Occurrence of herbicides in soil and water samples.
\r\n\tGeothermal energy is recognized as a potential renewable energy source, immense and practically inexhaustible, with a solid technological maturity, clean, versatile, and useful to generate electricity, among other multiple applications. However, as in any transformation process, environmental and social impacts cannot be excluded.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will compile scientific research from geothermal areas where environmental and social issues have been successfully addressed as an example of social, environmental, and economic equilibrium. Based on participatory monitoring as a strategy for social acceptance or corporate responsibility from a deep-rooted environmental ethic that has become a social commitment. This natural resource is very complex therefore, environmental and social knowledge and experience are of great importance for its further sustainable development.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-999-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-998-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-282-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"339e74c3bcb3c7725a830d8b41278ca1",bookSignature:"D.Sc. Zayre Ivonne González Acevedo and Dr. Marco Antonio García Zarate",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11933.jpg",keywords:"Engineering Developments, Gas Filters, Reinjection, Cascade Uses, Environmental Monitoring, Greenfield, Brownfield, Environmental Indicators, Environmental Impact Assessment, Environment and Social Acceptance, Social Engagement, Corporate Social Responsibility",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 12th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 7th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Pioneer researcher in the analysis of the environmental, social, and economic impact of Mexican geothermal zones, with more than 15 years of experience, and awarded her Ph.D. degree from the University of Heidelberg.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A researcher in the analysis of the total environment and its impact on society, with more than 40 years of experience in the field and awarded his Ph.D. degree from the Autonomous University of Baja, California.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"260177",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Zayre Ivonne",middleName:null,surname:"González Acevedo",slug:"zayre-ivonne-gonzalez-acevedo",fullName:"Zayre Ivonne González Acevedo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260177/images/system/260177.jpg",biography:"Chemical Engineer on Environment (Dec 98), Technological Institute of Toluca, Mex. Chemical Engineer Master of Process Integration (Sep 02), University of Guanajuato. Gto. Mex. Dr.rer.nat. magna cum laude Environmental Geochemistry (July 06), University of Heidelberg, BW, Germany. Sabbatical Stay (Sept 19 - 20), Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Canada. \r\nResearcher in the Department of Environmental Studies. National Institute of Nuclear Research, Mex. (Oct 07-Dec 11). Researcher Geology Department, Center of Scientific Research and High Education of Ensenada, Baja California (Jan 12 up today). \r\nResponsible Work Package 9, “Environmental, Social and Economic Impacts of Enhanced and Super-Hot Geothermal Systems” in the GEMex project, “International Cooperation in Research and Development between Mexico and the European Union in Geothermal Energy”. Responsible specific project 25, “Sustainable Development and Environmental Impact Assessment of three Geothermal Exploration Zones with Exploitation Potential in Mexico”.",institutionString:"Center for Scientific Research and Higher Education at Ensenada",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Center for Scientific Research and Higher Education at Ensenada",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"260179",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"García Zarate",slug:"marco-antonio-garcia-zarate",fullName:"Marco Antonio García Zarate",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRXp9QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-04-01T07:16:47.jpg",biography:'Course of "Technical Specialization in Optical Laboratorian" at the Applied Physics Department of CICESE, with a scholarship from CONACYT from July 1980 to July 1981. Industrial Engineer, Technologic Institute of Ensenada 2010. Master of Science in Arid Zone Ecosystem Management at the Faculty of Sciences of the UABC, scholarship from CONACYT (August 2013), obtaining Honorable Mention and Ph.D. in Environment and Development at the Institute of Oceanographic Research of the UABC, scholarship from CONACYT achieving Honorable Mention (October 2016), Scholar Merit awarded by the UABC Ensenada Baja California Unit; February 2017. Teaching classes and workshops at undergraduate, master\'s, and industry levels, participation in disciplinary and multidisciplinary projects.',institutionString:"Center for Scientific Research and Higher Education at Ensenada",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Center for Scientific Research and Higher Education at Ensenada",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444315",firstName:"Karla",lastName:"Skuliber",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444315/images/20013_n.jpg",email:"karla@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Agricultural land occupies a third of the ice-free global land area, and it is expected that this percentage will rise due to increased demand for agricultural products to support the continued growth in the human population [2].
