Studies on co-infections with Dengue and Chikungunya viruses
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After completion of PhD, he obtained NSREC Visiting Fellowship (in 2008) and thus, joined the wheat and triticale breeding program at Lethbridge Research Center, Agriculture and Agri Food Canada (AAFC), Lethbridge, AB., Canada. In 2012, he achieved a position as a Wheat Breeder for Bayer Crop Science, Saskatoon, Canada. In 2014 he had the honor to obtain Senior Research Scientist position with International Center of Agriculture Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA). In 2017, he moved back to Canada and joined as Native Plant Research Scientist with InnoTech Alberta. In November 2019 he joined as an Agriculture Specialist with Palm Gardens Inc. to help in breeding and cultivation of Cannabis. In this time (2002-2020), he has published nine Books and 50 research papers, reviewed articles, book chapters and book reviews. He is also an elected fellow member of International College of Nutrition (FICN) and Society of Applied Biotechnology (FSAB).",institutionString:"Palm Gardens Inc. 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by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"51461",title:"Co-infection with Dengue and Chikungunya Viruses",doi:"10.5772/64308",slug:"co-infection-with-dengue-and-chikungunya-viruses",body:'Both Dengue and Chikungunya fever are arboviral infections of global importance. The two diseases share a common mode of transmission, i.e. through different species of mosquitoes. Therefore, these infections are normally present in the same geographical locations. Dengue virus belongs to family Flaviviridae and genus Flavivirus. It is a small enveloped RNA virus carrying a single stranded, positive-sense RNA genome of 10.6 kb in length. Dengue virus exists as four serotypes (DENV 1-4) which offer only transient cross protection to each other [1]. Four to five genotypes are distinguished within each serotype of the dengue virus. The Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) belongs to the Togaviridae family and genus Alphavirus. It has a linear positive sense RNA genome of 1.8 Kb in length. Three genotypes (Eastern, Central South African [ECSA], West African and Asian) have been described for the Chikungunya virus [2,3]. Laboratory diagnosis of the two viral infections is done by virus isolation, genome detection (RT-PCR) and antibody detection (IgM or IgG ELISA). In addition, the antigen detection (NS1 ELISA) is also being used for diagnosis of Dengue viral infection. No licensed vaccine is available against these arboviral diseases. In addition, no antiviral drug has been developed against these viruses.
Due to many common clinical presentations, Chikungunya fever is often misdiagnosed with Dengue viral infection. As Dengue fever has a high incidence rate, the symptomatic patients are tested for Dengue virus only and rarely for Chikungunya viral infection. Thus the patients suspected with Dengue and/or Chikungunya virus infection should be tested for both the viruses especially in the endemic areas. This is essential for accurate and timely diagnosis of the viral infection that will assist in appropriate patient management. Therefore, regular surveillance for both the viruses should be done in the endemic areas. This will assist in the prediction and control of the outbreaks. The molecular characterization of the circulating strains of the Dengue and Chikungunya viruses is done by DNA sequencing followed by phylogenetic analysis. Description of the circulating strains is essential to study the epidemiology of these rapidly evolving viruses [4,5,6]. In addition, this information is essential for designing the strategies to control the epidemics.
Both Dengue and Chikungunya viral infections have many common clinical presentations like high grade fever, headache, nausea, rashes and body pain. In case of a mild infection, the viral titre decreases in around 10 days and the symptoms subside because these are the self limiting infections. But when there is a severe dengue infection, it causes bleeding in DHF (dengue hemorrhagic fever) and/or shock caused by plasma leakage in DSS (dengue shock syndrome). The most prominent feature of Chikungunya infection is the severe joint pain which sometimes can persist for a few months to a year. A severe Chikungunya viral infection can cause neurological and optical manifestations. Thus, Chikungunya viral infection is usually non-fatal while Dengue fever may result in severe complications including death. Therefore, co-infection with the two viruses may result in disease with overlapping symptoms. Hence, the diagnosis and treatment of such patients become difficult. Therefore, this issue of clinical manifestations in case of dual infections with the two viruses should be addressed adequately. Hence, the timely diagnosis of the dual infections is essential for better patient management.
Limited investigations have studied the role of dual viral infections in clinical presentation of the disease. According to a recent investigation, patients having co-infection with the Dengue and Chikungunya viruses present a clinically severe disease with a high mortality rate when compared to mono-infection with these viruses [7]. The requirement of mechanical ventilation and blood transfusion was found to be higher in the co-infected patients. Chahar and colleagues also reported the involvement of central nervous system and hemorrhagic manifestations in two out of six co-infected patients and one death [8]. In contrast, another study from Africa compared the clinical symptoms of 19 Chikungunya and Dengue virus co-infected patients and it was concluded that the co-infection was also not associated with any particular clinical manifestations [9]. Further elaborate investigations involving larger patient group are needed to understand the complete pathogenesis and severity of the dual viral infections.
