Gas permeability and water transmission rate (WTR) of polymeric film available for packaging of MAP produce.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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2021",dateReviewed:"May 3rd 2021",datePrePublished:"May 25th 2021",datePublished:"May 11th 2022",book:{id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",slug:"rabies-virus-at-the-beginning-of-21st-century",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"339059",title:"Dr.",name:"Namera",middleName:null,surname:"Thahaby",fullName:"Namera Thahaby",slug:"namera-thahaby",email:"nimrazahbi@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"348665",title:"Dr.",name:"Afzal",middleName:null,surname:"Hoque Akand",fullName:"Afzal Hoque 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2022",book:{id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",slug:"rabies-virus-at-the-beginning-of-21st-century",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"339059",title:"Dr.",name:"Namera",middleName:null,surname:"Thahaby",fullName:"Namera Thahaby",slug:"namera-thahaby",email:"nimrazahbi@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"348665",title:"Dr.",name:"Afzal",middleName:null,surname:"Hoque Akand",fullName:"Afzal Hoque 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3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"12102",leadTitle:null,title:"Current Trends in Ambulatory Care",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tThe goal of this book will be to introduce the current change in ambulatory care affected by the new development of medical knowledge, new technology, and social ethics. The COVID-19 pandemic plays an important role in the acceleration of the adoption of telehealth or telemedicine in medical care. Both patients and medical providers adopt it quickly. The new devices make it possible for remote measuring or monitoring vitals or other physical parameters and communication pathways that provide other tools for medical providers to change the pattern of management of different chronic diseases, like hypertension, diabetes, obesity, congestive heart failure, etc. Some techniques can switch some procedures from the hospital to the patient’s home or clinic so, which will not just make such procedures more convenient for patients but also save expense on medical care. The quality of medical care will improve once both medical providers and patients understand such changes, and cooperate proactively. Medical providers can learn how and what tools they can update and apply for caring for patients. Patients can understand and learn how to proactively engage in their health management.
\r\n\r\n\tThe quest to ensure a perfect patient safety record is at the heart of the decades-long quest to improve quality, enhance value, and increase trust in our healthcare delivery systems. Beginning with the landmark report, To Err Is Human, the Institute of Medicine set an ambitious agenda for the medical community to reduce the number of patients harmed by healthcare-related errors and preventable adverse events. As a result, large-scale initiatives were initiated, including electronic medical records, trainee work hours restrictions, and the advent of evidence-based care bundles. To help support the effort, various governmental and non-governmental agencies established funding for patient safety research and actively fostered the development of well-defined Patient Safety Goals via the National Quality Forum. Parallel to targeted efforts aimed at reducing human and systemic errors leading to patient harm, legislative efforts resulted in bills intended to increase public reporting of medical errors and a paradigm shift allowing public support of the concept that most patient injuries are a result of system failures and not provider errors. This book will intend to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in patient safety, featuring an easy-to-follow, vignette-based format that focuses on the most important evidence-based developments in this critically important area.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-192-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-191-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-193-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"fa37d79f81893fd0a9ab346ae1c3e4a9",bookSignature:"Dr. Xin-Nong Li",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12102.jpg",keywords:"Pandemic, Telehealth, Communication, High Technology, Chronic Disease, Remote, Monitor, Quality, Diabetes, Hypertension, Digital Device, Cardiovascular Disease",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 23rd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 22nd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 10th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 9th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Li, MD, graduated from Sun Yat-Sen University of Medical Sciences as an Outstanding Student. He later retrained as a resident in the department of internal medicine at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. He gained rich professional experience by working at Basel University, Switzerland, the University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA, and Medical School, the University of California at Davis. He is a Fellow of the American College of Physicians and a member of the American Medical Association.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"345917",title:"Dr.",name:"Xin-Nong",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"xin-nong-li",fullName:"Xin-Nong Li",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/345917/images/system/345917.jpg",biography:"Dr. Xin-Nong Li, MD is an internal medicine specialist in Fair Oaks, CA. Dr. Li completed a residency at U Pittsburgh MC Shadyside. He currently practices at Xin-Nong Li, MD, and is affiliated with Mercy San Juan Medical Center. He accepts multiple insurance plans. Dr. Li is board-certified in Internal Medicine.\r\n\r\nEducation:\r\nU Pittsburgh MC Shadyside, Residency Hospital — 1999\r\nU Pittsburgh MC Shadyside, Internship Hospital — 1997\r\nSun Yat Sen University Med Sci, Medical School — 1982",institutionString:"Sutter Health",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Sutter Health",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466997",firstName:"Patricia",lastName:"Kerep",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466997/images/21565_n.jpg",email:"patricia@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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During different handling and marketing operations, there is a huge postharvest loss of agricultural produce. Both qualitative and quantitative losses occur in horticultural commodities between harvest and consumption. Qualitative losses like loss inedibility, nutritional quality, calorific value, and consumer acceptability of fresh produce are much more difficult to assess than are quantitative losses [1]. Quantitative post-harvest losses in India estimated by different committees ranged between 25 and 33% depending upon the crop. The major cause of postharvest loss is the lack of proper infrastructure for processing and packing. These losses can only be minimized to some extent by proper marketing, handling, and processing of agricultural commodities. According to a national level study conducted under the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Postharvest technology of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) the post-harvest losses during different farm handling operations like harvesting, sorting, grading, and packing accounts for about 13%, during farm storage about 6% and during storage at going down, wholesale and retail level about 12% of the produce goes waste. Thus, on average, about one-third of horticulture produce never reaches the ultimate consumer. This results in a considerable gap between gross food production and net availability [2]. Insufficient knowledge of pre and post-harvest operations and lack of proper facilities for handling like pre-cooling, grading, packaging, transport, storage, processing, and marketing all together compound the post-harvest losses and wastage which in value terms accounts for more than 6,720,000.00 US dollars.
Keeping the huge postharvest losses in mind, there is an urgent need to reduce the postharvest losses of fresh commodities and increase the level of processing as a reduction in post-harvest losses is a complementary means of production [3]. The important strategies for loss prevention include the development of varieties (genotypes) that have longer postharvest life, use of integrated crop management system, and development of cost-effective adaptable technologies for post-harvest handling, value addition, and by-product waste utilization [4]. The value chain in post-harvest management of horticultural crops mainly comprises pre-harvest factors, harvesting, market preparation (pre-cooling, sorting, grading, packaging, and on-farm storage), transportation, storage, value addition, and by-product waste management. The status of R&D carried out pertaining to postharvest management (PHM) and processing in the country by different ICAR institutes like Central Institute of Post Harvest Technology (CIPHET) (Ludhiana) and State Agricultural University (SAUs) on different aspects of post-harvest management and processing of horticultural crops is given ahead. Depending upon the status report, research scientists can find out the gap/missing links in the available technology to suggest future priorities in the area of R&D.
Maturity is the state where the product is ready for picking. Proper identification of maturity of produce is essential so that the product is less prone to various physiological disorders and diseases [5]. Maturity indices have been developed for various fruits such as mango, pomegranate, apple, grapes, ber, aonla, Nagpur mandarin, etc. Technique to determine the maturity of mango on the tree (CIPHET) and non-destructive method for the maturity of Grand Naine banana (NRCB, Trichur) need to be popularized.
In recent years, rapid industrialization, population growth, and changed lifestyle led to increased demand for processed and packed foods. Currently, ready to eat packed food industry is growing very fast. Packaging is considered as the science, art, and technology of protecting the products during transportation, distribution, storage, sale, and use. Further, the packaging ensures safe and efficient delivery of the commodity to the consumer in good condition. Good packaging attracts the customer to buy the product. It also plays a vital role in reducing the security risks during shipment. Packaged products are easy in displaying, handling, storing, distributing, opening, reclosing, and reusing. Packaging performs four important functions, such as containment, protection, convenience, and communication. A wide variety of materials, such as cane baskets, wooden boxes, clay vessels, metal cans, China pots, paper bags, and plastics containers are still used for packaging the products in many areas of the world. The packaging material should not cause any environmental pollution. Hence, there is a need to undertake detailed studies to assess the impact of food packaging on the environment.
