notion. Corporate social responsibility means mainly a responsibility related to employees and is mandatory by law. Company is a money producing machine and if it is possible, as easiest could be. Competition means a brutal fight against it. Quality is good if you need a label on it. Cooperation has to be avoided as possible. Community is very important if they could give money. And the good examples could go on.
\n\t\t\t\t\tSeveral years ago, speaking to a German deputy in the European Parliament, I was amazed by his reaction at my question about the concern of this Parliament on business ethics. His face expressed likes "what the hell is this". As fresh graduate of a special training on business ethics at George Washington University, I was sincerely surprised about his reaction. But I past over and I never were been surprised when somebody do not understand what about I\'m speaking. At that occasion I learned that I have not to be surprised when other people are thinking otherwise as my self, but I have to make an effort to understand what they really meant.
\n\t\t\t\t\tIn general, if people would perform they have to get trust from others. Other way they remain isolated and the speed of growth is lowered by a factor dependant on trust. Trust means not only competences but also common feelings in a common space of language and culture. As higher the trust is and as stronger the empathy between each other, so better and higher is the efficiency between individuals, organizations and communities and the benefits are in the same proportion. Each individual from out of seven billion people in the world are thinking differently, but they have common tools like language and culture to understand and synergize each other.
\n\t\t\t\t\tLeading more than hundred Romanian trade missions abroad, I learned that before to make any step forward you have to understand the culture of your counterpart and to offer something which is valued within his culture. And your work is never ending because different people have different culture and different communities have different culture. Taking into account these things and consulting our membership, I observed that the efficiency of our delegation rose from event to event.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFor example Germans in Europe have a very strong culture. They are very confident to each other, but if somebody is coming from a culture they do not understand they begin to be very mindful. There culture is based on common unwritten standards which are taught as young children in a common sense. For people whom are growing up in this culture, it is very unusual to understand somebody more relaxed and much more flexible in interpreting things and thoughts.
\n\t\t\t\t\tRomania is located in a region with a more relaxed behavior and less formalized culture with a low community cohesion. People are more own centered as community centered. But they want to be included in the larger concert of the world. They want to be trusted, they want to be efficient and innovative and they want to be accepted as they are. Everything is O.K., but for the last whish they have to strive bitterly.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe main challenges for the Romanian people are the big effort to understand what really is valued in the culture of others, and radically change their own culture and attitude. They have to understand the culture of the larger community of innovators or any other community they think to be part and to change attitude to shall more empathy and to have more engagement towards that communities. As any other culture, for sure, the Romanians have also values which could be valued within others culture and they have to strive for it. If they could be proud of their nation\'s heritage they will be able to conquer other\'s heart.
\n\t\t\t\tSeveral years ago I participated at a European conference on R&D and innovation. Presenting the overall situation of this issue, a lady from DG research told to the audience of the conference that Romania and two other countries of the union are not striving enough for their competitiveness and they are "no chance lands". Even if I understood what she meant because she gave facts and figures compared to the other countries outcomes, being Romanian, I was very frustrated. I\'m not blaming her because she told this before a large international audience, because I had the feeling that she was very honest, but I still not feeling good when I remember about this case. This event was for me the determination to understand really the situation, and if it is possible to contribute to my nations improvement. It was also the moment to start my research and to find solutions for my nation.
\n\t\t\tI decided to be not scared or subjugated by this judgment but to be honest and straight on, to be able to have clear mind and clear judgment for the best recommendations and consulting I can make, first to the community of my association\'s members, and secondly to the Export Promotion Council and the National Council for Competitiveness. The same approach I used to improve the national and European quality standards of the national body for higher education accreditation ARACIS, and the funding body of the Romanian higher education research UEFISCDI. I already developed five policy papers in Romanian, of which content I used in this article.
\n\t\t\tFrom all challenges from the end of each chapter and subchapter I believe that the most important is about culture and attitudes. I already told to the reviewers from the World Bank on the performance of the National Agency for Research, Technology and Innovation, that doesn\'t make sense to raise the research funds before structural, cultural and attitude change, in accordance with the real needs and challenges of the stakeholders and the larger community of our nation, are not put in place. I\'m also deeply convinced that those changes have to be made inside the beneficiary organizations, private or public. Financing have to come after competence and efficiency are proved.
\n\t\t\tCiting Peter Drucker who sad that the most important thing of our recent history is not the internet, or any other technology, but that people are less and less dependent and more and more have the opportunity to chose, and for the first time in the history, tremendous number of people, which rapidly growth, will lead them self, I understand that as people are getting more independent from each other, as much they have to care about their communities. Starting from this point I strongly believe that a concerted and harmonized triple helix public private partnership for any major concern of our nation, have to be put in place. Not only one part is responsible for what is happening among the community members or with the community as a whole, but everybody.
\n\t\t\tHowever, I\'m strongly confident that solving these fundamental problems, it will be piece of cake to get the right solutions for any challenges mentioned by this article.
\n\t\t\tYes for sure, Romania has a chance to join the innovation driven economy. Romania have to find his way among the most developed countries of the world, but he have to play his role, to be confident in him self and to get the trust of others.
\n\t\t\tIn the Global Innovation Performance 2009 report, Romania RANKS 61st. Also in Total Entrepreneurial Activity Ranked by Country, Romania has 4.3%, compared to world average of 10,6% 2nd report on Entrepreneurial Activities in Romania: executive summary for the year 2008, Total Entrepreneurial Activity Ranked by Country - TEA by Country Measures Entrepreneurial Activity as a Gallup World Poll , January 2011
ELAN projects’s main objective is to promote entrepreneurship in Romanian electronics industry, the electronics packaging education, and technological transfer, to offer technological and technical support for innovative SMEs, in order to compensate the small entrepreneurs number (~50% of the European average).