The main vector for the transmission of Dengue and Chikungunya viral infection is Aedes aegypti. Another species of mosquito, the Aedes albopictus act as the secondary vector for the transmission of both the viral infections. The Aedes albopictus emerged as highly competent vector for the transmission of Chikungunya viral infection during the massive outbreak in 2004 in the Indian Ocean [10]. The Aedes albopictus appeared to be an efficient vector for replication of a mutated strain of Chikungunya virus with a change in Alanine to Valine at 226 position of the E1 glycoprotein (E1-A226V) during this epidemic [11]. The Aedes albopictus commonly known as the Asian tiger mosquito is a tropical and subtropical vector. The overall geographical distribution of Aedes mosquitoes has changed since this outbreak. The Aedes albopictus is now spreading to regions that were earlier inhabited by the Aedes aegypti. Consequently, the circulation patterns of the Dengue and Chikungunya viruses as well as the dynamics of the epidemics caused by these viruses are expected to be modified in future [12].
It has been postulated that two different viruses cause dual infection of a mosquito vector by consecutive bites of two different infected human patients or by a single bite of a co-infected patient. Furthermore, a concurrent viral infection in humans occur due to bite of a mosquito that is infected with both the viruses or bites with two different mosquitoes each infected with a separate virus. Limited investigations are available on the role of vectors in disease transmission because of lack of technical expertise and limited resources of vector surveillance in the endemic areas. Aedes albopictus has been shown to have the ability of getting orally co-infected with Dengue and Chikungunya virus [13]. The study reported that both Dengue and Chikungunya viruses were able to replicate simultaneously in the mosquito and have the ability to deliver concomitantly infectious particles of Dengue and Chikungunya virus in a single bite via saliva. In addition, a secondary infection with the Chikungunya virus could be introduced in mosquitoes that had a primary infection with Dengue virus. Another recent study showed simultaneous infection, dissemination and transmission of Dengue and Chikungunya virus in the two mosquito species, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus [14]. In this study, groups of mosquitoes were orally infected with Dengue and Chikungunya virus simultaneously or sequentially. Mosquitoes were then tested for their potential to disseminate and transmit both the viruses simultaneously by quantitative RT-PCR. Simultaneous dissemination of Dengue and Chikungunya virus was detected in both the species of the mosquitoes. The authors observed a lower rate of dissemination of both the viruses when administered simultaneously as compared to the sequential infection in which a significantly higher rate of dissemination of both the viruses was found.
Earlier studies have suggested that vector competence of the mosquito may depend on the type and the genetic makeup of infecting viral strain. An investigation from France stated that Aedes albopictus was more competent for Chikungunya virus as compared to the Dengue-2 virus. The virus replicated to high levels in the mosquito species and could be transmitted from mosquito as early as 2 days after ingestion of infected blood by the mosquito with 1000 viral RNA molecules in the salivary glands [15]. Similarly, another study from Thailand also concluded that the rate of multiplication and oral receptivity of the Chikungunya virus was faster in laboratory-bred Aedes aegepti as compared to the Dengue virus [16]. Aedes albopictus was proved to be an efficient vector for dissemination and transmission of the Chikungunya virus as compared to Aedes aegypti [10]. A single amino acid mutation in the Chikungunya virus genome (E1-A226V) resulted in increased fitness of the virus in Aedes albopictus. This probably caused enhanced transmission of the Chikungunya virus by Aedes albopictus which further resulted in the massive outbreak in the Indian Ocean. The complete mechanism of co-infection of mosquitoes with two different arboviruses should be investigated further using different viral strains. The elucidation of detailed molecular and cellular events involved in such co-infections will have an impact on prediction and control of the viral outbreaks.
Co-infection of the two viruses has been studied in vitro also using Aedes albopictus C6/36 cell line [17]. In this study the DENV-3 and Chikungunya virus (ECSA genotype) isolated from the infected mosquitoes was used to characterize their co-infection. The duplex -RT-PCR (D-RT-PCR) technique was used to determine virus production. The D-RT-PCR was positive for both the viruses when an equal multiplicity of infection (MOI) or a higher MOI for Chikungunya virus was used. But when a higher titer of DENV- 3 was used, the D-RT-PCR was positive only for DENV-3. Thus, the authors concluded that higher titer of Dengue-3 virus resulted in competitive suppression of the replication of Chikungunya virus. They also reported that both viruses’ replications depend on virus titer and not on serial infection. Further elaborate investigations are needed to describe a complete picture of the interaction of the two viral pathogens in the host cell.
Due to common vectors, Dengue and Chikungunya viruses can co-infect a human host. This has been documented in several studies from India and Africa (Table 1) (Figure 1 and 2). The first documented case of Dengue and Chikungunya virus co-infection in humans was reported as early as 1967. The two viruses were isolated from a patient seen in Vellore, South India [18]. The patient also showed an increase in antibodies against Dengue and Chikungunya virus in serial blood samples. Subsequently co-infection of Dengue and Chikungunya has been reported in many studies from India, but the proportion of co-infected cases vary in different studies ranging from 0.1 to 23% (Figure 2).
The world map showing co-infection with Dengue and Chikungunya viruses in different geographical regions. The freely available world map was downloaded from the website, presentationmagazine.com (http://www.presentationmagazine.com/world-maps-vectoreditable-507.htm). The map was created and edited in PowerPoint.