In this context, Paine and Paine [6] concluded that packaging contains, protects, and preserves as well as informs to create convenience to consumers. It is stated that many companies apply packaging to create values beyond the basic components of containing, protecting, preserving, and informing [7]. Recent progress in food packaging is resulting from the rising need for mild processed but with better shelf-life food products by the consumers. An important reason for innovative packaging is the emergence of food-borne microbial outbreaks that demand packaging with anti-microbial products to ascertain quality and safety. No hazardous components must touch the food within the packaging, and the flavor of the food should not get affected. The food must not change its original appearance and taste. In addition, the food should not cause any discoloring in the packaging. It is pertinent to mention that high-quality films serve to protect a product during transportation, distribution, and use. It seems that the public health impact of unhygienic packaging of food is not well studied. The new food packaging techniques, such as intelligent packaging, bio-active packaging, and active packaging, which engage deliberate contact with the food or its surroundings and influence on consumer’s health have been the most important innovations in the field of packaging technology [8]. Therefore, the main objective of this article is to present an overview of the innovations in food packaging technology.
It is essential to minimize physical damage to fresh produce to obtain optimal shelf-life. The use of suitable packaging is vital in this respect [9]. The most frequently used one is the fibreboard carton, however, they may vary depending on the product and its physical nature, for example, tissue paper wraps, trays, cups or pads, are required to reduce damage from abrasion. Individual packing of the product is most suitable as it ensures its microenvironment and also reduces physical contact with others which improves its texture and nature and prevents the spread of disease-causing pathogens. Molded trays may be used which physically separate the individual piece of produce. Packing plays a crucial role in enhancing the postharvest life of produce and ideal packing material should possess some characters:
Readily available
Easy to handle i.e., less weight
Cost-effective
Provide adequate ventilation for produce
Eco friendly
When packaging is required at the source or when an extended storage life is desired, the packaging film should have high gas permeability and anti-fog properties.
The most commonly used packing material at local markets or for retail purposes is polyethylene (PE) bags. The packaging of fresh vegetables and fruit provides the largest single use of printed PE bags. But they do not have their presence in long-distance transport as they are not firm enough and may cause destruction to the product that results in decay and economic loss to the marketer. During packing the principal factor to be taken into consideration is free movement of air so that the temperature within the enclosure does not increase and shelf life is not affected. Light does not seem to be an essential factor for packing, however, some green leafy vegetables perform photosynthesis by absorbing carbon dioxide and release oxygen upon exposure to light. Vibrations and shock may cause damage to cells that leads to increased respiration rate and enzymes to be released that cause browning reaction to getting started.
The important requirements of food packages are given as follows (ICAR online e-courses).
It should protect from physical damage.
It should safeguard from contamination.
It should protect from bad smells and external toxicants.
It should be nontoxic.
It should not affect the food packaging.
It should be easy to open.
It should act as a barrier for moisture and oxygen ingress.
It should filter harmful ultraviolet light.
It should meet the required physical requirements.
It should be transparent and resistant or tamper.
It should have appearance and printability features.
It should be of low cost.
I should have handling features.
It should be disposed of easily.
Polymeric films are regularly used because of their advantages and their availability, the chief factor in their control of movement and concentration of gasses by lowering the oxygen concentration and raising carbon dioxide concentration that abridges the respiration rate and promotes produce shelf-life (controlled atmospheric (CA) packing). Temperature control plays a crucial role in modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) packing as it directly influences respiration rate that shows an effect on the shelf life of produce. The major drawback of MAP packing is that the concentration of O2 is reduced to a greater extent that may result in the fermentation of tissues producing undesirable off-flavors.
MAP can be done in 2 ways:
Film | Permeability (cm3/m2 day atm) for 25 μm film at 25°C | WTR (g/m2/day/atm) at 38°C, 90% RH | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
O2 | N2 | CO2 | ||
Ethylene-vinyl alcohol (EVAL) | 3–5 | — | — | 16–18 |
Polyvinylidenechloride (PVdC)-PVC copolymer (Saran) | 9–15 | — | 20–30 | — |
Low-density polythene (PE-LD) | 7800 | 2800 | 42,000 | 18 |
High-density polyethylene (PE-HD) | 2600 | 650 | 7600 | 7–10 |
Polypropylene cast (PPcast) | 3700 | 680 | 10,000 | 10–12 |
Polypropylene, oriented (OPP) | 250,000 | 400 | 8000 | 6–7 |
Polypropylene, oriented, PVdC coated (OPP/PVdC) | 10–20 | 8–13 | 35–50 | 4–5 |
Rigid poly (vinyl chloride) PVC | 150–350 | 60–150 | 450–1000 | 30–40 |
Plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-P) | 500–30,000 | 300–10,000 | 1500–46,000 | 15–40 |
Ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVAC) | 12,500 | 4900 | 50,000 | 40–60 |
Polystyrene, oriented (OPS) | 5000 | 800 | 18,000 | 100–125 |
Polyurethane (PUR) | 800–1500 | 600–1200 | 7000–25,000 | 400–600 |
PVdC-PVC copolymer (Saran) | 8–25 | 2–2.6 | 50–150 | 1.5–5.0 |
Polyamide (Nylon-6), (PA) | 40 | 14 | 150–190 | 84–3100 |
Fruits | O2 (%) | CO2 (%) | N2 (%) | Vegetables | O2 (%) | CO2 (%) | N2 (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Apple | 1–2 | 1–3 | 95–98 | Artichoke | 2–3 | 2–3 | 94–96 |
Apricot | 2–3 | 2–3 | 94–96 | Beans, snap | 2–3 | 5–10 | 87–93 |
Avocado | 2–5 | 3–10 | 85–95 | Broccoli | 1–2 | 5–10 | 88–94 |
Banana | 2–5 | 2–5 | 90–96 | Brussels sprouts | 1–2 | 5–7 | 91–94 |
Grape | 2–5 | 1–3 | 92–97 | Cabbage | 2–3 | 3–6 | 81–95 |
Grapefruit | 3–10 | 5–10 | 80–92 | Carrot | 5 | 3–4 | 91–95 |
Kiwifruit | 1–2 | 3–5 | 93–96 | Cauliflower | 2–5 | 2–5 | 90–96 |
Lemon | 5–10 | 0–10 | 80–95 | Chili peppers | 3 | 5 | 92 |
Mango | 3–7 | 5–8 | 85–92 | Corn, sweet | 2–4 | 10–20 | 76–88 |
Orange | 5–10 | 0–5 | 85–95 | Cucumber | 3–5 | 0 | 95–97 |
Papaya | 2–5 | 5–8 | 87–93 | Lettuce (leaf) | 1–3 | 0 | 97–99 |
Peach | 1–2 | 3–5 | 93–96 | Mushrooms | 3–21 | 5–15 | 65–92 |
Pear | 2–3 | 0–1 | 96–98 | Spinach | Air | 10–20 | — |
Pineapple | 2–5 | 5–10 | 85–93 | Tomatoes | 3–5 | 0 | 95–97 |
Strawberry | 5–10 | 15–20 | 70–80 | Onion | 1–2 | 0 | 98–99 |
However, the packing material used may not satisfy all the properties required, so they are combined to provide a wide range of characters by lamination and co-extrusion. The concentration of gasses accumulated depends on many variables such as the chemical composition of products, packing material permeability, product respiration, and the influence of temperature on them. A lot of commercial interest has been focused on developing packing materials with high gas transmission rates. For major polythene films have more permeability to CO2 than O2, thus aid in maintaining a proper gaseous ratio. Thus, packaging film of the correct permeability must be chosen to realize the full benefits of MAP of fresh produce [17].
Typical packing material should have a 2–10% O2/CO2 ratio to maintain the freshness of produce and enhance its shelf life. Highly respiring produce must not be loaded in traditional packing material such as poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), low-density polythene (PE-LD), polypropylene, oriented (OPP), instead kept in the highly permeable micro-perforated film so that the gaseous concentration is maintained. Ceramic films have high oxygen, carbon dioxide, ethylene permeability [18]. Films that have high gas permeability are usually a mixture of two or more non-numeric units each contributing a specific character such as strength, transmission, durability, permeability, etc. Furthermore, films can be laminated to achieve desired traits Films using micro-perforations can attain very high rates of gas transmission [19]. Films with micro-perforations are preferred, generally, the size ranges from 40 to 200 μm, and by making modifications to them we can regulate the gaseous concentration to meet product requirements. Based on the release of gasses from perforations of film, suitable packing materials have been identified for mushrooms. Perforated packing materials also proved good to store nectarines, apples, asparagus, etc. Macro perforated material can also be used to pack some strawberries and raspberries. Micro-perforated material is expensive and may also allow entry of some pathogens during wet handling conditions [17].
The most effective and efficient way for packing high respiring produce is by combining high O2 MAP and low O2 MAP, because of high oxygen concentration there is the prevention of off-flavors and odd odors that result due to fermentation [11, 17]. Macro perforated material can also be used to pack some strawberries and raspberries. Micro-perforated material is expensive and may also allow entry of some pathogens during wet handling conditions [17].