\n\t\t\t\tIn this context, data collected during the implementation of the strategic project “Promoting the entrepreneurial spirit within the Romanian electronics industry”, co-financed by European Social Fund (ESF), can give us an idea about the entrepreneurial spirit of the participants. 3628 participants to the campaign for promoting the entrepreneurial spirit “Be an entrepreneur!” answered the question: “Are you an entrepreneur?”
\n\t\t\t\tNever thought to
No, I thought to, made some steps and renounced
No, but I am thinking to a business
Yes, I am on the way to start a business
Yes, I have started or undertaken a business in the last 3 years, and it is alive
Yes, I have started or undertaken a business more then 3 years ago and it is alive
No, I started some time ago a business, but now I am not anymore an entrepreneur
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | ELAN participants Statistics | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTotal | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFemale | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMale | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | Total | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3628 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1268 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2360 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Education level | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTop of Form Lower SecondaryBottom of Form | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t91 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Top of Form Arts and Trade SchoolBottom of Form | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t39 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t32 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Post Arts and Trade Schools | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Top of Form Lower cycle of HighschoolBottom of Form | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t576 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t226 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t350 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Upper secondary school | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1434 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t456 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t978 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Post Uper Secondary | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t62 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t22 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Bachelor | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1038 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t390 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t648 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Master of science | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t284 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t130 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t154 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
PhD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t79 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t23 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t56 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Post PhD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Age | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t15 – 24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2289 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t731 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1558 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
25 – 44 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t871 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t359 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t512 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
45 – 54 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t298 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t119 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t179 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
55 – 64 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t159 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t57 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t102 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
over 64 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Labor market status | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tinactives | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2086 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t691 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1395 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Entrepreneurs | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t112 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t26 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t86 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Self-employment | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t76 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Members of an agricultural / cooperative | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Employees | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1351 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t533 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t818 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Unemployed including unregistered unemployed persons Bottom of Form | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
Residence | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\turban | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3156 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1082 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2074 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
rural | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t472 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t186 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t286 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Participants grouped by gender, educational level, age, labor market status, place of residence.
Entrepreneurial spirit within ELAN project participants.
Out of 100%, 26% never thought to a business, 3.53% thought to a business, made some steps and renounced, 55.32% are thinking to a business, 6.04% are on the way to start a business, 3.86% have started or undertaken a business in the last 3 years, and it is alive, 2.40% started or undertaken a business more then 3 years ago and it is alive, and 2.48% started some time ago a business, but now I they are not anymore an entrepreneur.
\n\t\t\t\tMale participants have higher entrepreneurial spirit compared to female participants 76.78% /23.21%.
\n\t\t\t\tThere is a difference between male and female participants for those who:
\n\t\t\t\tnever thought about a business 23.77% / 31.23%;
are on the way to start a business 7.29%/3.71%;
started or have undertaken a business in the last 3 years and it is alive 4.11%/3.39%;
have started or undertaken a business more then 3 years ago and it is alive 2.54%/1.42%.
The difference is less significant between male and female participants for those who:
\n\t\t\t\tthought about a business, made some steps and gave up 3.56%/3.47%,
are thinking about a business 55.81%/54.42%,
started some time ago a business, but now are not anymore an entrepreneur 2.54%/2.34%.
Entrepreneurial spirit is higher among highly skilled professionals (Post Arts and Trade Schools – 16,67%, PhD – 16,46, Post PhD -14,29)
\n\t\t\t\tElan participant’s entrepreneurial spirit by education.
Elan participant’s entrepreneurial spirit by age.
Entrepreneurs are not \'born\'….rather they \'become\' through the experiences of their lives.
\n\t\t\t\tElan participant’s entrepreneurial spirit by labor market status.
Elan participant’s entrepreneurial spirit by gender.
Human embryonic stem cell researches (HESCRs) has been widely discussed in different perspectives. In this chapter, the issue will be considered from the perspective of the patentability of the human embryonic stem cell lines (HESCLs). Embryonic stem cells are derived from the inner cell mass of an embryo in the blastocyst stage. Embryonic stem cells are “pluripotent” cells, which means, they are, technically, differentiable into a wide range of cell and tissue types [1]. The researches on human embryonic stem cells have the potential to discover and develop treatments for a variety of diseases including Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders, heart diseases, Parkinson’s disease, or anemia [1, 2]. HESCLs make scientific researches and stem cell treatments possible by producing differentiated self-renewal pluripotent stem cells. However, conflicts of interest arise between patients seeking treatment and human embryos from the fact that, while harvesting HESCs, the human embryo is destroyed.
\nThe subject of patentability of the HESCLs has also been discussed because of the legal prohibition of financial gain on the human body and its parts and the principle of human dignity [3]. It is not possible to accept human embryo and HESCLs as a property that is suitable for industrial applicability when the concepts are regarded with their traditional definitions. The principle of human dignity and the prohibition of financial gain on the human body and its parts prevent such acceptance. However, the human embryo and the stem cells derived from it have a
In the first part of this chapter, the
It is possible to make an interpretation based on the legal status of the human body parts to understand the legal status of the in vitro human embryonic stem cells. Such an interpretation needs a few definitions and premises:
We can define human body parts as the body parts of a person.
Human body parts can be divided into two such as inter-body parts (which are in a unity with the body) and the body parts that are departed from the body [4].
It is possible to divide human cells into two such as somatic cells and germ cells.
A human embryo is a being that is composed of germ cells of women (OVAs) and men (sperms).
A human embryo can be in vivo (in the body of the pregnant woman) or in vitro (in the outside of a woman’s body, probably in a Petri tube).
Human embryonic stem cells are derived from the inner cell mass of an embryo in the blastocysts stage [1].
Embryonic stem cells are “pluripotent” cells, which means, they are, technically, differentiable into a wide range of cell and tissue types [1]. However, they are not “totipotent” cells. A basic meaning of this fact is: they cannot differentiate into a human embryo; they can only differentiate into specific types of cells and tissues [5].