Agricultural practices can be harmful to human and surrounding ecosystems. The environmental/occupational exposure to agrochemicals (pesticide or fertilizers) has become a concern for human health [3]. Sixty percent of agrochemicals are used in the soil, and the others drain into the ground polluting the water supply; these chemicals are toxic for living organisms as they are absorbed by plants and successively accumulate in human tissue through biomagnifications of the food chain, causing human health and environment concerns [4]. Chemical pollutants are a serious and growing global problem. Pollution has become one of the greatest threats to humankind and is caused by their prevalence in water, on land, and in air. At least 7 million people die as a result of air pollution, 842,000 from water pollution, and 420,000 from consuming contaminated food. In 2015, 9 million people died (16% of deaths worldwide) due to poor waste management, generating more deaths than AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis together [5]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 1000 pesticides [6], among them the herbicides, fungicides, bactericides, and insecticides, are used agriculturally today; however, as many as 140,000 pesticides have been synthesized since 1950.
One global concern is that genetically modified seeds permit farmers to spray herbicides even during the growing season. This leaves their crops unharmed—primarily soybeans and corn—but also leaves them with carcinogenic levels of the systemic herbicide glyphosate [7], according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) [8]. Actually, 90% of the soybean and corn seeds are herbicide resistant [7]. A huge list of commercial food products containing soy, corn, and honey maintains traces of herbicides; glyphosate has also been reported in oat products [9].
In addition to the trace exposure of herbicides in various foods, the greatest levels are in the agricultural fields. The herbicides can be classified according to their chemical structure as organophosphates, organochlorines, carbamates, and pyrethroids, comprising a large portion of herbicides in the overall market. In developing countries, the most common herbicides based on their popularity are glyphosate, paraquat, atrazine, and 2,4-D. The use of these chemicals is well adapted for rural workers because they are of low cost, replace manual weeding, and improve yields [10]. However, accidental exposure to herbicides can be highly dangerous to human beings and other living organisms, and training programs by the sellers of herbicides that inform workers of the risk of exposure due to direct contact with the chemicals do not exist [11]. FAO reported that 800 million individuals in the world are undernourished, of which 780 million live in developing regions. Therefore, the possible health effects from the use of herbicides, in these regions, are considered by locals as less significant compared to the importance of eradicating famine [1, 12]. Because of this, it is important to balance the use of herbicides and their possible effect on the environment and health and reach sustainability. This review aims to present the key problems that can occur due to the mismanagement of herbicides in developing countries and how these chemicals can affect the health of farmworkers.
A literature search was conducted to describe the health effects on agricultural workers in rural environments due to herbicide exposure and contamination. The following data sources were used: Medline, EMBASE, Science Direct, PubMed, and Redalyc, with published studies not older than 10 years. The key terms of the search were about farmer’s health and herbicide contamination, although the search was not restricted. After deleting duplicate records, all remaining retrieved references to the bibliographic search were selected using only the title and summary. Research with irrelevant topics was eliminated to focus on the articles of interest in our study. The results were organized according to the type of health disorder due to occupational exposure. Studies focused on how to support the use of herbicides were also considered. Two hundred and one articles were selected for review of their abstracts, and 101 were classified for full analysis. After the revision of these full texts, only 61 studies were finally cited in this paper.
This review analyzes the impact of the excessive use of herbicides on specific health disorders in exposed agricultural workers and the environment damage. Many studies expose the health effects caused by herbicides; however, those in developing countries are rare. It is necessary to emphasize agriculture-related poor practices, the almost inexistent farmer training, and the health risk that this entails.
The unpromising future of agriculture in developing countries faces many challenges as a result of social pressure, increased migration, labor shortages, climate change, and food insecurity and is now an accelerating phenomenon that has resulted in the use of inadequate herbicides and depletion of natural resources, in particular the soil [12].
These events have led to the erosion of natural resources due to overexploitation of soils, to meet the growing demand for food [13], resulting in the excessive use of herbicides. It is well known that a significant portion of the chemicals applied has proven to be excessive, expensive, and sometimes unnecessary. In several countries such as in Europe and Japan, the use has been reduced; however, in the rest of the world, it has even increased [1].