The most effective and efficient way for packing high respiring produce is by combining high O2 MAP and low O2 MAP, because of high oxygen concentration there is the prevention of off-flavors and odd odors that result due to fermentation [11, 17].
Proper movement of air must be ensured for enhancing the shelf life of produce and also increase resistance to gas diffusion. Ethylene is known as a natural ripening hormone and is active at trace concentrations, it is observed that its activity is reduced at oxygen levels of 2–10%, thus low oxygen enhances shelf life.
Biological reactions increase by 2–3 times for every 10°C rises in temperature, film permeability also increases with fluctuations in temperature hence temperature control is crucial for successful MAP, temperature fluctuations may result in browning of tissues, loss of firmness, increased ethanol content, all in combination deteriorate the quality of produce packed.
Relative humidity (RH) also has to affect produce packed, more RH invites disease-causing pathogens thus reduces the quality of produce, whereas low RH increases transpiration damage and leads to desiccation. A mathematical model was developed for estimating the changes in the atmosphere and humidity within perforated packages of fresh produce [18, 20, 21]. This model depends on the concentrations of O2, CO2, N2, and H2O vapors in the package. A different procedure was developed to maintain the concentrations of O2 and CO2 inside packages that are exposed to different environmental conditions [22].
Cucumbers that are not packaged experienced severe chilling injury compared to those packed in 31.75 μm PE-LD when they are stored at 5°C and 90–95% RH [3]. The influence of MAP on the sensory characteristics and shelf life of shiitake mushrooms (
Some fresh vegetable shelf life has been enhanced by packing them with nitrogen gas.
Increased use of synthetic packing material poses an environmental threat during its disposal, hence some coating techniques evolved that satisfy both the product shelf life and less threat to nature (Table 3). The materials used or coating must full fill some features such as acceptable sensorial characteristics, appropriate barrier properties, good mechanical strength, reasonable microbial, biochemical, and physicochemical stability, safety, low cost, and simple technology for their production [23].
Film | Thickness (mm) | Permeability at 0% RH (10−15 l/m2 s Pa) | Permeability ratio (CO2/O2) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
O2 | CO2 | |||
Corn-zein | 0.12–0.31 | 0.36 30°C | 2.67 21°C | 7.5 |
Wheat gluten | 0.23–0.42 | 0.20 30°C | 2.13 21°C | 9.5 |
Methyl cellulose low level (MC (L)) | 0.04–0.07 | 2.17 30°C | 69.00 21°C | 31.6 |
Hydroxypropylcellulose low level (HPC (L)) | 0.05 | 3.57 30°C | 143.99 21°C | 40.6 |
HPC/lipids | 0.15 | 3.44 30°C | 81.75 21°C | 23.7 |
Cozeen | 0.09 | 0.89 37.8°C | 5.25 22.8°C | 5.9 |
Wheat gluten | 0.14 | 0.09 37.8°C | 0.03 22.8°C | 0.3 |
Corn-zein | 0.08 | 0.16 25°C | — | — |
Wheat gluten | 0.15 | 0.08 25°C | — | — |
Mostly used coating materials are polysaccharides of starch, proteins, the cellulose that does not pose any harm to human health. Carboxymethylcellulose is one of the materials that gained attention because of its wide applications. The materials used may be extracted from plants such as (corn zein, wheat protein, soy protein) or from animals (casein, whey protein). Pullulan, produced by
It’s the combination of edible packing material with some antimicrobial agents that aid in inhibiting the growth of microbes. There are several categories of antimicrobials that include, organic acids (acetic, benzoic, lactic, propionic, sorbic), fatty acid esters (glyceryl monolaurate), polypeptides (lysozyme, peroxidase, lactoferrin, nisin), plant essential oils (cinnamon, oregano, lemongrass), nitrites and sulfites, among others [24]. But their use is limited in fresh-cut fruits, only organic acids, and plant essential oils are used. The drawback is that fruits are losing their natural flavor and aroma due to the usage of essential oils. To confer antimicrobial activity, antimicrobial agents may be coated, incorporated, immobilized, or surface modified onto package materials [25].
Antimicrobial films are of 2 types: (a) mobile-which includes an antimicrobial agent that migrates on the surface of produce and prevents pathogenic growth (b) static that does not migrate and inhibits pathogen growth on the surface of produce. Packing materials with grapefruit seed extract in combination with a polyamide binder had an impact on microbial activity compared to grapefruit seed extract (GFSE) alone. When only GFSE is used it should antimicrobial activity against few microbes, but when used in association with a binder it is found effective against several microbes. But these when used alone may not be much effective, hence must be combined with other techniques such as pulsed light, high pressure, and irradiation could reduce the risk of pathogen contamination and extend the shelf-life of perishable food products.
It is the most efficient technique for packing products that had a dual purpose of maintaining quality and also reduced pathogen damage. It is based on the technique of modifying the internal gas environment by removing or adding gasses to the headspace inside the package. It is done through various ways such as:
Ethylene scavenging: ethylene is known as a ripening hormone and in very minor concentrations it shows its action, so by eliminating ethylene from packing material we can avoid the further maturation of produce and prevent enzyme action that results in extended shelf life.
Oxygen scavenging: the presence of oxygen enhances aerobic microbial growth and also enzymatic action. It also results in nutrient loss, off flavor development. Mostly it is used to check mold growth.
Carbon dioxide release: higher concentrations of carbon dioxide check microbial growth, hence it is essential to maintain it at the needed level, and it is more permeable to plastic films than oxygen, so it must be regulated timely to get quality produce.
Sulfur dioxide: most commonly used for the packing of grapes, grapes packed in the carton are intermittently fumigated with sulfur dioxide, it must be properly regulated to prevent excess accumulation of sulfur dioxide. Flexible packaging materials such as PE-LD and linear low-density polyethylene (PE-LLD) when impregnated with potassium permanganate and cinnamic acid, respectively become ethylene scavengers.
Many biobased polymers are available in the market, like certain kinds of polyester, polyvinyl alcohol, polyesteramides, which are mainly used as films or moldings (Table 4). Polyhydroxy acid is very expensive as it is produced in limited quantities at the commercial level. Polylactic acid (PLA) is gaining importance in recent times as it performed better than many synthetic ones. There is always a great demand in searching for biodegradable packing material that serves the dual purpose of being ecofriendly and also less damage to the products stored in it.
Material | Film preparation | Moisture barrier | Oxygen barrier | Mechanical properties |
---|---|---|---|---|
Starch/polyvinyl alcohol (PVAL) | Extrusion | − | + | + |
Polyhydroxybutyrate/valerate (PHB/V) | Extrusion | + | + | +/− |
Polylactic acid (PLA) | Extrusion | +/− | − | + |
The preference of these bio-based packing materials is for those products that need short time storage such as fruits and vegetables. To achieving in this platform the packing material must meet the quality and safety standards of products and also promote its shelf life and fetch good market price to justify the additional costs incurred.
They are the nanoscale structures the improve the macro properties of food. Some of the nanocomposites used are silica nano clay and polymer clay nano clay. Silver nano clay have good interactions with other particles and also provides a large surface area to volume ratio, enhanced bacterial activity control, whereas polymer nano clay provide more strength and stiffness, smaller cell size, and is a flame retardant.
Polymer nano clay has recently emerged due to its wide-ranging properties such as providing mechanical strength, less shocking treatments, etc. The properties of biopolymer-based coatings were shown to act as hurdles for gas and solutes thereby increasing the shelf life of produce. But they showed poor performance in mechanical resistance and water vapor exchange. To achieve these characters hybrid materials were developed consisting of bio-based polymer and layered silicates such as montmorillonite (MMT). These exhibited great and good results in the chemical, physical and physiological aspects of the product in comparison to the pure one [27].
Nanocomposite constituents are composed of a nanoscale structure that enhances the macroscopic properties of food products. Polymer clay nano clay and silica nanocomposites of nanosilver are the two common nanocomposites utilized in the food packaging industry. Increased stiffness, strength, nucleating agent in foams, smaller cell size, higher cell density, and flame retardant are the impacts of nano clay in polymers. Nanosilver has great antibacterial characteristics which are made out of de-ionized water suspended in silver. Silver nanoparticles have a large surface area relative to volume, so, they interact well with other particles, increasing their antibacterial efficiency. As a result, they are widely utilized in the food packaging business. Although the application of nanotechnology in the food industry was initiated later than other industries, many nanoscientists and technologists have recognized the immense potential of food nanotechnology, particularly in the areas of increasing food quality and ensuring food safety [4].