Since we agree with the general acceptance of the human embryo has no legal personality, we are in the view of human embryonic stem cells of an in vivo human embryo is within the body parts of the pregnant woman.
However, things are much more complicated in the subject of the in vitro embryo. Does it belong to the donor of the ova or the donor of the sperm or both of them? Does it belong to the patient of assisted reproduction treatment? What happens if it is donated for the researches? Does it belong to the researcher? What does “to belong to” mean for human body parts? Does it mean ownership? Is it possible to accept human body parts as properties?
\nAccording to the traditional definition, the right to property is a right, which gives its owner the authority to use, to enjoy the fruits and the ownership. If one of these three authorities not legally enjoyable for a person, then that person has no right to property on that property or that thing is not subject to the right to property. Authority to ownership means legal availability to buy and sell. Authority to ownership is not enjoyable for body parts because the prohibition of financial gain on the human body and its parts is a fundamental principle, which is accepted worldwide in both international and domestic regulations. Article 21 of the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (CETS No. 164) with the title of “
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Because of the prohibition of financial gain on the human body and its parts, according to the general view in the French, German and Turkish doctrine, germ cells that are departed from the body cannot be considered as property, and giving harm to these cells causes a violation of personal rights, not of the right to property [4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. While some of the authors claim that protecting human embryos is possible only with the personal rights of the donors [8, 9, 10] others emphasize its
As it is seen while the doctrine agrees with the view of human embryos have a sui generis legal status and can be protected with the donor’s personal rights, there is no unity in the view of it is also possible to protect the right to property to the human embryos. As we mentioned before, it is possible to make an interpretation based on the legal status of the human body parts to understand the legal status of the in vitro human embryonic stem cells. Because human germ cells are about reproductive rights, more specific protection is provided for the germ cells than that of the somatic cells. Because the human embryo has characteristics of both the donors’ and the embryo itself and also has the potential to develop into a living human, more specific protection is provided for in vivo human embryo (for example with abortion laws) than that of the germ cells. On the other hand, such a more specific protection is not provided to in vitro human embryo, although it has the same characteristics as in vivo human embryo. From our point of view, protecting it with the right to property besides the protection of personal rights can give the more specific protection the in vitro human embryo needs.
\nA patent is a legal document, which provides a right to enjoy the innovation’s owner and prevent third parties from violating the rights of the owner. The owner of the patent has the opportunity to declare the rights related to the patent to third parties [14]. By giving patents, states aim to encourage scientists to make science. An innovation that is given patent improves the scientific development of societies by presenting the innovation to the memory of the society. States target community development by authorizing exclusive competence to the owner of the innovation [15].
\nLegislations which affect the patentability of HESCLs usually regulate the patentability of the biotechnological inventions field, in which the applications about the HESCLs take part. Unfortunately there is no legislation regulates the patentability of the HESCLs specificly. For this reason, rules for the patentability of the HESCLs are reachable by interpreting legislations on the biotechnological inventions. Therefore, in this part of the syudy, patentability criteria and international regulations on the biotechnological inventions will be examined in the first two subtitles. Then, in the third subtitle of this part, patentability of the HESCLs will be specificly considered.
\nPatents are qualified with three criteria. To an application is being patented, it has to be novel and inventive and have industrial applicability [16]. These criteria are also needed for the patent application in the field of biotechnology. However, because of the sui generis characteristics of biotechnological researches, some differences appear. In the paragraphs below, the affection of the sui generis characteristics of the biotechnology field on the meaning of the patentability criteria will be explained.
\nNovelty, which is the first characteristic of patentability, means going beyond the state of art in the field of biotechnology [17]. To a research in biotechnology is beyond the state of art, it has to be about a technic that is more developed than the technic that was known before. It is not enough the research itself has the ethical values that are determined by the international organizations, the novel technic should also be compatible with these values. The qualification on the novelty in the field of Biotechnology is not far more different from the qualification on the novelty in the other fields. However, in the field of biotechnology, there has to be a specific qualification, since in these innovations the materials existed in nature are mentioned. The fact that proteins, genes, enzymes, and such materials are already existed in nature and in the researches such materials are processed, the characteristic of novelty does not appear traditionally. For this reason, in the field of biotechnology studying more on material or finding the different physical characteristics and forms of the materials do not eliminate the innovations characteristic of novelty. Also the fact that its benefits are already known does not eliminate the characteristic of novelty [18]. However, if the subject of the patent application has the same technic with the technics that are already known, it is accepted that the application has not got the characteristic of novelty, without considering its production method.
\nThe second criteria for a patent application is its inventiveness. A patent application should be inventive. In this context, firstly, the target of the application should be determined. If there is a determined target for the application and if this target is reachable with the estimated theory and the existing information for the application, it is possible to say that there is an innovation. Another matter, which proves that there is an invention, is the application is capable of fulfilling the existing needs. Besides, there should be a reasonable expectation for the technic to be “obviously” successful, which means each time the technic has used the consequences should be the same. No application that has obvious consequences can be patented [19].
\nPharmaStem v Viacell Case of United States District Court of Delaware is an example of the conflicts on inventiveness in Europe. The case is about an invention on an isolated DNA molecule, which codes human tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA). The court has decided that producing human t-PA by using human recombinant DNA technology is an obvious consequence for any expert in the field. The court says that, oligonucleotide probing was a known technic, any expert could reach the consequence of the invention that seeking for the protection of patent because choosing oligonucleotide probs did not need a high level of skill and experience. According to the court, the monopoly rights given to the patent owners provide much more than a prize given for winning the race of recombinant expression of the gene. For this reason, the court says that the invention seeking patent protection could not succeed in the criteria of inventiveness. It is seen that the court has emphasized the obviousness of the isolation methods of DNA, not the structure of the molecule, and reached the conclusion of the decision should be made by considering the creativity of the method, not by considering the speed of the method’s application [16, 20]. As is seen, the criteria of inventiveness qualified specially in biotechnological researches.