The map of India showing co-infection with Dengue and Chikungunya viruses. The map was downloaded from the website, presentationmagazine.com (http://www.presentationmagazine.com/world-maps-vector-editable-507.htm). The map was created and edited in PowerPoint.
Study site (Year) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNo of samples tested \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMethod (DFA/culture/ ELISA/PCR) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tNo of Virus +ve (%)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tDengue virus +ve (%)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tChikungunya virus +ve (%)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tCo-infections\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Vellore, India (1964) | \n\t\t\t372 | \n\t\t\tELISA | \n\t\t\t206 (55) | \n\t\t\t11(3) | \n\t\t\t202 (54) | \n\t\t\t7 (2) | \n\t\t\t[14] | \n\t\t
Delhi, India (2006) | \n\t\t\t69 | \n\t\t\tRT-PCR | \n\t\t\t65 (94) | \n\t\t\t48 (70) | \n\t\t\t17 (25) | \n\t\t\t6 (9) | \n\t\t\t[4] | \n\t\t
Delhi, India (2010) | \n\t\t\t432 | \n\t\t\tRT-PCR | \n\t\t\t93 (22) | \n\t\t\t54 (13) | \n\t\t\t39 (9) | \n\t\t\t5 (1) | \n\t\t\t[15] | \n\t\t
Delhi, India (2011) | \n\t\t\t87 | \n\t\t\tRT-PCR | \n\t\t\t59 (68) | \n\t\t\t43 (49) | \n\t\t\t25 (29) | \n\t\t\t9 (10) | \n\t\t\t[16] | \n\t\t
Odisha, India (2013) | \n\t\t\t204 \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tELISA \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t124 (56) | \n\t\t\t96 (47) | \n\t\t\t72 (32) | \n\t\t\t43 (19) | \n\t\t\t[17] | \n\t\t
Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, India (2011-13) | \n\t\t\t1024 | \n\t\t\tELISA and RT-PCR | \n\t\t\t249 (24.3) | \n\t\t\t194 (18.9) | \n\t\t\t55 (5) | \n\t\t\t25 (2.4) | \n\t\t\t[18] | \n\t\t
Bangalore, India (2010-13) | \n\t\t\t6554 | \n\t\t\tELISA | \n\t\t\t3824 (58) | \n\t\t\t3202 (49) | \n\t\t\t622 (10) | \n\t\t\t532 (8) | \n\t\t\t[19] | \n\t\t
Pune, India (2010) | \n\t\t\t364 | \n\t\t\tELISA | \n\t\t\t175 (48) | \n\t\t\t121 (33) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t79 (22) | \n\t\t\t25 (7) | \n\t\t\t[3] | \n\t\t
West Bengal, India (2010) | \n\t\t\t550 | \n\t\t\tELISA | \n\t\t\t303 (55) | \n\t\t\t172 (31) | \n\t\t\t199 (36) | \n\t\t\t68 (12) | \n\t\t\t[21] | \n\t\t
Gabon, Africa (2007) | \n\t\t\t773 | \n\t\t\tRT-PCR | \n\t\t\t329 (43) | \n\t\t\t54 (7) | \n\t\t\t275 (36) | \n\t\t\t8 (1) | \n\t\t\t[8] | \n\t\t
Gabon, Africa (2007) | \n\t\t\t4287 | \n\t\t\tRT-PCR | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 367 (9) | \n\t\t\t1567 (37) | \n\t\t\t37 (0.9) | \n\t\t\t[5] | \n\t\t
Madagascar, Africa (2006) | \n\t\t\t55 | \n\t\t\tRT-PCR | \n\t\t\t38 (69) | \n\t\t\t24(44%) | \n\t\t\t4(7%) | \n\t\t\t10 (0.2) | \n\t\t\t[24] | \n\t\t
Saint Martin, France (2013-14) | \n\t\t\t1502 | \n\t\t\tRT-PCR and ELISA | \n\t\t\t635 (42) | \n\t\t\t65 (4) | \n\t\t\t570 (38) | \n\t\t\t16 (2.8) | \n\t\t\t[22] | \n\t\t
Sri Lanka | \n\t\t\t54 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 41(76) | \n\t\t\t20 (37) | \n\t\t\t21(39) | \n\t\t\t3 (5.5) | \n\t\t\t[23] | \n\t\t
Studies on co-infections with Dengue and Chikungunya viruses
Chahar and colleagues conducted Dengue and Chikungunya virus specific RT-PCR on patients suspected of Dengue and/or Chikungunya fever in New Delhi, India [8]. Their study detected 6 (8.7%) co-infected patients. All 6 patients had fever, headache, joint pain, and low thrombocyte counts (<100,000/mm3). Two of the co-infected patients had dengue hemorrhagic fever with central nervous system (CNS) involvement. In another study from Delhi, 5 (1.1%) co-infection cases were detected in the samples tested by RT-PCR [19]. All the co-infecting strains clustered with genotype II of Dengue 1 virus and ECSA genotype of the Chikungunya virus on phylogenetic analysis. Concurrent infection with the Dengue and Chikungunya viruses were detected in 9 (10%) samples tested by RT-PCR in a recent study from our laboratory from New Delhi, India [20]. Genetic characterization of the co-infecting strains showed that CHIKV belonged to East Central South African genotype and Dengue strains belonged to the American African genotype of DENV-1. Co-infection with the two viruses was detected in 28 (13.7%) of the samples by RT-PCR in a recent study from Odisha, India [21]. Dayakar and co-workers [22] have recently reported co-infection by Dengue and Chikungunya viruses in 23% of the suspected patients by RT-PCR from Andhra Pradesh and 0.1 % from Kerala in Southern part of India. Sheikh and colleagues carried out IgM ELISA specific for Dengue and Chikungunya virus on samples collected from Karnataka, India [23]. Specific antibodies against both Dengue and Chikungunya virus were detected in 532 (8.1%) samples. Another investigation from Tirupati, a Southern part of India detected anibodies in 2 (2.7%) of the samples tested by IgM ELISA [24]. Gandhi and co-workers [7] have identified dual infection with Chikungunya and Dengue viruses in 25 (6.8%) of the patients by IgM ELISA from Pune. Dual infections with both the viruses were reported in 68 (12.4%) samples by IgM ELISA from West Bengal, an Eastern part of India [25].