Polymer/clay nanocomposites are one of the potential applications of nanotechnology in food packaging; they have recently emerged due to their capacity for improving mechanical, barrier, and chemical properties of packaging materials with a small amount of nano clays reinforcement (less than 5% by weight). However major work done on clay polymers concentrated on synthetic polymers majorly. Biopolymers act as a hurdle to solute and gas thereby enhancing the shelf life of produce However, due to their hydrophilic qualities, these films do not retain good mechanical and water vapor barrier capabilities. To overcome these issues, an innovative approach has been developed, by using hybrid materials consisting of polymers and layered silicates such as montmorillonite (MMT) clay mineral, result from the stacked arrangement of negatively charged silicate layers and contain a platelet thickness of about 1 nm with a high aspect ratio (ratio of length to thickness) [28]. The layered silicate filled polymer composites exhibit extraordinary enhancement of mechanical, thermal, and physicochemical properties at a low level of filler concentration when compared to pure polymer and conventional micro composites [27].
In specific, these nanocomposites offer good barrier characteristics, because, the presence of clay layers inhibits the diffusing molecule pathway due to tortuosity [29, 30]. Some of the works done with biopolymer-based nanocomposites were based on starch or polysaccharides, such as chitosan [31, 32], thermoplastic starch and wheat and maize starch. A few studies on protein-based nanocomposites have been available, including whey protein soy protein [31], and wheat gluten. Nanocomposites along with biopolymers exhibited a greater impact when compared nanocomposites alone. The most popular biopolymer is whey protein that has gained popularity due to its transparent coating and effective oxygen barrier. Unlike chitosan film, whey protein films have not shown any antimicrobial activity; therefore, incorporation of antimicrobial agents, such as lysozyme, sorbic acid, and p-aminobenzoic acid and is desirable to induce this feature. Rhim et al., reported that cloister 30R and some chitosan-based nanocomposites showed action against gram-positive bacteria.
It is of two types: the one which incorporates integrated circuits and the one that does not (chipless smart packing). The type of packing that includes diagnostic indicators also falls under this umbrella. They can be used for some functions such as humidity, light, heat, mechanical shock, biological agents such as bacteria or viruses as they come in contact.
The conventional packing material use Is limited to only some fresh produce and it can not come up with tolerating the high rates of respiration of fresh produce, however, some breathable polymer films were in use for cut vegetables and fruits. Packing films with acrylic side chains is more beneficial as the side chains melt which results in increased gas permeability and also ensures proper carbon dioxide to oxygen ratio that usually varies with the product. In this way, packing becomes smart as the concentrations of gasses are controlled automatically around the product during storage and transportation and provide the products with high quality to the consumers.
Intelligent packaging technique indicates the freshness of produce by changing colors, so the consumer can know its quality and can check it if any deterioration occurred during the transit. Time-temperature integrators (TTI’s) are instruments that display irreversible changes in characters such as shape or color. They work based on different principles such as physical, chemical, and biological. The first two types are based on the response towards time, temperature, melting, polymerization, etc… The latter depends on the activity of biological organisms.
Fresh-Check®Life Lines integrator is available as self-adhesive labels, that are attached to the packing material of perishable produce to assure the quality of products to customers. It is based on the principle of color change, which is due to a polymer that has diacetylene monomeric units. It includes a small ring of polymer surrounded by another ring for color reference, the rate of change of color depends on the rate of food quality loss. The color changes from light to dark as the temperature increases.
Vitsab® indicator is based on enzymatic reactions. It has two compartments, one for enzyme plus a dye and the other for substrate (primarily triglycerides). It consists of a bubble-like dot and it is activated by applying pressure, which results in the compartments getting mixed. Because of the reaction between enzyme and substrate, there will be a change in pH and also a change in color. Initially, the dot is in green color and slowly changes to yellow as the product reaches the end of shelf life. The reaction is irreversible and the rate of reaction is directly proportional to the temperature. Single dot tags are used at consumer level packing for monitoring pallets and cartoons.
The Institute of Food Technologists in the United States has defined shelf life as “The period between the manufacture and the retail purchase of a food product, during which time the product is in a state of satisfactory quality in terms of nutritional value, taste, texture, and appearance”. Various factors affecting shelf life are product characteristics, which include intrinsic factors, such as water activity, pH, microflora, availability of oxygen, reduction potential; and extrinsic factors, such as temperature, rainfall, humidity, light, etc., enzymic reactions, chemical reactions, and non-enzymic reactions (Table 5).
Food/treatment | Packaging materials/methods | Shelf life |
---|---|---|
Peach, cauliflower, truffle | Tray: PP; Cover: PE-LD/polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (40 μm), 0–14 microperforated package, all wrapped in PE | 4 days at 4°C |
Strawberry | Stretch PVC | 8 days at 1°C |
Minimally processed fruits (kiwi, banana and prickly pear) | 1. PE/Al/PET | 4–12 days at 5°C |
2. Coex. polyolefinic high permeable film | ||
Sweet cherry | 5% O2 + 10% CO2 | 80 days at 1°C |
PE: 13–18% O2 + 2–4% CO2 | 40 days at 1°C | |
70% O2 + 0% CO2 | 20 days at 1°C | |
Air | 30 days at 1°C | |
Cactus pear fruits | Cryovac MY 15 Plastic box | 9 days at 4°C |
Carrots, minimally processed | PP + cPP/OPP in: | |
5% O2/10% CO2/85% N2 | 2 days at 4°C | |
80% O2/10% CO2/10% N2 | 7 days at 4°C | |
Cabbage, shredded | OPP (30 μm) | 9–10 days at 3°C |
Cabbage, shredded | Glass jar; PE (30 μm); PP (30 μm) in: | 7 days at 0 and 10°C |
Air | ||
100% N2, | ||
MAP 1: 100% N2, | ||
MAP 2: 5% O2/95% N2, | ||
MAP 3:10% O2/90% | ||
MAP 4: 70% O2/30% N2 and 100% O2 |
There are various chemical, biochemical and physical reactions that lead to food quality deterioration. These include enzymic and non-enzymic browning, fat oxidation, hydrolysis, lipolysis, and proteolysis that change the physical and chemical composition of food [33].
Recently, the food packaging process, biotechnology, sensor science, information technology, nanotechnology, and other scientific disciplines are coming together to develop a breakthrough in postharvest packaging systems. These improved postharvest handling techniques are continuously getting advanced by creating new opportunities in food industries to utilize technologies in the future Proper and good packing is essential in providing quality products to customers. It is the connecting link between producers and consumers, so it must be done so perfectly to retain the product quality and also customer confidence. The food packaging industry gets highly competitive due to consumer’s desire for tasty and slightly processed food products with longer shelf life at a lower cost than their existing packaging. The recent trend in the change of lifestyle leads the food industry well aware of consumer’s needs, and therefore, the packaging industry must innovate or stagnate. This condition has posed a great challenge for the food packaging sector to innovate new food packaging techniques. Consumers will often actively seek the freshness of the product with the longest remaining shelf life. Nowadays, novel food packaging technologies, such as active packaging, aseptic packaging, intelligent packaging, nano-packaging, and bioactive packaging intentionally associated with food products have proved to be the best technological research areas. Advances in packaging technology may prevent food spoilage by retarding water penetration, ultraviolet interactions, oxygenation, and ripeness. It is predicted that the future packing material includes radio frequency identification tags. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags are advanced forms that can trace and identify a product. Therefore, continuous innovations in active and intelligent packaging systems are expected to secure food quality, safety, and stability and to satisfy the ever-growing need of consumers.
Wastewater is the water having surplus substances that may be dissolved or suspended solid particles or organic and inorganic substances or other impurities that critically influence its quality and make it unsuitable for use [1]. Wastewater composition varies and is highly dependent on major sources of generation as industries, commercial and residential areas, agricultural sources, etc. [2]. In developing countries, the risk of consumption of contaminated water and its sanitation problem is increasing day by day.