Globally, in environmental government instances of some countries, are established permissible limits of herbicides in water and soil, however, in developing countries herbicides are not monitored, or simply this standards do not exist; nevertheless, several studies have shown that herbicides and their derivative compounds contaminate natural resources such as water and soil, for example, aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA), a secondary compound of glyphosate, can persist for several years in the soil [14]. The relationship between herbicide environmental pollution and the risk of harm to health is caused by failure to apply the adequate quantity, frequency of the products and the resistance of pests to herbicides, which causes them to tend to be accumulated in soil and water, depending on their physicochemical nature and their dynamics of interaction with the environment [15].
Table 1 shows residual soil and water values from the most commonly used herbicides worldwide. The concentrations found exceed the maximum permissible levels by international laws [22]. The reported values are evidence of progressive accumulation, which represents a risk factor for human health.
Reference | Compound | Concentration | Country/year |
---|---|---|---|
[15] | 2,4-D (dichlorophenoxyacetic acid)* | 609 μg/kg | Brazil, 2013 |
[16] | Terbuthylazine* | 37.6 μg/kg | Arable, 2015 |
[17] | Phenolic herbicide* | 0.4 mg/kg | Bosnia, 2016 |
[18] | AMPA* | 342.75 mg/kg | Mexico, 2018 |
[19] | Glyphosate+ | 27.8 μg/L | USA, 2013 |
[20] | Atrazine+ | 15.66 μg/L | USA, 2008 |
[21] | Glyphosate+ | 1.42 μg/L | Mexico, 2015 |
[18] | Glyphosate+ AMPA+ | ≤5 μg/L 36.8 μg/L | Mexico, 2018 |
Occurrence of herbicides in soil and water samples.
The compounds with an asterisk (*) are found in soil samples, and those with a plus sign (+) are herbicides reported in water.
Occupational health hazards usually refer to the materials and processes that have the potential to cause injury, sickness, and impaired health and affect the well-being and efficiency among workers. Occupational diseases may occur long after being exposed to occupational hazards, such as air contaminants and chemical, biological, physical, and ergonomic hazards, including psychosocial factors as well [5]. In agricultural trade, workers are exposed to numerous agricultural environment aerosols, including herbicides.
People who have been exposed to herbicides occupationally, or by eating foods or liquids containing herbicide residue, or for that matter inhaled herbicide-contaminated air, have experience a broad range of chronic health effects, including impaired neurobehavioral function (e.g., cognitive and behavioral disorders), Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, hormone disruption, asthma, allergies, hypersensitivity, obesity, diabetes, hepatic lesions, kidney failure, multiple sclerosis, and cancer [3, 23, 24, 25].
Many studies related to the occupational herbicide exposure of agricultural workers exist. Neurobehavioral symptoms among participants appear to be associated with cumulative exposure [26]. Pesticide poisoning and suicides are very high in developing countries and rural environments. Suicides influenced by pesticides have been largely reported among agricultural workers; evidence exists that indicates that pesticides induce such behavior [25, 27]. Some organophosphates, for example, paraquat and glyphosate, inhibit the cholinesterase activity in the nervous system, whereby this irreversible inhibition can produce cerebral damage such that cholinergic neurons are injured and can be responsible for neuropsychiatric and neurobehavioral disorders, including memory, cognitive, mental, emotional, motor, and sensory deficits [28].
It has long been established that Alzheimer’s development is exacerbated from occupational exposure to organophosphates. Chin-Chan [29] determined that the risk of Alzheimer’s is higher in those who have had occupational contact. The herbicides induce oxidative stress which in turn produces the activation of calpains and then caspases, a known link to Parkinson’s disease [30].
The inhibition of acetylcholinesterase in the hypothalamus after organophosphate exposure alters the secretion rate of gonadotropin-releasing hormone by affecting the secretion of pituitary hormones that stimulate the gonads (gonadotrophic hormones), including folio-stimulating and luteinizing hormones. The relationship between exposure to pesticides and anomalies in the functional structure of the seminal cells was checked [31].
A relationship between hypothyroidism and the use of organochlorine insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides has been found [32]. The organophosphates, by themselves, are capable of interfering with endocrine function by inhibiting the binding of thyroid hormones to their corresponding receptors.