\nThe last criteria for a patent application is industrial applicability. Determination of the industrial applicability can be hard for a biotechnological invention because, in general, it is not as clear as for an invention on a gene or a protein sequence, as for the inventions in other fields of science. For example, in genetic researches, short DNA sequences’ or expressed sequence tags are used as probs. However, some quarters claim that expressed sequence tags do not have enough benefits for patentability [16].
\nA patent application, when it is considered with the knowledge that is widely known, should include a real industrial applicability expectation, instead of a completely theoretical probability of industrial applicability. Without a clear description related to its method or describing the method without pointing out one of its practical benefits, it is not enough for the industrial applicability criteria to succeed. It is also not enough to relate the structure to some reachable but undetermined theoretical aims for the industrial applicability criteria to succeed. However, having no experiment or laboratory data related to the method of the application seeking patent protection does not show that it is not reaching the industrial applicability criteria. Criteria of industrial applicability cannot be dependent on experiments or laboratory data. It is enough to give a reasonable and reliable benefit or estimated data. Reliability can be supported by the possible information that can appear later. Because laboratory reports, expert opinions, and clinical trials related to the invention increase the reliability of the applicability of the invention, they support the industrial applicability criteria indirectly [21].
\nIt is possible having no industrial applicability criteria for one part of the invention to affect the industrial applicability criteria of its other part. For example, when a part of the invention is about receptor, if the receptor has no industrial applicability, the agonist (compounds forming reaction in the cell by connecting to the cell receptors) related to the receptor also have no industrial applicability. Likewise, a method, which defines an agonist related to a receptor, has no industrial applicability, either. On the other hand, it would not be possible to say that the receptor, agonists, and the method of defining the agonists do not have the criteria of industrial applicability if, for example, it is clarified with some in vivo or in vitro data in the description that it is about the treatment of obesity [16]. To sum up, the situation of a part of the application is the lack of the criteria of industrial applicability does not mean that the whole application is not patentable. Hence, the effect of technological developments on the criteria of industrial applicability increases in each passing day.
\nIn this part of the study, international regulations on the patentability will be discussed. In this context, The European Patent Convention and The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights are important for regulating general criteria for patentability and its exceptions. Directive on the Legal Protection of Biotechnological Inventions is especially related to the subject of our study by regulating the general rules and exceptions of the patentability of stem cells.
\nThe European Patent Convention [22] (Convention) makes giving valid patents in the state parties possible. Although there is no specific regulation on the patentability of biotechnological inventions, it is possible to conclude by analyzing its general provisions. To an invention is patentable in the context of the Convention, it should have the criteria of novelty, inventiveness, and applicability in industry. In the article 53 of the Convention, the unpatentable inventions are counted. According to article 53/a the patent protection cannot be provided to the inventions which violate ordre public and morality. In the article 53/b, it is regulated that the patent protection cannot also be provided to “
The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIP’s) is another international agreement on patentability. In the article 27 of TRIP’s limits for the patentability of inventions are regulated. The article is important for having wide coverage for the protection granted with patentability. According to the article, nearly all inventions, without considering its place, its ability to export or its technological area, are patentable and thereby they can be released into commercial circulation like the other trade objects. However, there are some exceptions to this wide regulation, too. The most important exception which is also essential for the biotechnological inventions is “ordre public and morality”. This regulation of the TRIP’s has parallels with article 53 of the Convention. Both regulations need reconsidering because the concepts of ordre public and morality are open to interpretation. In this interpretation biotechnological developments should also be considered [15].
\nAnother international agreement in which the patentability of biotechnological researches and especially stem cells are regulated in Directive 98/44/EC of The European Parliament and of The Council of 6 July 1998 on The Legal Protection of Biotechnological Inventions (Directive). The Directive is criticized for including uncertainties and gaps. The Directive’s attribution of being blocked off in a matter of confliction in which it should be clarified causes difficulties in interpretation. For this reason, modern technologies and necessities should contribute to the interpretation of the Directive.
\nThe term “biotechnology” which appears in the title of the Directive and constitutes its target means, application of industrial and commercial processes on a biological material (living cells and microorganisms) with scientific methods. This definition matches up with the definition in article 2 of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity [23] dated 1992. Because the investments in the field of biotechnology have high risks, the investors and owners of the inventions need to have legal protection and the preventions against them to be removed. So, the target is regulating the limitations on biotechnological material, especially on scientific researches related to the human body; not constituting a new and special kind of patent for the field of biotechnology. By regulating the limitations, it is aimed at both supporting biotechnological developments and reaching a level of development proper to public order and morality which is regulated in domestic and international regulations [24].
\nIn the Directive, while the prohibited and conditioned subjects are determined, it is also regulated whether biotechnological inventions are patentable or not. According to article 3(2) of the Directive, biological materials are patentable if they are isolated from their natural environment. The article regulates that, “
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As it is seen, ordre public and morality are also regulated in the Directive as limits of patentability of biotechnological inventions. Cloning human beings, modifying the germ line genetic identity of human beings, uses of human embryos for industrial or commercial purposes, and modifying the genetic identity of animals are accepted to be out of the patent protection.