Water covers about 70% of the earth’s shells and is essential for all living organisms to survive and also for various manufacturing industries. About 3% of the total water on earth is fresh water of 0.01% is available for human use. The discharge of untreated contaminants from various industries directly to groundwater hinders the favorable use of water in normal operations of the ecosystem and causes water scarcity. Water deficiency is considered one of the most significant alarms for humanity and sustainable development [3]. According to the UNO report, about 1.2 billion people are affected by severe water scarcity due to the increasing world population and in future, 1.8 billion citizens are predicted to be affected by water insufficiency. Beyond water scarcity, water pollution also poses a greater threat to human health and aquatic life as well as the environment. Several new compounds recently detected in drinking, ground, and surface water have a major effect on water parameters. Water is a universal solvent and water quality is affected due to contamination by toxic substances dissolved in it which causes water pollution [4]. Water requirement is increasing due to adaptation in atmosphere, industrialization, increase in population, and obliteration of the surroundings [5]. The occurrence of organic and inorganic pollutants in wastewater is a major challenge to recycle water sources. To determine small amounts of unknown pollutants in the evaluation of emerging contaminants, the latest modern treatment techniques are still limited [6].
Currently, various analytical methods have been developed for different kinds of emerging pollutants. The separation of these toxic pollutants from water becomes important before the discharge of industrial wastewater into the aquatic environment. For this purpose, the development of proficient techniques has been a major area of environmental research. In general, traditional clean-up methods are classified as biological, physical, and chemical. Biological treatment is of low cost and simple, but not effective for synthetic dyes as they are resistant to aerobic biodegradation. Chemical treatments produce toxic by-products and are low efficient, while physical treatment is usually effective. For treating these organic pollutants present in water, several techniques such as membrane filtration, coagulation-flocculation, solvent extraction, ion exchange, catalytic oxidation, electrochemical oxidation, precipitation, etc. have been tested. However, these techniques are less effective, very expensive, and do not eliminate the contaminants from polluted water which makes this issue more challenging for the researchers. Besides these techniques, adsorption and photocatalytic degradation are considered the most potential approaches to removing wastewater contaminants [7].
The current chapter focuses on classification, potential sources, occurrence, prevention, control, and elimination of emerging contaminants. The major objective of this section is to study available technologies currently used for the removal of ECs from wastewater. This chapter also focuses on selecting the best available technology for removing emerging contaminants from wastewater. A schematic representation of treatment technologies, their principal advantages, performance efficiency, and limitations are discussed in the present study. Furthermore, future research opportunities are examined to provide more suitable and strategic recommendations for ECs removal from the aquatic environment.
Emerging contaminants (ECs), termed contaminants of emerging concern, emerging pollutants (EPs), micro-pollutants, or trace organic compounds (TrOCs) are derived from different natural as well as anthropogenic sources that extensively influence water quality [8]. They are termed as emerging not because they are new but due to enhancement in the level of concern. These contaminants are generally in small concentrations, ranging from nano-gram per liter (ng L−1) to micrograms per liter (μg L−1) in the atmosphere. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) describes ECs as new chemical compounds that have the potential to cause harmful effects on individual health and the surroundings [9]. It is essential to treat and recycle wastewater to an acceptable standard to fulfill water demands.
ECs are classified into organic, inorganic micro-pollutants like pesticides, personal care products (PCPs), pharmaceuticals, synthetic organic dyes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heavy metals ions, plasticizers, per-fluorinated compounds, flame retardants, surfactants, etc. (Figure 1) generated by human activities such as domestic, health care units, agricultural and industrial pathways [10]. These compounds are a source of concern due to their physical and chemical properties because they are widely distributed in the environment which is harmful to humans and wildlife. These pollutants are difficult to detect and have varied activities and miscellaneous sources of production. Their presence in small concentrations causes chronic toxicity, endocrine disruption, and the expansion of pathogen resistance [11].
Classification of emerging contaminants.
Pesticides, a class of organic contaminants, based on their physical and chemical properties are categorized as fungicides, herbicides, bactericides, and insecticides which are used in the agricultural sector to control dangerous insects, weeds, and microorganisms, etc. Based on their application sites, pesticides are frequently detected in groundwater causing toxicity and may bio-accumulate in humans and plants, or sediments depending on solubility, reactivity, and characteristics of soil and environment. Among the pesticide contaminants, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and hexachlorocyclohexane are commonly used pesticides (about 67%) as compared to other compounds such as phorate, chlorpyriphos, Atrazine, methyl parathione, Bentazone, Diazinon, Cyanazine, Simazine, phosphamidone, Terbuthylazine, Alachlor and Dimethoate [12].
Pharmaceuticals are major emerging organic contaminants occurring in small amounts in water resources worldwide [13]. Pharmaceuticals are extensively used on daily basis in human healthcare as well as veterinary medicine such as nutrition, investigative aids, therapy and preventive medicine. Many pharmaceutical products such as drugs (both prescribed and non-prescribed), hormones and antibiotics are extensively detected in the aquatic environment, surface and groundwater and have adverse effects on humans, poultry, livestock and fish farming, etc. Generally, livestock is given medications to reduce diseases and infections. Researchers have examined more than 3000 chemicals used in therapeutic products but only small proportion (ng L−1 doses) has been studied in the field, which possibly will lead to negative effects on human and wildlife. To enhance animal farming, organic fertilizer such as manure and purines as medicines are used which indirectly affect the atmosphere and can reach living organisms through food stuff. Commonly reported pharmaceuticals in wastewater are antibiotics, diclofenac, antacids, clofibric acid, steroids, antidepressants, ciprofloxacin, propranolol, beta blockers, analgesics, salicylic acid, fluoxetine, antipyretics, anti-inflammatory drugs, nitroglycerin, tranquilizers, lipid-lowering drugs and stimulants [14].
Natural or synthetic hormones are also essential ecological contaminants, because of their estrogenic and androgenic impacts on wildlife. Organic and inorganic hormones consist of 17α-estradiol, 17β-estradiol, estrone, equiline, equilenin, estriol, mestranol and norethindrone which can enter atmosphere through farming, and are not completely eliminated from wastewater and harm aquatic life and humans.
Personal care products (PCPs) are household chemicals commonly used for health, odor, beauty, or cleaning. These chemicals are used in personal care products like ornamental cosmetics, soaps, hair and skin care products, lotions, fragrances and sunscreens. PCPs are used in large quantities throughout the world due to which the release of these pollutants in the environment is increasing day by day [15]. Mostly these substances are bioactive and bioaccumulative and harm the environment and humans [16]. The most probable emerging contaminants in PCPs are antiseptics, perfumes pollutants like galaxolide, pest repellants, preservatives diethyl phthalate ultraviolet (UV) filters and Triclosan (TCS) and triclocarban as disinfectant pollutant. Parabens are antimicrobial preservatives used in cosmetic items, pharmaceuticals, and some food stuffs such as benzyl, butyl, ethyl, isobutyl, isopropyl, methyl, and propyl hydroxybenzoates. Polycyclic musks are used in numerous products such as clean-up products, shampoos, hair care and washing products and cosmetic products. Their use on the outside of human skin increases its discharge in environment without any metabolic changes. Among all these products, cosmetics are frequently used, thus its occurrence in air at low quantity may be a source of damage to human beings, wildlife and environment.
Surfactants are synthetic organic compounds used all over the world in making of household products such as emulsifiers, detergents, paints, and pesticides, in addition to personal care products and are harmful to aquatic species [17]. They are classified as cationic, anionic and zwitterionic surfactants. Frequently used surfactants such as fatty alcohol ethoxylates, linear alkyl benzene sulfonates, lignin sulfonates, and alkyl phenol ethoxylates are produced on a large scale. Furthermore, octylphenol and nonyl-phenol ethoxylates, are highly toxic even at low concentrations and must be substituted in all their uses.
Numerous artificial sweeteners such as acesulfame, saccharin and sucralose which are extensively used in foodstuff, pharmaceuticals and hygiene products find their way to domestic wastewater via human excretion. These moderately metabolized sweeteners which pollute the environment are usually hard to remove. Though, latest calculated ratio for predicted environmental concentration (PEC) and predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) of compound sucralose for marine system is below 1 indicating limited threat to aquatic system (plants, algae and fish) [18].
Among all flame retardant compounds, organophosphate ester flame retardants (OPEFRs) class of phosphorus-containing flame retardants (FRs) and halogenated FRs such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)) are known FR groups that decrease the flammability of industrial and consumer products. Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) are used in furnishings, textiles, construction materials, electronics and as plasticizers in floor polishes and coatings. The discharge of OPFRs from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) into the surface water polluted marine environment causes toxicity. PBDEs are hydrophobic in nature and are mostly used as FRs in the manufacturing of carpets, computers, polyurethane foams, electronic cables, etc. [19].