Various investigations from different geographical regions have also described the co-infections with the two viruses (Figure 1), including 2.8% in France [26], 5.5% in Sri Lanka [27]. A serological study from Sri Lanka reported co-infection with the two viruses in 3 (5.5%) of the samples tested by IgM ELISA [27]. Various African countries have reported co-infection with the two viruses. Chikungunya and Dengue viruses caused a large simultaneous outbreak in southeast Gabon in Central Africa in 2010. Between 2007 and 2010, a total of 4287 acutely febrile patients were investigated for both the viral infections by quantitative real-time reverse-transcription polymerase reaction [9]. Out of the samples tested, 1567 were CHIKV-positive, 376 DENV-2–positive, and 37 (0.9%) co-infected. When a human case of co-infection was diagnosed in the above mentioned study, mosquitoes were captured around the patient’s home during daytime. One CHIKV- and DENV-2–coinfected A.albopictus specimen was also detected in the study, which represented the first observation of dual mosquito infection in nature. Detection of co-infection of Dengue and Chikungunya virus in A.albopictus demonstrates the possibility that humans could be co-infected with the 2 viruses by the bite of a single mosquito. Viral loads were determined for the 24 co-infected, 121 CHIKV-positive and 52 DENV-2– positive patients. Mean values of Dengue and Chikungunya viral loads in co-infected patients were significantly lower than mean values in CHIKV- and DENV-2–mono infected patients. Thus, the investigators concluded that the two viruses exerted a suppression effect on each other. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the CHIKV and DENV-2 isolates belonged to African clusters and they grouped together with strains reported from other parts of Africa. In another study from the same region, the samples were tested by real time RT-PCR and 8 (1%) were co-infections [12]. In another investigation conducted in Madagascar, another African country, dengue like cases were investigated by RT-PCR and ELISA. Ten (18%) samples were found to be co-infected by both Dengue and Chikungunya virus [28].
Simultaneous detection of the two viruses has been described in a number of case reports (Table 2) (Figure 1 and 2). A case report identified Dengue and Chikungunya viruses in an eight year old child at Mysore in Southern part of India [29]. Raut and colleagues recently reported a case of multiple co-infections in a young man after his return from Nigeria [30]. The patient was positive for dengue xlink antigen as well as Dengue and Chikungunya virus by RT-PCR. Apart from Dengue and Chikungunya virus, the patient was also positive for the malarial parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. A recent investigation reported that a woman returning to Portugal from Angola was infected with Dengue 4 virus and ECSA genotype of the Chikungunya virus [31]. Another case of imported infection in patients who had returned to Taiwan from Singapore was reported [32]. Dengue and Chikungunya virus co-infection in this patient was confirmed by real time PCR and sero conversion for both the viruses in the convalescent-phase serum samples. The co-infecting viruses were identified as the Dengue virus serotype 2 and ECSA genotype of the Chikungunya virus. Dual infection with both the viruses was detected in a German traveler who was employed as a social worker in India [33]. Two different patients had infection with the two viruses in Malaysia [34]. An 80 year old patient from Sri Lanka was diagnosed with Dengue and Chikungunya virus infection by RT-PCR [35].