\nThe problem in the patentability of HESCRs is the Directive’s tendency to use the term “human embryo”. However, the term “human embryo” is not defined in the Directive. This situation causes the term human embryo to be widely interpreted as if it is the same thing with pluripotent cells of the human embryo. In fact, embryonic stem cells are “pluripotent” cells, which means, they are, technically, differentiable into a wide range of cell and tissue types [1]. However, they are not “totipotent” cells. A basic meaning of this fact is: They cannot differentiate into a human embryo; they can only differentiate into specific types of cells and tissues [5]. So, in the HESCRs pluripotent stem cells are used, processed, and human embryonic stem cell lines are produced. Neither pluripotent stem cells nor the human embryonic stem cell lines are the same thing with human embryos. Besides, it is not possible for both of them to be used for producing or cloning human embryos. Pretending as if they are the same thing with the human embryos causes the patentability of human embryonic stem cell lines to be trapped into the discussion of the destruction of human embryos for research purposes which is another, but not the same, side of the story. As it is seen, when the knowledge learned with modern technology is not gathered with the regulations written before by the way of interpretation, the regulations cannot succeed in their aims.
\nAs an example of the problem mentioned above, the European Court of Justice has decided in its Oliver Brüstle v Greenpeace eV. case (dated 18.10.2011, numbered c-34/10) that an application is unpatentable by interpreting the term of human embryo widely, in the context of article 6(2)c of the Directive. When the case is analyzed, it is seen that the Court has considered the principle of human dignity and the prohibition of commercial use in its decision. However, interpreting every patent application related to HESCRs within the contexts of human dignity and commercial use would cause a broad interpretation which is contrary to the aim of the Directive. Surely, human dignity is a fundamental principle, which should be considered in every legislating and interpreting process and the Directive serves for human dignity with all of its existence. However, both the Directive and the other international regulations on the matter also aim to support the researches to find treatments for severe and life quality reductive diseases such as Alzheimer’s, pancreas cancer, blindness, and Parkinson’s. For this reason, terms like human dignity, human embryo, or commercial use should not be interpreted in a way to cause go far from the total target. Preventing inventions with cruel commercial and industrial purposes and presentation of such inventions to the use is a noble cause which should be granted with legal regulations. However, steps to this cause should not be stopped from preventing human suffering. HSCRs need large amounts of economic resources. In order to that economical resources are granted, and researches are developed, patents are very important. The fact that an invention has an economical value should not shadow its necessity for the sake of humankind. However, to maintain the necessities of human dignity, the opportunity for each human being to reach such inventions in an equal way should be granted in the legal regulations.
\nThe sui generis legal status of human embryo basis on the characteristics of the ability to develop into a living human being, a person [4]. Because of this sui generis legal status and developments in science and medicine especially in the field of stem cell science, new interpretations on the right to property appeared. According to such interpretations, it is possible to provide human embryos the protection of both personal rights and the right to property. Providing the protection of the right to property besides the protection of personal rights do not decrease the legal status of the human embryo that of the property [4, 25]. On the contrary, providing extra protection increases the legal status of the human embryo [26, 27]. However, if these cells will be used as a continuation tool of the donor’s personality with the assisted reproductive technologies’ help it is better not to entitle them the legal status of the property [25]. In order to the subject of patentability of HESCRs is understand better, in this part of the study we will clarify the terms of personal rights and right to property, which are the branches of the absolute rights, the subjects of these rights, and the necessities of these rights for the patentability.
\nAbsolute rights are the rights that give its owner the broadest power over the owner’s own personality and the property they are subject to. Everyone must respect these rights and obey the limits drawn by them. In this respect, absolute rights are powerful rights that can be claimed against every third person. Personal rights are a type of absolute rights, which arise from being a person and they are a tool for the protection of the human embryo. With these rights, which cannot be waived, transferred be converted into money and can only be subject to a claim for compensation in case of violation, it is desired to protect the person’s material and moral existence.
\nAs it is mentioned before, HESCs are body parts that can be departed from the body and they include their donors’ personal data. For this reason, personal rights of the donors’ need to be protected in the HESCRs. It is important to protect the personal data with personal rights against the interventions of the third parties. In his scope, personal data of the donors are under the protection against revealment and unauthorized use with the domestic and international regulations. Oviedo Convention [28] is a good example for such international regulations. According to article 5 of the Oviedo Convention;
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Article 22 of the Convention is also important for the subject of this study. According to the article 22,
As the personal rights of a person are protected against the interventions of the third parties, they are also protected from the person’s him/herself. The inalienable characteristic of personal rights requires the prevention of gaining economic benefits from the human body parts by the rule of the prohibition of financial gain. As it is mentioned above, it is not possible for a person to sell his/her body parts for research and therefore, such research would be unpatentable. Human body parts of the donors- for our case of study their human embryos or HESCs- are protecting as being their personal data with their personal rights. The restriction of having financial gain from the person’s own body parts is a necessity of human dignity.
\nThe right to property is also claimed to be a tool for protecting departed human body parts. The right to property is one of the absolute rights. Absolute rights can be divided into two, such as; absolute rights on tangible properties and absolute rights on abstract entities. Absolute rights on tangible properties are rights that give its owner direct control over the property and such rights can be claimed against everyone. Absolute rights on the abstract entities are defined as intellectual property rights. The intellectual property rights are the rights of individuals regarding their thoughts, intelligence, knowledge, and feelings. They are the rights of the products in the field of art, literature, law, or science. Such a right to property is not constituted on the product, it is directed on the intellectual property which has a legal entity independent of the product itself. Both property rights on the tangible properties and the intellectual property rights provide a superior power of protection to its owner. In the HESCRs, the object of the patent application, the object that the right to property is wanted to be constituted on, is not the body part of the donor. The object of the patent application to which the protections of the right to patent is wanted to be granted is the method or the HESCL which is produced as a conclusion of the application of the method. So, it is not possible to the right to property is constituted on a body part. Besides, HESCs themselves is not patentable since such an object of the patent application would not have the criteria of novelty and inventiveness. The thing that makes HESCs patentable is the technic, the scientific method applied to it.