Emerging contaminants sources are the same as those of traditionally known contaminants and they are released to environment by agricultural, domestic, mining and industrial activities and hospitals. These sources are categorized as: point sources and non-point sources [20]. Contaminants from point sources are discharged from a particular site in high concentration and enter the ecological system in a spatially distinctive way. Examples are discharges from industrial activities, mineral extraction and sewage treatment plants. While non-point sources also termed as diffuse sources release pollutants from indistinguishable disperse sources usually over large areas in low quantity. Examples are runoff of bio-solids or fertilizer applied to soils and rain overflow in urban or industrial areas (Figure 2) [21].
Sources and their pathways of emerging contaminants.
Water resources contamination by ECs from Wastewater is taking place all over the world particularly in those areas where wastewater treatment is not properly organized. Frequent use of drugs and personal care products lead to discharge of low quantity of different by-products. For example, triclosan, bisphenol-A and phthalates are significant industrial compounds integrated into several commercial household products. Their existence in water and environment affects their physical and chemical properties. PPCPs and other ECs metabolites are complex and hydrophobic in nature when released in water and settle at water surface. Thousands of these ECs and their metabolites have been discovered in the marine environment and are more noxious and harmful. Basically, wastewater treatment plants are not specifically designed for the effective removal of emerging contaminants [22].
The adverse effects of ECs on living bodies have been widely reported which confirm that even small amount of ECs pose negative effects such as chronic toxicity and endocrine disruption in humans and animals. The major route of human contact with endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) is taking of foods and drinks connected to contaminated soil, water and microorganisms leading to bio magnification and bioaccumulation in human body (Figure 3). Currently, researchers are focusing on ECs present in surface waters for many reasons: firstly, surface waters commonly contain high quantity and a diverse range of contaminants particularly when surface water is directly associated with industrial discharges and secondly it is easily monitored as compared to groundwater [23].
Harmful effects on human health.
Conventional techniques for the treatment of wastewater consist of physical, chemical and biological techniques for the removal of soluble and insoluble pollutants. Benefits and challenges of wastewater treatment technologies are given in Table 1. Biological treatment is of low cost and simple, but not effective for synthetic pollutants such as dyes as they are resistant to aerobic bio-degradation. Chemical treatments produce toxic by-products and are less efficient, while physical treatment is usually effective. Different phases included in wastewater treatment preliminary, primary, secondary and tertiary [24].
Treatment | Basic methodologies | Benefits | Challenges | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Screening | Coarse Screening: removes solid materials with a size below 6 mm. | Minimizes interruption and blockage of the treatment technologies | Not effective in the removal of the ECs | |
Fine Screening: removal of contaminants in between 0.001 and 6 mm | Efficiency regulated by altering the fineness of the screen openings. | The screen must be cleaned due to the blockage in the small openings | ||
Highly recommended to regulate the temperature of the process | ||||
Less expensive and less complex process | ||||
Adsorption | Process of removing soluble substances by solid substrates of very specific surface area | Capable of very specific removal of the ECs | Accumulation of cyanotoxin in the adsorbent | |
Accurate and efficient removal | Difficult to remove the unknown type of contaminants, since adsorbents are highly specific | |||
Can assist other treatment processes | ||||
Less complex and less expensive, adopted easy | Regulation of selectivity of the membranous system is difficult | |||
Reverse osmosis requires external energy; | ||||
Biosorption | Immobilization of the microbes on absorbents | Efficient treatment | Absorbents need to be cleaned at a certain interval of time | |
Specific removal of certain ECs |
Benefits and challenges of wastewater treatment technologies.
Preliminary treatment helps in the removal of suspended materials like dead animals, papers, oils, grease, etc., from wastewater. Different components such as screening, accumulation and floatation tanks and skimming reservoir are used in preliminary treatment. The accumulation tank is used for the elimination of sand and grit while oils and greases are removed by floatation units and skimming tanks.
Various treatment methods used for wastewater.
In primary treatment, organic and inorganic components are removed by floatation and sedimentation processes. Throughout this treatment, untreated nitrogen, unrefined phosphorus, and heavy metals related with suspended impurities are drained off. This method reduces biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) ranges by 5–40%, 50–70% of entire floating particles and oil and grease up to 65% from wastewater. In various developed countries, primary treatment is required for the reuse of wastewater irrigation, i.e., for crops not used by humans.
The secondary or biological treatment is used to eliminate organic effluent that escapes from primary treatment. This method modifies organic matter and transforms it into stabilized form by oxidation or nitrification. This treatment method for sewage is divided into two groups known as filtration and activated sludge methods. Different filters such as contact beds, irregular sand and trickling filters are used in this treatment [25].
Tertiary treatment is employed for the removal of specific effluents which cannot be completely removed by secondary method. During this process, around 99% of all contaminants are eliminated. This process removes inorganic substances such as nitrogen and phosphorous and recovers wastewater quality which can be reused for irrigation and drinking and have no harmful effect when discharged to the environment [25].
Generally, conventional wastewater treatment plants are not constructed to eliminate emerging contaminants. The occurrence of ECs in the environment affects public health, marine life and produces resistant bacteria, neurotoxin effects, endocrine interruption, and tumors. To eliminate these organic pollutants from water, several techniques such as membrane filtration, coagulation-flocculation, solvent extraction, ion exchange, catalytic oxidation, electrochemical oxidation, and precipitation, etc. have been tested (Figure 4). However, these techniques are less effective, very expensive and do not eliminate the contaminants completely from polluted water which makes this issue more challenging for the researchers. Besides these techniques, adsorption and photocatalytic degradation are considered potential approaches to remove wastewater contaminants [26].
Membrane technology is a physical method implemented to eliminate emerging contaminants from aquatic system. Membranes are formed from substances having filtering properties such as specific surface charge, pore size and hydrophobicity to remove suspended contaminants. Membrane filtration is categorized as ultra-filtration (UF), nano-filtration (NF), microfiltration (MF), forward osmosis (FO) and reverse osmosis (RO). Major membrane processes including forward osmosis, membrane refinement and electro-dialysis of the membrane have the ability to reduce emerging contaminants upto greater than 99% but still have not been executed on large scale [27].
The ultrafiltration technique works at low pressure for the removal of colloidal, suspended or dissolved pollutants depending on the membrane and pollutant type. UF has pore size in range of 0.001–0.1 μm which is larger than dissolved hydrated metals ions, thus easily pass through it. Polymer enhanced ultrafiltration (PEUF) and Micellar enhanced ultrafiltration (MEUF) processes were studied to enhance the removal efficiency of metal ions such as copper, zinc, chromate, arsenate, cadmium, nickel, serinium, and organics like phenol, o-cresol, etc.
Microfiltration has pore size ranges from 0.1 to 10 μm and is commonly operated at atmospheric pressure but cannot effectively remove contaminants of size greater than 1 μm. Reverse osmosis and forward osmosis depend on the osmotic pressure gradients and use semi-permeable membrane to efficiently remove dissolved particles up to 1 nm from water. Nanofiltration membrane possess small pore size ranges from 1 to 10 nm and have high competency for removal of ECs based on type of membrane and contaminant. NF can be used for removal of pharmaceuticals and natural hormones such as anti-inflammatory drugs, sulfonamide and fluoroquinolone antibiotics, testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone [28].
Coagulation-flocculation process is effective for the elimination of larger colloidal or suspended particles of disperse dyes colored wastewater. Coagulation is a procedure in which dye solution systems are dispersed to form flocs and agglomerates while in flocculation aggregated flocs are joined to form larger agglomerates which settle down due to gravity [29]. Coagulation/flocculation is economically feasible and simply operated and commonly used in textile industries to purify wastewater. In this method, coagulants like lime (Ca(OH)2), ferric sulfate (Fe2(SO4)3∙7H2O), aluminum sulfate (Al2(SO4)3∙18H2O), and ferric chloride (FeCl3∙7H2O), combine with the pollutants and remove them by electrostatic interactions or sorption. Use of aluminum sulfate (Al2(SO4)3 for removal of pharmaceuticals such as betaxolol, chlordiazepoxide, bromazepam, warfarin and hydrochlorothiazide by coagulation-flocculation has been reported. This technique diminishes suspended matter, soluble dyes, colloidal particles and coloring agents from wastewater [30].
Solvent extraction is widely used technique for the elimination of organic and inorganic pollutants discharged into wastewater from various industries. It is based on three major operations. First is the extraction/transferring of solute particles to solvent from water. Secondly, the separation of solute from solvent and the third stage is the solvent recovery stage. Solvent extraction is mostly operated for exclusion of phenols, creosols and other phenolic acids from contaminated water containing low quantity of solute arising from petroleum processing plant, coke-oven plants in the steel and plastics manufacturing [31].