\n\t\t\t\tStudy site (Year)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tAge of patient (in Years) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tCo-Infecting pathogens\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tReference\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Malaysia (2006) | \n\t\t\tCase 1: 28 Case 2: 22 | \n\t\t\tDENV+CHIKV | \n\t\t\t[30] | \n\t\t
Sri Lanka (2006) | \n\t\t\t70 | \n\t\t\tDENV+CHIKV | \n\t\t\t[31] | \n\t\t
Germany (2009) | \n\t\t\t25 | \n\t\t\tDENV+CHIKV | \n\t\t\t[29] | \n\t\t
Taiwan (2009) | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\tDENV-2 +CHIKV | \n\t\t\t[28] | \n\t\t
India (2012) | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\tDENV+CHIKV | \n\t\t\t[25] | \n\t\t
Portugal (2013) | \n\t\t\t50+ | \n\t\t\tDENV-4+CHIKV | \n\t\t\t[27] | \n\t\t
India (2014) | \n\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\tDENV+CHIKV+ Plasmodium falciparum\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t[26] | \n\t\t
Case studies involving Co-infections with Dengue and Chikungunya viruses
Additionally, the latest information of the ongoing outbreaks of these two arboviruses is available on the WHO/CDC/PAHO websites. The interactive map of recent and ongoing Chikungunya fever outbreaks is available at: http://www.arcgis.com/apps/MapTools/index.html?appid=ce2372254ce743b79d332b43724cd9e5 and Dengue map, a CDC- health map collaboration is available at: http://www.healthmap.org/dengue/en/. These interactive maps report recent Dengue and Chikungunya outbreaks throughout the world and global risk areas. The map shows recent reports of local and imported cases based on official, newspapers and other media sources. Global risk areas are determined by consensus between sources including: national surveillance systems, published literature, questionnaires and formal and informal news reports.
Detection of high number of co-infection cases in some of the studies mentioned above shows that many Chikungunya cases go undiagnosed in Dengue endemic regions, thereby concealing the true burden of the Chikungunya viral infection. Further epidemiological and viral investigations involving larger patient group in the endemic areas are needed to define the precise role of Dengue and Chikungunya viruses in clinical presentation of these dual infections. These studies will further assist to monitor the spread of these arboviruses and implementation of appropriate control strategies.
Zika virus (ZIKV) is also an arbovirus and a member of Flaviviridae family. It was first identified in rhesus monkey in Zika forests of Uganda in 1947 [36]. The mode of transmission of Zika virus is same as for Dengue and Chikungunya viruses, i.e., through Aedes spp. The non-mosquito mediated transmission of ZIKV include sexual and mother to fetus transmission during pregnancy [37, 38]. The febrile illness due to Zika virus is very much overlapping with that of Chikungunya and Dengue virus Infections [39]. High grade fever, arthralgia, myalgia, retro-orbital pain etc are a few common symptoms. Subsequently, after a few sporadic cases of ZIKV in Africa, the first documented epidemic in Yap Island occurred in 2007 affecting more than half of the population in Yap Island [40]. Similarly outbreaks of ZIKV were reported from Pacific islands including French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Cook Islands, Easter islands, etc in 2013-14 that affected thousands of inhabitants [41]. In 2015 the largest epidemic of Zika virus started in Brazil that later spread to other American countries and Caribbean region affecting millions of people [42]. The Zika virus infection during ongoing pandemic is also found to be associated with many neurological complications like Guillain-Barré syndrome and microcephaly [43]. A recent report suggested that till 6 April 2016, 62 countries [44] (mostly in South and North America) have reported active transmission of ZIKV. Additionally, the virus has also been detected in returning travelers from 13 non-endemic countries [45-49].
Thus currently, the Zika virus is co-circulating with Chikungunya virus in many parts of world including Americas [36]. Recently in 2015 Villamil-Gomez and coworkers reported co-infection with Dengue, Chikungunya and Zika viruses in a 49 year old male patient from Columbia. The patient was reported with febrile illness with 380C temperature, conjuctivitis, maculopopular rashes etc,. The blood sample collected from the patient was positive for Dengue and Chikungunya virus IgM antibodies. Additionally, the sample was positive by RT-PCR for ZIKV and DENV [50, 51]. The authors observed no synergistic effect of these infections in the patient [50]. Therefore, differential diagnosis of these arboviral infections should be done on patients during the ongoing ZIKV pandemic in this region for proper patient management. Subsequent detailed investigations will determine the affect of co-infections with these arboviruses on disease severity.
Dengue and Chikungunya viruses can cause dual infections in humans and in the mosquito vector. The significance of the Dengue and Chikungunya dual viral infections can be elucidated by measuring viral loads of each infecting virus and the effect of competitive suppression of the infecting viruses. Further investigations are needed on transmissibility studies in the mosquitoes using chimeric viruses. In addition, more elaborate clinical studies involving larger patient groups are required to ascertain the effect of severity of the disease in case of dual viral infections. Also, the clinically suspected cases should be tested for both the pathogens in the endemic areas. This information is essential for early and timely diagnosis of the infecting pathogen and correlation of the clinical symptoms with mono or dual infections for appropriate patient management. It has been postulated that a recent increase in Dengue and Chikungunya virus co-infection may affect the evolution of these rapidly emerging viruses. In addition, the infectivity as well as the pathogenicity of these viruses may also be affected in future. Further, continuous surveillance for both Dengue and Chikungunya viruses is essential in the endemic areas for identification and characterization of these viral pathogens. This information will also help in the implementation of proper measures to control the outbreaks caused by these emerging viral pathogens.