Occupational exposure to pesticides can represent a serious risk to the respiratory system. Spirometry was performed in workers occupationally exposed to pesticides in various developing countries and revealed a significant decrease in the lung function parameters [33]. Another study evaluated the association between allergic and non-allergic wheeze and pesticides and found significant differences than implicate organophosphates and pyrethroids that are commonly used in agricultural and residential settings with adverse respiratory effects [34].
The organophosphates can affect the immune response, including the production of antibodies and of interleukin 2, T-cell proliferation, decrease of CD5 cells, increase of CD26 and autoantibodies, alteration of Th1/Th2 cytokines, inhibition of NK cells and the lymphocyte-activated killer cells, and the cytotoxic activity of the T lymphocytes. The oxidative stress can be produced by a wide range of factors among which the pesticides are found [35]. In this sense, Simoniello [36] showed that agricultural workers of the Pampas region in Argentina exposed to pesticide mixtures presented modifications in the oxidative equilibrium and enzymatic alterations.
It has been shown that there is an association between exposure to pesticides and a high incidence of metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and diabetes. The pesticides affect the cellular metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids and can lead to insulin resistance and alterations in glucose homeostasis [37]. Organochloride compounds are persistent and remain in the body for a long period. The presence of multiple chlorine atoms in its structure increases its lipophilicity and results in accumulation in adipose tissue. Several studies have explored the possible relationship between the concentration of organochlorides and obesity [38].
Organochlorides are associated with peripheral arterial disease, particularly in people suffering from obesity, the idea being that dioxins are supported after binding to AhR and induce inflammation, hypertension, and arteriosclerosis [39].
The use of herbicides is uncontrolled in many developing countries. Herbicides can cause toxic effects on agricultural workers’ health, both by their direct and indirect action (inhalation, dermal or oral exposure) [10]. Long-term and acute occupational exposure to herbicide among agricultural workers produces a charge or a cost to the countries [40]; the study of Buendía [41] reports that the average cost per patient intoxicated by paraquat exceeds that of various chronic diseases prevalent in Colombia. The social and economic impact on health could contribute significantly to the global public health problem. The increased morbidity includes lower quality of life and functional status.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) offers “the Index for a Better Life” which measures people’s quality of life and compares it among countries, based on the personalized management of the priorities of each individual [42]. In developing countries increase the poverty of the population, due to the low remuneration, for example, in the research of Cely-Andrade [43] reports that in mining zones exist the worst quality of life-related to health than agricultural areas, however the mining works are better paid, although economic growth does not accurately represent human well-being, the economic dimension is a key dimension of rural prosperity and farmers consider that economic resources increase the chances of improving their quality of life.
The monitoring of human groups exposed to chemical agents with the potential to cause damage to the organism is aimed at preserving health and quality of life especially of those populations that are at high risk. Many studies of the exposure of herbicides in agricultural workers exist; one of the most common, biomonitoring, is searching the chemicals in the urine of the people living in agricultural areas. In Table 2 the most recent studies about the concentrations of herbicides in people from rural areas are shown.
Reference | Method | Participants and precedence | Reported concentrations in urine |
---|---|---|---|
[38] | ELISA | Agricultural workers in Costa Rica | 6.3 μg/24 h of paraquat |
[44] | HPLC–MS/MS | Students in Thailand | 2,4-D |
[45] | ELISA | Children in Nicaragua | 0.9 μg/g Cr 2,4-D |
[46] | LC–MS/MS | Agricultural workers in Croatia | 0.3 to 8.0 μg/g Cr atrazine |
[47] | HPLC-ESI-MS | Farmer family in France | 9.5 μg/L glyphosate |
[48] | LC–MS/MS | Agricultural workers in a rural area from Italy | 2.94 μg/L TBA |
[21] | ELISA | Farmers from Mexico | 0.47 μg/L glyphosate |
[49] | MS | Pregnant women from Ghana | 0.46 μg/L 2,4-D |
[50] | MS | Pregnant women in rural zones of the USA | 3.40 ng/mL glyphosate |
[51] | HPLC–MS/MS | Amenity horticulturists in Ireland | 7.4 μg L−1 glyphosate |
[52] | ELISA | Farmers in Sri Lanka | 0–2.1 mg/g Cr paraquat 48–353 mg/g Cr Glyphosate |
[53] | LC-MS/MS | Farmers in the USA | 4.04 ppb |
[54] | MS/MS | Children and teenagers in Mexico | 2.63 μg/mL glyphosate |
Analysis studies of herbicides in urine from people living in rural areas.