\nIt is possible to mention intellectual property rights in the patentability of the methods of the HESCRs. However, in the patentability of the HESCLs, since the object of the patent application is the stem cell line which is produced as the consequence of the research, a property right on the tangible properties should be mentioned. While the right to the property gives several rights to its owner, it also imposes several obligations. In this scope, the kinds of embryonic stem cells that the right to property can be constituted, the techniques that can be patented, and the ways that the patents can be used should be evaluated under the obligations imposed by the right to property. One of the obligations imposed by the right to property and thus the patent is that a legal act contrary to ordre public and morality should not be protected by the legal system. For this reason, with this obligation imposed by the right to property, the patent owner cannot act against human dignity while exercising his/her rights [29].
\nTo sum up, HESCs, which are a kind of body parts that can be departed from the body, can be protected with both personal rights and the right to property. The protection granted with personal rights is for the favor of donors. This protection appears by both taking their informed consent and prohibiting the financial gain. However, the right to property is for the favor of the owner of the invention. With the right to property of the owner of the invention, the technique he/she applies on the HESCs and/or the HESCLs produced as the consequence of the technique are protected. So, the object which provides financial gain and the right to property will be constituted on is the technique of the owner of the invention and/or the HESCLs produced as a consequence of the technique. Another value that should be considered is the principle of human dignity. It is possible to prevent the patent applications contrary to human dignity, with the restrictions provided by the personal rights and obligations imposed by the right to property. By giving the patent right for the HESCRs, this researches will have economic support, which will help the development of science. This way, there will be an opportunity to find and develop the treatments of severe human diseases.
\nEthical debates on both HESCRs and the patentability of the HECSLs find their basis in the debate on the legal/moral status of the embryo. We have mainly discussed the approaches to the legal status of the embryo in the first part of the study. The subject of legal status of the human embryo is mostly related to the ethical questions that arise due to the destruction of the embryo by HESCRs. In this part of the study, we will first consider ethical debates on stem cell discussions in general and then ethical debates on the patentability of the HESCLs based on these discussions.
\nThe basis of the views which claim that HESCRs are unethical is the acceptance that the embryo is a part of human development. According to such views, embryo stage, which is a part of human development such as the stages of fetus, baby, child, old age, is also a humanbeing and is under the protection of human rights. Using the human embryo to treat diseases is the instrumentalization of humans. However, human should be an end, not a tool. This view may be called as “nongradualist position” [30].
\nIt is clearly seen that the Kantian understanding of morality underlies this view. According to this, human beings are dignified and have certain rights due to their potential to be an intelligent and autonomous creature [31]. For the same reason, the embryo deserves the protection of human rights due to its potential to be a creature with intelligence and autonomy, just like other people who are lack of intelligence and autonomy. This view, in the discussion of Kantian moral philosophy, which will be discussed below, adopts the idea that the embryo does not have to have reason and autonomy, therefore, having this potential is sufficient to benefit from the protection of human rights [32].
\nThe second argument in the debate about the status of the human embryo is that the human embryo is a creature to be protected and respected, but does not have the quality of a fully developed baby. The moral status of the embryo increases with its development. Once formed, it gains the right to be protected as a human and to have rights. In this mode of understanding, the moral status of the embryo is not absolute but related to other moral elements. So it is at a relative level. When it comes to the possibility and benefit of other people’s treatment, the moral status of the embryo at a certain stage of development is decided by comparing it with this benefit. If the benefit to be achieved is a state of “goodness” that is superior to the destruction of the embryo, then destroying the embryo is not considered wrong. This argument provides an ethical opportunity for HESCRs [33].
\nAnother question that needs to be answered after the question of whether the human embryo has the right to life is whether the human embryo is a carrier of human dignity. The main issue here is whether it is possible to talk about human dignity where there is no human life. For example, if we do not accept the embryo’s right to life, will we be able to honor it? In the doctrine, it was argued that the right to life and human dignity should be evaluated separately. It has been determined that there is human dignity wherever there is human life, but it cannot be said that there is no human dignity where there is no human life. However, the reason why the human embryo is honored here is because the dignity of the potential future person is preserved [34].
\nIn another view, which describes the relationship between human rights and human dignity in a similar way and is based on the idea that the right to life and human dignity can exist independently, a distinction is made between respect for human life and the right to life with regard to the status of surplus human embryos. The human embryo is respected in terms of respect for human life. The right to life, on the other hand, is evaluated independently of this respect and is recognized gradually depending on passing certain stages. The result of this is that in some cases the general well-being outweighs the respect for the life of the human embryo. However, according to this opinion, the fact that the embryo can be sacrificed for the good of the society does not mean that the human embryo is not honored. Even if the human embryo does not have the right to life, it has honor. This view is based on the assumption that the benefit of humanity is superior to respect for the life of the human embryos that will be destroyed under any circumstances and is criticized by its opponents as being consequential [35]. This view has also been criticized for its contradiction. It was stated that if the life of the embryo is respected, human rights should be given to it. It has been argued that the solution to this complicated issue would only be possible if the in vitro fertilization method is limited with fertilizing the OVAs that will be transferred to the uterus. Only in this case the human embryo is not instrumentalized and human dignity will be preserved [36], which is not possible for the current level of development of the assisted reproductive techniques.
\nJohn Harris, on the other hand, argues that the embryos that occur due to the in vitro fertilization method or miscarriages should be used instead of being wasted. He bases this thesis in the “Waste Prevention Principle”. The other option, which is wasting the resources, argues that there are very strong moral reasons for using these resources for a useful purpose. He states that if the surplus embryos are already going to be destructed, it is not wrong to use them for a good purpose. He goes one step further and claims that organ transplantation from a fetus subjected to abortion is not different from organ and tissue transplantation from a cadaver [37].
\nAmong the views which claim that HESCRs are supportable, there is another view that refers to the fact that the right to life is not an absolute right and that restrictions can be placed on this right in order to find treatment for incurable diseases. The basis of this view is the acceptance that the human embryo is a human and has the right to life. The view suggests that there is a conflict of interests between the right to life of the human embryo and patients seeking for treatment and in this conflict of interests finding treatment for severe diseases can be preferred [38].