We acknowledge the financial support of University Grants Commission and Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Government of India.
As a consequence of the continuous population growth worldwide along with the shortage of food sustainability [1], it is necessary to create an alternative agricultural productivity systems [2, 3]. One of the sustainable alternative strategies is the utilization of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) in agricultural practices [4]. Promoting plant growth (PGP) has numerous correlation capabilities either by endophyte in plant tissue [5], rhizosphere in seed surface as well as plant root [6], symbiosis in root nodules, and phyllosphere in stem and/or leaf surface (Turner). PGPB involve 1-aminocyclopropane-l-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase that is applied to seedling which could effectively stimulate plant growth by reducing plant ethylene rates [7] under drought, salinity [8, 9], flooding, and contaminant condition [10] and increasing phosphate solubility and availability in soil, along with the increase in plant biomass, root area, and total N and P contents in rice [11].
Rice production is reduced under saline agriculture system (Figure 1); therefore, it is becoming increasingly important to imply plant growth-promoting traits for mitigation of salt stress [12, 13, 14]. Promoting plant growth was shown to enhance growth effectively, and the growth-stimulating effect was also suggested to be beneficial in crop production under stressful conditions. Mechanisms for inducing plant growth-promoting response (PGPR) toward abiotic stress are usually interpreted as the result of certain phytohormone production, including ABA, GA, or IAA, or lower ethylene levels in roots of the ACC, which generates systemic bacterial resistance and enhances exopolysaccharides.
Schematic description of the different plant promotion processes by PGPR.
A wide spectrum of endophyte bacteria is well adjusted to the rice niche under abiotic stress condition. The emergence of rice seedlings and growth and development parameters were previously reported to be significantly affected by many PGPR strains [15]. Beneduzi et al. [16] evaluated efficient bioinoculant for rice growth improvement by bacillus strain (SVPR30). Bisht and Mishra [17] reported that rice root length and shoot length increased by 9.7 and 13.9%, respectively, when inoculated with B. thuringiensis (VL4C); Nautiyal et al. [18] reported that rice inoculation with B. amyloliquefaciens (SN-13) under saline conditions in hydroponic/saline soils has improved stress sensitivity due to an altered transcription of 14 genes, including SERK1, ethylene-responding factor EREBP, NADP-malic enzyme (NADP-Me2), and SOS1. Additionally, downregulated expression of glucose-insensitive growth (IGG) and serine–threonine (Sapk4) protein kinase in the hydroponic setup and upregulated MAPK5 were observed in the greenhouse experiments [19]. The inoculation of SN13 improved the gene transcription involved in the sensitivity of ionic and salt stresses [20]. Endophytic bacteria can give N to rice without loss compared with other bacteria, because of their strong relationship with the plant [21]. Endophytic bacteria are a better N supplier to rice than other bacteria. Endophytic bacteria are the bacteria derived from the plants’ inner tissues or extracted from plants with a sterilized layer, which have no infection symptoms [22]. The rice yield achieved by N2-fixing Pseudomonas sp. was improved by 23% by Mäder et al. [23]. Several studies showed significantly greater K, N, and P levels with an increased rice output of 9.2% in co-inoculation with N2-fixing microbes relative to the use of prescribed amounts of fertilizers as N, P, and K [24, 25]. There have been detailed documentations that rice is generally infected with a large variety of endophytic bacteria (Azospirillum, Herbaspirillum, Rhizobium, Pantoea, Methylobacterium, and Burkholderia, among others) [22]. Diazotrophs colonized effectively in the roots of rice may have a higher N fixation potential [26]. Endorhizosphere bacteria contribute far more than rhizospheric bacteria to N fixation since there is no competition with other rhizospheric microorganisms in the endorhizosphere and under low oxygen; carbon sources are provided [27, 28].
The bacterial IAA was shown in Etesami and Alikhani [29] to have significant roles in improving efficiency in the use of N and in increasing nitrogen-based substances in rice. Estrada et al. [30] also found that diazotrophic P-solubilizing bacteria improved the absorption of nutrients in rice, while Rangjaroen et al. [31] suggested that Novosphingobium diazotrophic is an important microbial tool of nitrogen providing for further production which renders it as a healthy biomonitor to improve organic rice cultivation.
De Souza et al. [32] demonstrated the decrease of in vitro phosphate solubility and minimization of acetylene (low reduction in acetylene) in rice shoots by bacteria, including Herbaspirillum sp., Burkholderia sp., Pseudacidovorax, and Rhizobium sp. Therefore, non-N2 fixation growth promotion mechanisms include an IAA development and improved nutrient balanced absorption. Glick [7] shows that if a bacterium is used to produce nitrogen-solubilizing for plants, which have PGP traits (IAA, ACC deaminase, siderophore, and phosphate solubility), it should be used, and the genetic characteristics in plants should be transferred. The application of P fertilizers in rice production has continuously increased [33]. Sahrawat et al. [34] show that the use of rice P fertilizers has been continuously increased since it is one of the key restrictive factors in many regions of the world for the production of upland rice. Othman and Panhwar [35] detected that the sum of nutrition provided by aerobic rice is the same as the flooded rice, but the abundance of P is a challenge due to its immediate immobilizing and fixing with calcium (Ca2+), iron (Fe3+), and aluminum (Al3+) elements. P deficiency in aerobic crops is also widely seen as a phenomenon [36]. The secretion of organic acids and the interaction of mycorrhizal fungi are among these methods that are very weak in rice under flooding conditions. Islam and Hossain [37] have stated that P deficiency is quite normal which increases the demand for mycorrhizal fungal interactions under flood conditions. Panhwar et al. [38] detected that the rice plants need an ancillary structure that quickly goes beyond such degraded regions and receives P for exorbitant neighboring soil composition through the development of a vast network of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) which might satisfy some of the nutrient needs.