Herbicide exposure is a current problem in public health, especially in developing countries mainly for the following reasons: the main cause of work accidents in agriculture is neglect of safety requirements (28.9%) [55]; workers do not have training for use herbicides and do not use the appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) for the preparation, application, transportation, and storage [56]. On the other hand, herbicide regulations are less strict or inexistent in developing countries [57], and these chemicals are used by tons because they replace the manual tasks, increasing productive capacity and significantly lowering production costs [10].
The use of pesticides to produce food, both to feed local populations and for exportation, should comply with good agricultural practices regardless of the economic status of a country. Farmers should limit the amount of pesticide used to the minimum necessary to protect their crops [5]. One approach is the large-scale implementation of precision agriculture that utilizes remote sensing and responds in real time to crop resource requirements and to weather and climatic conditions. Also, with the cost being such an important factor in consumer choices, policymakers can seek a market-based solution for modifying consumption patterns by better incorporating the true environmental costs to produce a food item [2].
The sustainable rise includes improving agricultural yields while at the same time abating environmental impacts. Relative to scenarios, less-extreme changes toward reducing meat consumption, waste, and the demand for nonfood agricultural products could greatly reduce the environmental impacts of the food system [58]. A few years ago, the agri-environmental scheme (AES) options were rising; these were established as effective strategies to evading contamination peaks when weed burden is high, whereas more demanding AES options guarantee an overall reduction in herbicide use, even during relatively easy farming years in which less weed pressure is experienced [59].
There are several strategies for controlling weeds; one of the practices is the manual weeding that depends on the workforce and is one of the main causes of the loss of organic matter in the soil, due to the excess of weeding and constant plows, making the soil lose its fertility. Therefore, low-income farmers require using herbicides; however, they do so in an uncontrolled manner. These types of practices are not sustainable options for the protection of the environment and occupational health. Moss [60] in his analysis points out that there are approximately 16 reasons why farmers prefer the use of herbicides and within them are economic factors due to the reduction of labor and rapidity of results, in addition to the lack of training and technology among other points.
Numerous studies have provided substantial knowledge to obtain these objectives, noting that one of the strategies is the minimum tillage; however, it is critical and requires effective management, since changes and resistance can be induced in the same herbs, in addition to greater involvement of economists, social scientists, and marketing professionals [12, 60].
In this sense, it is necessary to promote solutions that improve biodiversity and its environment, in addition to maintaining agricultural production; Figure 1 shows the relationship between the diverse strategies necessary for the sustainable control of weeds.
The main factors that must be involved to achieve sustainable control of the herbs do not benefit the crops.
Farmers are always looking for immediate changes to eliminate weeds; herbicides offer these options, compared to nonchemical strategies that take more time. Some strategies to convince the farmers are to promote crop rotations and field demonstrations, among others, but the most important is to change the farmer mentality which could be achieved by encouraging financial support that could bring about short-term changes [61]; however, attitudinal changes are long-term results that lead to better results.
As was mentioned in Section 3, the global food demand promotes that farmers cannot leave aside the use of herbicides [24]. Consequently, the natural recovery of the soil is not carried out, causing an accumulation of herbicides. This phenomenon is the main factor associated with the development of diseases produced by the chronic exposure of people who work and live in rural areas.
The literature analysis indicates that the health problems of agricultural workers are directly related to environmental pollution due to the unsustainable use of herbicides.
Health problems due to the exposure of agricultural workers to herbicides are a major concern, mainly in developing countries. This concern is due to the fact that the use of herbicides in these regions is indiscriminate and the workers have no prior training for their use, so there are no personal protective equipment regulations, and in developing countries there are few or no regulations to address accumulated concentrations in the environment, and there are no regulated biomonitoring in workers.
In rural areas mainly from developing countries, where there are no exists specific standards for their regulations, there is disturbing environmental contamination by herbicides; in these places are reported numerous diseases related to herbicide exposure, which leads to demand in public health services and hence decrease in the workforce, the worker’s quality of life, and the growth of the country. That is why herbicide distribution companies should commit to indicate to the users/workers the correct management of the herbicides, including application quantities, as well as, the rigorous use of personal protective equipment.