\nThe topic is getting a little more complicated in therapeutic cloning. Because, unlike the case of harvesting HESCs from surplus human embryos, in the therapeutic cloning the human embryos are created only for the purpose of harvesting HECSs. While the using surplus human embryos derived from the in assisted reproductive treatments is still discussive, it is claimed in the doctrine that creating embryos only to use them for therapeutic HESCRs or treatments of patients is much more problematic in the ethical aspect. In the initial phase of this technique, the nucleus removed from the patient is transferred to the OVA and a human embryo is created. The created human embryo however, is not transferred to the uterus and is used to obtain HESCs. Since the embryo has nearly the same genetic characteristics with the patient who will benefit from the HESCs, it is used in the treatment of the patient’s diseases and in the process of organ formation for transplantation to the patient. The main problem in therapeutic cloning is that the human embryo is formed to be destroyed for the treatment of another person’s diseases. In other words, the human embryo is produced to be destroyed for the benefit of another person or society.
\nAccording to the views that oppose to the therapeutic cloning technique, even if it has a therapeutic aim, this technique makes the embryo only a tool for the treatment of another person, and moreover, to know that the embryo will be destroyed at the very beginning of this process means the denial of any value of human life and accordingly the violation of human dignity [36]. As mentioned earlier, it has been suggested that the embryo can be attributed to pre-life dignity from the view of it has a potential to become a fully developed human being. However, in cloning for therapeutic purposes, the human embryo will not be able to benefit from honor protection retrospectively as the human embryo was not created to become a human being. In other words, since the human embryo does not have the characteristics of a fully developed human being, its dignity will not be violated [39]. In this context, we need to evaluate whether the embryo is dignified or not according to Kant’s ethics, which is our mainstay of human dignity. First of all, it has been claimed that making a differentiation between human dignity and the right to life made in German Law in order to protect dignity in terms of embryos and the dead was incompatible with Kant’s understanding of human dignity [40].
\nThe view of the human embryo does not have human dignity is referred to by many authors by referencing the views of Kant. According to this, it is said that the embryo should not be honored as it does not have the characteristics of being self-aware, taking responsibility for its actions, acting independently, based on Kant’s grounding of human dignity within the framework of moral autonomy. However, this view was opposed, and it was argued that Kant did not connect human dignity to actions and fulfillment of these acts. According to Kant, anyone who has the capacity to act morally should be considered as an honored person in an experimental manner. Every human being has the capacity to take moral action that comes from being human. In Kantian ethics, human dignity is a concept which belongs to the imaginable world (the universe of noumens). Since honor belongs to the imaginable world and has a super-experimental quality, criteria such as brain activity belongs to the world of phenomena (universe of phenomena), life capacity outside the mother’s womb should not be taken into account. The embryo should be dignified from the moment of fertilization. According to this view, although the human embryo cannot use its capacity to act morally, it has been said that it should be regarded as an honored person because it has this ability [40, 41].
\nHowever, in the doctrine, there are views which also claim that it should be discussed briefly whether therapeutic cloning is an ethically problematic technique or not because finding treatments for severe human diseases is also a noble aim which serves to the human dignity. According to this view, in the therapeutic cloning, it is aimed to create a somatic cell or tissue type from another somatic cell. The fact that a step for this method is creating a human embryo and destroy it to harvest HESCs should not affect the whole purpose in a bad way. The created human embryo was a somatic cell which is processed to become another human cell, tissue or organ type, which means it was never going to be a fully developed human being. Indeed, the hope for finding and developing treatments for severe human diseases is an important and unignorable necessity. For this reason therapeutic cloning technique which is legally accepted in some states such as United Kingdom and Holland deserves to be discussed without pretending as if it is the same thing with reproductive cloning which aims to produce human beings [42].
\nWhen the human dignity is violated is another point that should be mentioned. Human dignity becomes meaningful as an absolute law, as the human beings see themselves as an end and treat all other people in the same way. It goes beyond trends, personal qualities and acquires a universal quality. Just as we cannot hold the person who is used as a tool legally responsible for a passive act carried out by destroying his will over another; likewise, we cannot hold people responsible for their actions against their wills. Conversely, man is responsible for what he does, not what he suffers. However, by acting contrary to the value of her/his own species, of which a she/he is a member, she/he can act inappropriate to her/his own human dignity. The prerequisite for being understood with human dignity and its being so valuable seems to be protected by a good understanding of this value and thus by considering it with this understanding and valuing it at least as much as the value it finds in its own person. In this context, any interference with the possible right to life of the embryo, regardless of whether it human dignity or not, can be regarded as a behavior that violates human dignity if it can be considered as a behavior contrary to the value of the species of which a human being is a member.
\nAll these debates also constitute the basis for the debate on the patentability of the stem cell. According to our point of view, it would be appropriate to evaluate the ethical discussions about patentability of the HESCLs in the same way the discussions on HESCRs are evaluated. So it would be meaningful to divide the topic of patentability of the HESCLs into two such as the patent applications that use surplus human embryos for their methods and the patent applications that create human embryos for their methods.
\nThe first criticism of the patenting of HESCLs is that the human embryo has been instrumentalized, made into something tradable and of commercial value, just like the HESCRs. However, as mentioned in the previous sections, the subject of the patent is not the human embryo or HESC itself, but the processed state of the HESCs taken from in. In other words, it is not possible to patent the human embryo.
\nThis criticism should be considered separately in terms of the therapeutic cloning method, which includes the process of destroying the human embryo produced for the treatment of another person. As it will be remembered, this method was subject to heavy criticism that the human embryo, which has a life potential, would be instrumentalized in the production process, since human embryos were produced for the treatment of another person. If this view will be supported, the criticism that the human embryo is instrumentalized in the whole process in which it is already known that the human embryos will be used for therapeutic purposes and will be subject to patents after some procedures in which the stem cell in the human embryo is taken and subjected to a certain stage of this treatment would seem meaningful. When this point of view is accepted, developing a moral argument to meet the criticisms becomes striking.