Adsorption is one of the most efficient techniques used for treating wastewater due to its simple design, high competence and ease of operation, capital cost, easy recovery, adaptability and technical feasibility without producing harmful by-products. This technique is not new but is recognized throughout the world because of removal capacity and regeneration of adsorbents. This technique has been broadly applied for both organic inorganic toxins from household and industrial wastewater [32]. Various research efforts have been devoted to discover low-cost adsorbents having large surface area and excellent binding capacity to enhance their adsorption efficiency. Different types of adsorbents, e.g., peat, bamboo dust, chitosan, silica gel, activated carbon,, fly ash, zeolites, metal organic frameworks nano-adsorbents for example carbon nanotubes and graphene have been applied for elimination of emerging contaminants [33, 34]. Activated carbon is widely used as traditional adsorbent because of highly porous surface area, convenient pore composition and thermo stability for removal of dyes and pharmaceutical products, e.g., 17β-estradiol, 17α-ethynylestradiol, bisphenol A, and fluoroquinolonic Caffeine from wastewater [35].
Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been introduced as proficient technology in wastewater treatment. AOPs are based on the generation of hydroxyl (OH) or sulfate radicals for oxidation of ECs while sometimes ozone and UV irradiation are used for enhanced removal efficiency. AOPs methods efficiently remove biologically injurious or non-degradable compounds such as pesticides, aromatics, petroleum essentials and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) rather than transferring these to another phase. AOPs are applicable for the removal of many organic contaminants at the same time without producing any hazardous substance in water, as OH˙ is reduced to form H2O as byproduct. AOPs include ozonation (O3), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), electrochemical oxidation, Fenton process, UV light and photocatalytic process [36].
Mostly semiconductor consists of two energy bands, high conduction band and low energy valence band and these two are separated by band gap. In heterogeneous processes, semiconductor sensitized photolytic chemical oxidation produces OH radical. Adsorption of photon having energy (≥band gap energy of catalyst) is needed for photocatalytic reaction to occur. ZnO, strontium titanium trioxide and TiO2 have been utilized extensively as photocatalysts for commercial application. Photo-catalysis is commonly used for dyestuff degradation from textile wastewater. Photocatalytic process enhances efficiency in the presence of H2O2 up to 100% for numerous pollutants such as bisphenol A, pesticides, pharmaceuticals [37].
Nanomaterials are generally defined as the materials having at least one dimension smaller than 100 nm. Nanomaterials have higher density and larger surface area resulting in increasing adsorption efficiency, surface reactivity, and resolution mobility. Current investigation in the exploitation of nanomaterials has facilitated the application of nanotechnology in wastewater treatment via adsorption, AOPs and filtration. Nanomaterials have been reported to effectively eliminate emerging contaminants from wastewater. A variety of nanomaterials have been reported for wastewater treatment (Figure 5) such as zerovalent metal nanoparticles, metal-oxide nanoparticles, carbon nanomaterials and nanocomposites [38].
Various groups of nanomaterials.
Zerovalent metal is a significant wastewater treatment nanomaterial which is highly reactive because of small size and high surface area. Recently, several zerovalent metal nanoparticles for example silver, zinc, iron, aluminum and nickel received attention of researchers for contaminant removal. Silver nanoparticles have potential antimicrobial properties and are generally used as disinfectant to eliminate a large amount of microorganisms, like viruses and bacteria, as well as fungi [39]. It is extremely reactive, cost effective, environment friendly and has multiple pathways for wastewater treatment. Iron nanomaterial can proficiently remove contaminants such as cadmium nitrates, colorant and antibiotics from wastewater by adsorption, redox reaction, and co-precipitation technique. Li et al. [40] reported two-step technique to form zero-valent metal nanomaterials covered with silica and polydopamine (nZVI/SiO2/PDA) for use as sorbent which shows high capacity, selectivity and reusability up to 10 cycles.
Metal-oxide nanomaterials like ferric oxides, manganese oxides, aluminum oxides and titanium oxides have been effectively utilized in removing noxious waste such as arsenic, uranium, phosphate, and organics. Titanium oxide nanomaterial is a capable photocatalyst having band gap of 3.2 eV with high photostability, low price and outstanding photocatalytic behavior. TiO2 nanomaterials are suitable for degradation of pollutants like organic chlorine, polycyclic aromatic compounds, pigments, phenols, pesticides, and heavy metals [41].
Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanomaterial is competent material for purifying wastewater having a strong oxidizing capacity, wide wavelength and admirable photocatalytic properties. ZnO nanomaterial is environment friendly and captures more light as compared to other metal oxides possessing semiconducting properties. Iron oxide nanoparticles have versatility and are available as potent sorbent material-removing heavy metals from wastewater [42].
Carbon nanomaterials comprise distinctive structural and electronic properties duet to which they perform complex applications particularly in adsorption [43]. They have high adsorption capacity for removal of various pollutants, high surface area and aromatic selectivity. These nanomaterials are categorized as carbon beads, nonporous carbon, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and carbon fibers. CNTs have well-defined cylindrical structures, stronger physicochemical interactions, porosity, large surface area, adaptable hydrophobic side and high adsorption capacity for dichlorobenzene, ethylbenzene, dyes,Pb2+, Zn2+, Cd2+ and Cu2+ [44].
Another class is graphene-based nanomaterial which is a single carbon atom layer having honeycomb like structure [45]. Graphene oxide is a graphene layer consisting of hydroxyl, epoxy, carboxyl, and carbonyl groups and is identified for eradicating heavy metals such as lead, zinc, copper, cadmium, mercury and arsenic. Graphene hybrid with nanoparticles of manganese ferrite can be exploited to proficiently remove Pb(II), As(III), and As(V) from contaminated water. Rajabi et al. [46] compared the adsorption efficiency of MWCNTs and functionalized CNTs by varying experimental conditions including pH, times, and temperatures. From results it was clear that f-CNTs possess a higher removal capacity than pristine CNTs. The maximum removal capacity (166.7 mg g−1) of methylene blue (MB) with functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (f-MWCNTs) was higher as compared to MWCNTs, which was 100 mg g−1.
Management of ECs in water sources is extremely challenging for humans. World population is increasing considerably every year, which leads to increase of freshwater demand for domestic use and also generate wastewater causing water deficiency. Besides, technological advancement, demand of water from cultivation, urban areas and industries, are main causes of water scarcity, resulting in adverse effects on environment. That is why, a highly efficient and low cost waste water management methods and society alertness is necessary.
Currently wastewater treatment is a difficult challenge as it has considerable effect on bio-physical environment and living organisms and depends on socioeconomic circumstances. Discovery of a general technique for complete elimination of all pollutants from wastewaters is complicated. A number of biological, physical, and chemical technologies for wastewater management have been studied to eliminate emerging pollutants but unable to identify best method to overcome challenges in operational obscurity, ecological impact, efficiency, feasibility, probability, and cost-efficiency. For enhanced removal, two or more techniques are merged to reach favorable water quality at low cost.
To overcome these challenges, some proposed potential directions in future are required as follows:
To incorporate new concepts such as nano-technology and genetic engineering for production of environment friendly and non-hazardous techniques for synthesis of nanoparticles for pollution degradation.
Effective assessment of treatment to select most suitable treatment technique depending on numerous parameters like water quality, environmental compatibility, consistency, elasticity, working and effective costs technique.
Apply green technologies on an industrialized scale like membrane filtration nanotechnology, and microbial fuel cells as competent and cost maintenance solution.
The exploration of cross treatment systems, e.g., combination of photo Vs electro-Fenton, UV photolysis, ozonation and biological treatment technologies is required for the development of the appropriate model.
Emerging contaminants are man-made toxic compounds discharged into wastewater. This chapter includes sources of emerging contaminants, their toxicity and treatment techniques. Pharmaceuticals, personal care products and fertilizers are the main sources of ECs. Their presence, even in small concentrations, cause toxic impacts on human health as well as marine organisms. They cannot be successfully eliminated by conventional wastewater treatment methods. Various treatment methods like membrane technology, coagulation-flocculation, solvent extraction, adsorption, advanced oxidation processes and nanotechnology have been discussed. These techniques have their advantages and limitations. Hybrid systems have been found more effective for EC elimination than individual techniques however they have issues regarding time, energy and cost. To overcome these limitations nanotechnology is a promising approach. Thus, comprehensive research on waste water treatment technologies which are technically and economically feasible is required to attain complete and efficient removal of ECs from contaminated water.