This research showed that exposure to herbicides by agricultural workers and the environmental contamination with these chemicals are problems that can be solved by enforcing establish regulations in rural zones principally from developing countries.
This study was supported by “Programa para el Desarrollo Profesional Docente (PRODEP),” authorization number 511-6/18-8537.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Wine is an alcoholic beverage commonly produced from fermented grape juice. It can be categorized as dry wine, semidry wine, semisweet wine, sweet wine, still wine, and sparkling wine based on its sugar or carbon dioxide content. Depending on the production methods or materials used, it can also be classified as a special wine (including liqueur wine, carbonated wine, icewine, noble rot wine, floral wine, flavored wine, low alcohol wine, nonalcohol wine, and
In addition to the categorization of wine regarding its alcohol content, one with an alcohol content above 10.5% v/v, from 5.5 to 10.5% v/v, from 1.2 to 5.5%, from 0.5 to 1.2% v/v, or below 0.5% v/v may be classified as an alcoholic wine, lower-alcohol wine, reduced-alcohol wine, low-alcohol wine, or nonalcoholic wine (NW) [2, 3]. However, these classifications differ from one winemaking region or country to another [4]. Over the years, with health risk awareness and social demands related to road safety, consumer preferences are now shifting toward new product offerings and alternatives, with an increasing percentage of the adult population seeking lower alcohol wines more frequently. This has boosted the production and sales of nonalcoholic wines with the global nonalcoholic wine market worth over $10 billion and is still estimated to increase at a significant CAGR above 7% between 2019 and 2027, attaining a profit share of over $30 billion [5].
Lower, reduced, low, and NW wines can be produced at the various stages of wine production (pre-fermentation, fermentation, and post-fermentation stages) using several methods such as reduction of the juice fermentable sugars before fermentation, the reduction of alcohol production during fermentation, and the separation by membranes and thermal treatment after complete fermentation of the wine [6, 7, 8, 9]. The latter methods, also known as physical dealcoholization (ethanol removal) methods are usually used after complete fermentation of the wine (i.e., at wine post-fermentation stage) and can achieve good results when used on a finished wine. Studies have reported the ability of some physical dealcoholization methods in preserving the phenolic compounds [10], volatile compounds [11], and sensory quality [12, 13] of the final wine product at certain levels of ethanol removal with a taste almost similar to the original wines (in the case of partially dealcoholized wines), contrarily to the former methods (commonly used before and during fermentation), which produces unbalanced wine products (high acidity, unfermented juice, and low fermentative aroma compounds) with legality issues in the case of the juice fermentable sugars dilution with water [14]. Wine produced by physical dealcoholization methods (i.e., alcohol removal from finished wines) is termed dealcoholized wine (DW). The dealcoholization of wine can be complete or partial. A completely DW is a beverage obtained exclusively from wine by dealcoholization with a final alcohol content below 0.5% v/v (resolution OIV-ECO 432-2012), while a partially DW is a beverage obtained exclusively from wine by dealcoholization with a final alcohol content ≥0.5% v/v (resolution OIV-ECO 433-2012). NW (< 0.5% v/v ethanol) produced from a finished wine by dealcoholization may be termed DW, whereas low, reduced, and lower alcohol wines (0.5–10.5% v/v ethanol) may be termed partially dealcoholized wines. In this chapter, we focus on the methods used for producing of NW from high-strength alcoholic wines after complete fermentation (wine post-fermentation stage), specifically, their impact on the aroma profile and sensory characteristics of NW. In addition, the state-of-the-art methods of improving the aroma profile of DW/NW are discussed.
The production of NW can be achieved by several methods as shown in Figure 1. These methods can be broadly classified into three groups based on the principle or mechanism of ethanol reduction and removal at the various stages of wine production, including reduction of fermentable sugars (pre-fermentation stage), reduction or limitation of ethanol production (fermentation stage), and ethanol removal by membrane separation or thermal treatment (post-fermentation stage) [6, 7, 8, 9].
Methods of lower, reduced, low, and NW wines production.