\nOn the other hand, considering the arguments for the ethical acceptability of HESCs, it becomes difficult to argue that patentability is a tool for instrumentalization. This will be the case especially for surplus human embryos or the human embryos with low result which are derived as a result of the application of assisted reproductive treatments. As stated above, within the framework of the principle that Harris named as the “Principle of Prevention of Waste”, it is possible to say that the destruction of the human embryos that will already be destroyed for a good purpose such as treatment cannot be different from the organ transplantation from a patient with brain death. Here, the debate of whether instrumentalization by patenting would be possible will come to the fore, since it will not be possible to instrumentalize the human embryo with stem cell studies alone.
\nIt will be better to emphasize once again that it would not be correct to consider the inventions to be made thanks to stem cells obtained by this method as if it is the same thing with the patenting of the human embryo. In our opinion, the human embryo is not suitable for patenting on its own. Its moral/legal status does not allow it. Just like organ donation, the human embryo should only be offered by donation, and it should be prohibited to sell it for financial gain. However, it is also clear that using surplus embryos for therapeutic purposes is a morally supportable way. For this reason, the use of surplus human embryos to find new treatment is morally acceptable, and should be encouraged and facilitated.
\nThe fact that HESCRs are highly expensive should also be considered. The sustainability of these studies despite this cost depends only on the fact that some financial gains can be obtained thanks to the inventions that will emerge as a result of these studies. If this opportunity is not provided, these studies can be carried out in an extremely narrow and barren framework. By considering this point, it seems appropriate to provide the financial support required for the continuation of these researches and treatments, which serve a great purpose such as the benefit of humanity, through patents. However, since the issue of patenting stem cell studies is an issue that directly affects human life in many ways, just like organ transplantation, every stage should be handled with sensitivity and all kinds of abuse should be prevented. For this reason, a condition of patentability will be that the works to be carried out are in accordance with public order and ethical principles. In addition, prescribing appropriate restrictions, will prevent violation and abuse of rights.
\nAs it is seen, misunderstanding the term of human embryonic stem cell line and pretending as if it is the same thing with human embryo that has a potential to become a human being causes it to be understood as an unpatentable value. Likewise, interpreting the right to property in its traditional definition causes biotechnological inventions to have difficulties to succeed the criteria of patentability. However, developments in the medicine and science, the need for treatment for the severe human diseases, and the high costs of the human embryonic stem cell researches make the patent protection a necessity for the human embryonic stem cell lines. So, modern interpretations for fundamental rights and principles and new regulations on the biotechnological inventions become a need for such researches to be made and researchers to be supported for finding and developing treatments.
\nFor a view in the doctrine, which we are agree with, providing the protection of the right to property to the human embryos is possible and it does not mean that human embryo is in the low status of a property. The sui generis legal status of the human embryo needs a sui generis protection. According to our point of view, providing the protection of both the personal rights of the donor and the right to property of the owner of the invention does not reduce the legal/moral status of the human embryo. On the contrary, providing extra protection is a proof for its high moral/legal status. Thanks to the obligations the personal rights impose its owner, the donors cannot have financial gain from selling their human embryos. And thanks to the obligations the personal rights impose to the third parties, the researchers cannot use the human embryos without their informed consent. Otherwise sanctions of private and criminal law appears because of the violation of personal rights based on the protection of the personal data of the donors and the research and it consequences become unpatentable. The same situation also appears with the right to property and accordingly patentability. Thanks to the prohibiton of having financial gain from the human body and its parts, a researcher cannot patent the human embryo or human embryonic stem cell. The researcher has to find a novel, inventive, and industrially applicable method for producing human embryonic stem cell lines or invent a new method for a treatment. The owner of the patent is restricted with both the criteria of patentability and the principle of human dignity. By this way owner of the patent right is supported for making expensive and difficult inventions for the human diseases to be treated and has to do it appropriately to the personal rights of the donor, criteria of patentability and the principle of human dignity.
\nAuthors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nYuekun Lai
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n\\nPrevious years (alphabetically by surname)
\\n\\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\\n\\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\\n\\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\\n\\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\\n\\nGang Chen 2016-18
\\n\\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\\n\\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\\n\\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\\n\\nMark Connors 2015-18
\\n\\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\\n\\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\\n\\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\\n\\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\\n\\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\\n\\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\\n\\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\\n\\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\\n\\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\\n\\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\\n\\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
\\n\\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\\n\\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\\n\\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\\n\\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\\n\\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\\n\\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\\n\\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\\n\\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\\n\\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\\n\\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\\n\\nQi Xie 2016-18
\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'New for 2018 (alphabetically by surname).
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nYuekun Lai
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPrevious years (alphabetically by surname)
\n\nAbdul Latif Ahmad 2016-18
\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\n\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\n\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\n\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
\n\nRon de Graaf 2014-18
\n\nHarald Haas 2017, 2018
\n\nFrancisco Herrera 2017, 2018
\n\nJaakko Kangasjärvi 2015-18
\n\nHamid Reza Karimi 2016-18
\n\nJunji Kido 2014-18
\n\nJose Luiszamorano 2015-18
\n\nYiqi Luo 2016-18
\n\nJoachim Maier 2014-18
\n\nAndrea Natale 2017, 2018
\n\nAlberto Mantovani 2014-18
\n\nMarjan Mernik 2017, 2018
\n\nSandra Orchard 2014, 2016-18
\n\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
\n\nBiswajeet Pradhan 2016-18
\n\nDirk Raes 2017, 2018
\n\nUlrike Ravens-Sieberer 2016-18
\n\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\n\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\n\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
\n\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\n\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
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