The authors would like to convey their gratitude to National Centre of Excellence in Physical Chemistry, University of Peshawar for providing us necessary support.
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Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"30178",title:"Chest Mobilization Techniques for Improving Ventilation and Gas Exchange in Chronic Lung Disease",slug:"chest-mobilization-techniques-for-improving-ventilation-and-gas-exchange-in-chronic-lung-disease",totalDownloads:31193,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"648",slug:"chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-current-concepts-and-practice",title:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - Current Concepts and Practice"},signatures:"Donrawee Leelarungrayub",authors:[{id:"73709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirakrit",middleName:null,surname:"Leelarungrayub",slug:"jirakrit-leelarungrayub",fullName:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub"}]},{id:"46082",title:"Fecal Incontinence",slug:"fecal-incontinence",totalDownloads:3717,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3835",slug:"fecal-incontinence-causes-management-and-outcome",title:"Fecal Incontinence",fullTitle:"Fecal Incontinence - Causes, Management and Outcome"},signatures:"Arzu Ilce",authors:[{id:"30672",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzu",middleName:null,surname:"Ilce",slug:"arzu-ilce",fullName:"Arzu Ilce"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"16",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82444",title:"Epigenomics in Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma",slug:"epigenomics-in-malignant-pleural-mesothelioma",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105408",abstract:"Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is a tumor with a relatively low incidence, but whose carcinogenesis, for the most part, involves epigenetic factors that keep its heterogeneity and sometimes are a therapeutic target or an obstacle to the effectiveness of the newest treatments. This chapter summarizes the principal epigenetic dysregulation mechanisms involved in the MPM pathogenesis. The most studied mechanism is hypermethylation mediated by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) in different tumor suppressor genes, and the relation with asbestos fiber exposure, which represents the main risk factor. Physiopathology is related to chronic inflammation mediated by free radicals that produce chromosomal alterations, genomic instability, increased angiogenesis, and tumor invasion factors like EGFR, FGFR, TGF-B, and PDGF. Additionally, independent methylation pathways that produce gene silencing such as polycomb complex and SWI/SNF mutation are reviewed. Finally, other mechanisms are described such as hypomethylation with imprint loss and pro-oncogenic gene activation that induce immunological responses, as well as acetylation, deacetylation, and demethylation in the chromatin and histone context.",book:{id:"10831",title:"Mesothelioma - Diagnostics, Treatment and Basic Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10831.jpg"},signatures:"Aldo Manuel Alvarez Moran, Pablo Alejandro Ávila Sánchez, Jorge Alejandro Torres Ríos and Lorena Vega Castillo"},{id:"82383",title:"The Role of Immune Checkpoints in Cancer Progression",slug:"the-role-of-immune-checkpoints-in-cancer-progression",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105628",abstract:"Immune checkpoint proteins are like two-faced swords that first act as gatekeepers of the immune system to protect the host from tissue damage. In contrast, these proteins can corroborate cancer progression by inhibiting tumor-specific immune responses. Here, we summarized the regulation and signaling cascade of immune checkpoints molecules (PD-1/PD-L1, CTLA-4, TIM3, TIGIT, LAG3, and BTLA), including their role in providing co-inhibitory signals for regulating T-cell response. The involvement of immune checkpoint molecules to drive cancer growth is elaborated with explanations about various anticancer strategies, such as (1) the overexpression of immune checkpoints in cancer cells, immune cells, or the surrounding environment leading to incapabilities of the tumor-specific immune response, (2) immune checkpoints interference to metabolic pathways then deplete nutrients needed by immune cells, (3) the interaction between immune checkpoints and regulatory T cells. Lastly, future challenges of immune checkpoint inhibitors are discussed briefly to get insight into their applicability in the clinical setting.",book:{id:"11278",title:"Regulatory T Cells",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11278.jpg"},signatures:"Rahmad Aji Prasetya and Devyani Diah Wulansari"},{id:"82331",title:"Diseases of Medicinal Plants Cultivated in Karnataka and Their Management",slug:"diseases-of-medicinal-plants-cultivated-in-karnataka-and-their-management",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104632",abstract:"A broad spectrum of fungal diseases infecting selected 10 medicinal plants surveyed in Karnataka, India, was studied in the present research. We present a detailed review on previously reported as well as our present investigation’s details of fungal diseases, etiology, symptoms, and its management. Some of the commonly observed diseases are Anthracnose disease, Blight disease, Leaf spot, Root rot, Powdery mildew, Downy mildew, and Wilt disease. The detailed analysis of medicinal plants revealed that the medicinal plants are susceptible to diverse fungal phytopathogens. Therefore, sustainable management of the diseases is necessary for the successful cultivation of disease-free medicinal plants.",book:{id:"11299",title:"Medicinal Plants",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11299.jpg"},signatures:"P. Swetha and R. Sundararaj"},{id:"82446",title:"Possibility of Using a VR System as an Action Observation Therapeutical Technique",slug:"possibility-of-using-a-vr-system-as-an-action-observation-therapeutical-technique",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105579",abstract:"In recent years, 3D virtual reality (VR) systems are increasingly finding their way into biomedical applications. Nevertheless, in most cases a 3D VR is being used as an interactive system (such as Xbox Kinect or Playstation VR). These interactive systems, however effective they may have proven, not only limit use of 3D VR in patients incapable to engage in these systems due to their physical or mental disability, but also put significant requirements on medical institutions for an equipment, medical personal, and therefore institutional budget. In this article, we are proposing a 3D VR as an stand-alone action observation training device, which could limit requirements associated with abovementioned interactive systems due to its capability to stimulate a mirror neuron system of human brain, while adding minimal demands on both patient and medical facility. Research studies that confirm activity in the motor cortex will be described. We focus on the literature that describes theories, models, and experimental studies dealing with the effects of motion observations that are involved in the control and final performance of motor skills.",book:{id:"11832",title:"Neurorehabilitation and Physical Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11832.jpg"},signatures:"Jaroslav Langer, Monika Šorfová and David Ravnik"},{id:"82430",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105473",abstract:"Over 1 million cases of liver cancer are estimated to occur by 2025, making it a global health challenge. In almost 90% of cases of liver cancer, it is hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The main risk factors for HCC development are infection with hepatitis B and C viruses, although nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) associated with metabolic syndrome or diabetes mellitus is becoming more prevalent in the West. The molecular pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis-associated HCC is unique. A quarter of all HCCs present with mutations that are potentially actionable but have not yet been translated into clinical practice. In the advanced stages of the disease, systemic therapy is expected to be administered 50–60% of the time to HCC patients. In phase III trials, six systemic therapies have been approved (atezolizumab plus bevacizumab, sorafenib, lenvatinib, regorafenib, cabozantinib, and ramucirumab), and new trials are evaluating combination therapies, such as checkpoint inhibitors and tyrosine kinase inhibitors or anti-VEGF therapies. The findings of these clinical trials are expected to alter the landscape of managing HCC at all stages of the disease.",book:{id:"11265",title:"Hepatotoxicity",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11265.jpg"},signatures:"Rahmat Adetutu Adisa and Lateef Adegboyega Sulaimon"},{id:"82038",title:"Role of Skin Substitutes in Burn Wound Reconstruction",slug:"role-of-skin-substitutes-in-burn-wound-reconstruction",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105179",abstract:"Skin substitutes have modernised burn wound reconstruction since their use was first pioneered by Burke and Yannas in the 1980s. Skin substitutes offer a solution to the problem of insufficient autologous skin graft availability in major burn wound closure. A growing body of evidence supports the role of skin substitutes in both acute major burns and secondary burn scar resurfacing. Classification of skin substitutes has become increasingly complex given the large variety of synthetic and biologic dermal matrices now available as the result of ongoing advances in regenerative medicine techniques. Classification systems are required to assist clinicians with selection and comparison of outcomes across a wide diversity of skin substitutes. Professor John Greenwood, invented, designed and developed one such dermal substitute, \\'Biodegradable Temporising Matrix\\', which is approved for use across the globe for reconstruction of major burns and complex wounds. This chapter provides a review of available classification systems for skin substitutes with a summary of the latest evidence in relation to their role and impact on burn wound outcomes. Future developments toward the elusive ‘ideal’ skin substitute may be possible through ongoing research efforts focused on clinical translation of modern skin tissue engineering techniques for burn wound reconstruction.",book:{id:"11723",title:"Wound Healing - Recent Advances and Future Opportunities",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11723.jpg"},signatures:"Elizabeth Concannon, Lindsay Damkat-Thomas, Patrick Coghlan and John E. Greenwood"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:714},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",slug:"azhar-rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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