The reduction of fermentable sugars in the pre-fermentation stage of wine is one of the common methods for the production of wines with lower or reduced alcohol content. It includes techniques such as juice dilution [15, 16], juice filtration with membranes [17, 18], the use of enzymes (e.g., glucose oxidase) [19, 20], early harvest and blending with mature harvest [21], viticultural practices (e.g., use of growth regulators, reduction of photosynthetic activity, reduction of leaf area, preharvest irrigation) [22, 23].
Juice dilution involves adding water to grape juice or mixing the juice with green harvest to reduce the concentration of fermentable sugars. In countries such as South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, and the United States of America (excluding California where it is only permitted for preventing stuck fermentations), water is only allowed as a processing aid. The substitution of grape juice with water or the direct addition of water to reduce the concentration of fermentable sugars has been effective in reducing the ethanol content of the final wine product by 4-6% v/v [15, 16]. Regarding the use of green harvest in juice dilution, this range of ethanol reduction is determined by the harvest date. The pre-fermentative substitution of a matured Shiraz juice (obtained from Shiraz grapes harvested at 25.5 °Brix) with water or direct water addition at rates of 10.2, 34.0, and 47.2% v/v resulted in lower alcohol wines with 14.5%/14.4%, 12.0%/11.7%, and 10.6%/9.6% ABV, respectively, after fermentation to dryness (<1 g/L of total sugar). The lower alcohol wines (10.6%/9.6% ABV) produced by substituting or diluting the juice with 47.2% v/v water decreased the total phenolics, anthocyanin concentration, tannin concentration, color density, and SO2-resistant pigments compared with the control (15.5% ABV) [16]. Furthermore, sensory attributes such as “body,” “astringency,” “flavor intensity,” and “alcohol” flavor were lower in wines with 9.6% ABV compared with the control, which was attributed to the alcohol concentration difference of 1% ABV between the lower alcohol wines produced by substitution (10.6%) and those produced by direct water addition (9.6% ABV) [16]. However, in some European winemaking countries such as France, Spain, Italy, and Germany, this practice is illegal because it can significantly affect most physicochemical parameters, phenolic and volatile components, and the sensory quality of the resulting wine [15, 16, 21].
Filtration of the juice with membranes is another method of producing lower or reduced alcohol wines, based on the principle of sugar reduction of the juice before fermentation. In this method, a portion of the sugar-rich juice is filtered with nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, or reverse osmosis membranes, which have a very small pore size and can retain the sugar. The filtered juice is then mixed with the other portion of the sugar-rich juice and fermented to obtain lower or reduced alcohol content wine [17, 18]. To produce a lower or reduced alcohol content wine (≤ 10.5% v/v ethanol) by this method, optimal operating conditions and a suitable membrane configuration with a good molecular weight cutoff (MWCO) should be considered to increase the retention of volatile compounds and maintain good taste in the wine. On the contrary, this could lead to a lower content of polyphenols, anthocyanins, and color intensity and consequently affect the sensory properties of the nonalcoholic wine [17, 24].
The use of glucose oxidase is another way to produce lower or reduced alcohol wines. This enzyme is found in the fungus
Early harvesting of fruit and blending with ripe grapes is another strategy that can be used to reduce the ethanol concentration in wine. In one study, using this strategy resulted in a 3.2% v/v reduction in ethanol content of red wines with ideal aroma profiles [27]. Similarly, a 3% v/v reduction in ethanol concentration was observed when an acidic and low alcohol blend of early harvested white and red grapes was added to a ripened grape ferment [28]. According to Piccardo et al. [29], this strategy can lower not only ethanol content but also pH and total acidity without significantly affecting other wine components. Contrary to other studies, acidity and “raw” aromas can be perceived in the resulting wine [28].
About half of the total fermentable sugar in grape juice is glucose [30], which is the main substrate converted to alcohol by yeasts during fermentation. Viticultural practices such as reducing photosynthetic activity, using growth regulators, reducing leaf area, and preharvest irrigation have been used to regulate grape fermentable sugars so that low-alcohol or nonalcoholic wines can be produced from grape juice [22, 23]. As indicated by some studies, the degree of sugar accumulation in berries can be influenced by reducing the leaf area [31, 32, 33], resulting in a reduction of ethanol content in the resulting wine [23, 34, 35]. For example, a lower alcohol content in the finished wine was observed after leaf area reduction of Shiraz vines [22]. A similar observation was made after post-veraison leaf removal in a Sangiovese vine, with no negative effects on phenolic compounds [36].