The growth of many plants including staple rice is hindered by micronutrient-deficient soils [39]. The toxicity of Fe is also important as Fe is one of the major constraints on the production of lowland rice. Furthermore, the scarcity of Mn in upland rice is also commonly seen [40].
A significant increase in the number of tilers provided by plan (15.1%), crop panicles (13.3%), overall grain intake Zn (52.5%), and a modest yield of the dry product by pot (12.9%) has been shown by Vaid et al. [41]. This rise was detected through soil solubilization of insoluble Zn, all of which as a result of the production of bacterial gluconic acid.
Fe, Zn, Cu, and Mn concentrations were increased by 13–16% (Brevundimonas diminuta PR7) and in rice co-inoculation (Providencia sp. PR3) (Ochrobactrum anthropi PR10); Adak et al. [42] detected that Fe absorbance was enhanced by 13–46% using cyanobacterial inoculants and 15–41% in Zn with the use of cyanobacterial inoculums, in rice cultivation for various modes.
Metals as zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mo), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), selenium (Se), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), magnesium (Mg), and nickel (Ni) have essential nutrients necessary for a diversity of biological and physiological functions [43]. Biological functions that are not identified are identified as nonessentials: bismuth (Bi), antimony (Sb), platinum (Pt), indium (In), arsenic (As), beryllium (Be), mercury (Hg), barium (Ba), gallium (Ge), gallium (G), gold (Au), lead (Pb), barium (Be), nickel (Ni), silver (Ag), aluminum (Al), as well as uranium (U) [44].
Ma and Takahashi [45] demonstrate that the rice PGPB ability can be used to resolve deficits in micronutrients and to biofertilize (Table 1 and Figure 1). Rice is a plant that accumulates Si and considered an Si accumulator as silicon content in dry weight of the shoots may reach up to 10%, and therefore, the plants require high Si content. Rice is associated with Si depletion in its unit area; due to the removal from the earth of 100 kg of Si for brown rice (about 20 kg/hm2 SiO2) and exports to the farm by the extraction of straw residues during harvest and the conniving for exogenous use of Si in rice growing, Si in paddy field is available [66].
Results of bacteria added to plants | References | |
---|---|---|
Mutation | Physicochemical | [3] |
PGPR; Novosphingobium | Optimize rice cultivation | [31] |
Bioindicator | Wastewater irrigation | [43, 44, 46, 47] |
Indicators | Sustainable rice cultivation | [2] |
Plant microbiome and Herbaspirillum seropedicae and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens | Plant growth | [1, 4, 5, 11, 18, 28, 48] |
Seed endosphere; PGPR and ACC Deaminase and Corynebacterium and diazotrophic spp. | Plant growth | [7, 15, 21, 22, 25, 26, 49] |
Soil Rhizobacteria | Heavy metals | [50, 51, 52, 53, 54] |
Azospirillum | N2 fixing | [55] |
Arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis and Pseudomonas putida | Salinity stress; biological control; drought stress | [20, 29, 56, 57] |
PGPR | Cu-contaminated | [43, 58] |
Exogenous application | Cd-contaminated | [10, 59, 60] |
Genomic rice | Cr-contaminated | [61] |
Ochrobactrum sp. and Bacillus spp. and biofortification | Heavy metals | [40, 62] |
Ar-contaminated | [63] | |
Endophytic and PGPR and Bacillus safensis | Salt stress | [8, 9, 12, 64] |
Genetically engineered | Hg | [65] |
Acinetobacter sp. and PGPR | Zinc solubilizing | [19, 39, 41] |
Bacterial species | Si solubilization | [42, 45, 66, 67, 68, 69] |
Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria | Phosphate solubilization | [33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38] |
Plant growth-promoting Rhizobacteria used in rice production.
Bocharnikova et al. [67] and Ning et al. [68] previously reported that Si-deficient paddy soils may be needed to generate an economically sustainable rice crop capable of producing high yield and disease resistance. Si fertilizers are being used for growing rice production in many countries and have positive effects. Vasanthi et al. [69] detected that the Bacillus globisporus, B. crustacea, B. flexus, B. megaterium, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Burkholderia eburnean can activate K and Si in feldspar, muscovite, and biotite silicate mineral resources. Specific pathways are used to generate disproportionate protons, organic ligand, organic acid, anion, hydroxyl, EPS, and enzymes. However, the solubilizing Si, K, and P in soil might be accompanied by an increased supply of Fe and Mn metals in plants by interacting with P-fixing sites.
Gandhi and Muralidharan [19] show that the rice growth, development, yield, and Zn solubility from ZnO and ZnCO3 to Acinetobacter sp. have been greatly increased.
This gene recombination processing was also extended to rice, which produces rice transgenics generated via a partial weapon bombardment containing a 250 lM HgCl2-resistant merA gene [65]. Recently, mercury toxicity has been identified as a triggering factor in aromatic amino acid biosynthesis (tryptophan and phenylalanine), aggregation of calcium, and activation of MAPK in rice [70]. The synthesis and accumulation of the Glybet were stimulated by Pseudomonas alkaline inoculation in rice plants [64]. Chakrabarty et al. [63] detected that the As (III)-treated rice seedlings proposed signal transduction regulation and hormonal and crop defense signaling mechanisms (ABA metabolism). Comparative rice-treated transcriptomic study showed explicitly the shifts in plant reaction to metal pressure in the rates of phytohormones: As and Pb resistant by Bacillus spp. There are various PGPR features that contribute to the bioremediation and rice cultivar growth promotion; Cd-resistant Ochrobactrum sp. was first reported by Pandey et al. [62]. The presence of CDPKs was demonstrated by Cr pressure as their activity increased with increasing Cr (VI) concentration. Huang et al. [61] showed that rice roots have long- and short-term stress transcription profiling. Yeh et al. [59] have demonstrated Cd-induced gene transcription of OsMAPK2 and MBP kinase in rice plant. The activation of heavy metal mediated MAPK by ROS production, build-up, and alteration of the antioxidant system in the rice; ROS is well-rated for its disruption specific pathways such as auxin, ethylene, and jasmonate (JA) phytohormone. However, exposure to JAs has shown that antioxidant reaction has been enhanced due to rice stress sensitivity of Cd [60]. However, an extensive study on heavy metal in plants has shown great interest in the extensive study of the plant microbial-metal relationship due to its direct impact on enhanced production of biomass and improved metal tolerances [50].
Plants have developed a number of defense mechanisms to resist heavy metal stresses and toxicities such as reducing heavy metal consumption, sequestering metal into vacuoles, binding phytochelatins or metallothionein, and antioxidant activation [51]. The toxic substances As, Pb, Cd, and Hg are considered by Disease Registry Agency as the most toxic metals (Figure 1) for their toxicity frequency and above all their flora and fauna exposure potential. Pb toxicity leads to ATP inhibition, lipid peroxidation, and damage to DNA through the production of ROS [43].
In recent decades there has been rapid progress in the area of plant reactions and the tolerance of stress of metal when related bacteria are present with plants. The activation of these genes, which are crucial to heavy metal stress signaling, also suggests dynamic crosspieces of stress and resistance between plant, microbes, and heavy metals [52]. Heavy metal remediation is necessary to protect and preserve the environment. There are only a small number of evidence that heavy metals are remediated by extracellular capsules, heavy metal precipitation, and oxidation reduction [53].
It will be used in the immediate future for remediation of contaminated soils, as shown by the beneficial effects of microbe causes and the planned interconnection between heavy metal resistance and plant growth abilities [58]. Additionally, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) ecological species and ecotypes, metal and edaphic conditions of its availability, and soil and water, including soil fertilizer and requirements of plants for growing under light or root conditions, depend on various factors of exposure to heavy metals in the environment [56].
AMF changes salt stress toxicity. AMF exists due to enhanced mineral nutrition and as a result of various physiological processes such as photosynthesis, water usage efficiency, osmoregulator production, higher K+/Na + ratio, and molecular changes caused by the expression of genes [57].
The synergistic effects on plant growth, particularly in growth restrictions, of the co-inoculation with PGPR and AMF, have shown that the growth responses are significant when rice plants are inoculated with AMF and Azospirillum. All of these findings thus show that rice mycorrhization is important [55].
The methods employed by PGPB to promote plant remediation cycle include enhancing plant metal resistance and increasing plant growth as well as altering plant metal accumulation; however, the recent PGPB studies in metal phytoremediation showed that plant inoculation with plant-building bacteria-induced metal phytotoxicity can be alleviated and the production of plant biomass produced in metal-contaminated soils can be strengthened [48, 49, 54]. The reuse of wastewater as a strategy to adjust to climate change is shown in Vietnam. Chung et al. [46] illustrated that rice wastewater effluents can be irrigated for at least 22,719 ha (16% of the urban rice area) in plants annually. Additionally, Jang et al. [47] found that there is no significant environmental risk to rice paddy agroecosystems that were associated with wastewater irrigation (Table 1 and Figure 1).
The main limiting factors for cultivation worldwide are water stress conditions [71]. Wastewater water has a negative effect on the production and yield of rice. Selected PGPR might be the perfect candidate for heavy metal pollution and related surface constraints for growth and yields of rice plants irrigated with wastewater as PGPR extracted wastewater strains of bioremediation products show positive results in the literature.
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