Reducing or limiting alcohol production is another principle used in producing nonalcoholic or low-alcohol wines during the fermentation of wines. This principle basically includes three techniques such as interrupted fermentation [2], reduction of yeast biomass [37], use of modified yeast strains with low alcohol production ability [38, 39], and use of non-
Interrupted or limited fermentation is the intentional termination of alcoholic fermentation before it is complete by controlling the fermentation time and temperature during fermentation [2]. Generally, during fermentation, the ethanol concentration is monitored until the desired concentration is reached. Then, fermentation is stopped either by lowering the fermentation temperature or by adding sulfur dioxide. When producing nonalcoholic or low alcohol wines using this method, the fermentation time is usually short in order to achieve a very low ethanol content. However, this usually results in sweet nonalcoholic or low alcohol wines with high residual sugar content that require further post-fermentation treatments, such as heat treatment or addition of sulfur dioxide to combat microbial instability and difficult storage [42].
The reduction of yeast biomass during fermentation can also be used to produce nonalcoholic or low-alcohol wines. In this method, the yeast population is reduced from time to time during fermentation to keep the fermentation rate of fermentable sugars as low as possible. This prevents the production of high amounts of ethanol during fermentation. Through centrifugation, Fan et al. [37] reduced the biomass of dry yeast (106 CUF/ml) during the fermentation process of an apple cider, resulting in a cider with low alcohol content and fruity aroma. Similar to limited fermentation, the final product of this technique is sweet with a high residual sugar content and requires attention for its microbial stability and storage [42]. Nevertheless, this method is useful for producing a sweeter and more pleasant nonalcoholic or low-alcohol beverage [43].
The literature also reports the use of modified yeast in the production of low-alcohol and nonalcoholic wine [38, 39]. Through gene modification or adaptive evolution and selection, modified yeast strains with low ethanol production ability are developed and can be used to reduce the alcohol content in wine during fermentation [44]. A
Non-
The complete fermentation of grape juice with high amounts of sugars produces wines. Wines are generally characterized by bitterness, hotness, good viscosity, and intense aroma and flavor. Wines can be further processed into low or nonalcoholic wines based on the final alcohol content. There are basically three methods of alcohol removal including extraction processes, membrane processes, and heat treatment [8, 9, 54].
Extraction processes use extraction media such as gases (carbon dioxide), solvents (liquid carbon dioxide, pentane, hexane), and absorbents (zeolites) to remove ethanol from wine to produce alcohol-free or low-alcohol wine [30, 54, 55, 56]. Carbon dioxide in the form of gas or liquid can be used to extract of ethanol from wine. Carbon dioxide has a critical pressure (73 atm) and temperature (31 °C) [57], above which it behaves as a supercritical fluid (i.e., both liquid and gas) that can be used to extract organic compounds such as ethanol from wine due to its affinity for the carbon chain (as a liquid) [55] and then immediately evaporates (as a gas), leaving the extracted compound (ethanol) with a high concentration of aroma compounds [54] and no residue [7]. This method offers several advantages because carbon dioxide is inexpensive, easy to handle, does not require hazardous substances, and has a low supercritical temperature [30]. In addition, extraction solvents such as pentane and hexane are also used to remove ethanol from wines, where the ethanol dissolves in the solvent and is subsequently removed from the wine [55]. However, these extraction solvents can also remove other soluble aroma compounds along with the ethanol, which can negatively affect the aroma profile of the final product [56]. Hydrophobic adsorbents such as zeolites can also extract ethanol from wine by absorbing and filtering the ethanol from the wine. This method can be used to produce nonalcoholic wines with an ethanol content of 0.5% v/v [58]. Nevertheless, extraction methods for alcohol reduction are expensive and are rarely used in the production of low-alcohol and nonalcoholic wines.
Membrane processes are physical separation processes that can reduce or remove ethanol from wine using a semipermeable membrane. In this method, natural osmotic pressure is created by the pressure exerted on two solutions of unequal solution concentration flowing tangentially, parallel, or circularly through a semipermeable membrane. To restore the equilibrium of natural osmotic pressure, the alcohol and water in the wine pass through the semipermeable membrane from the high-concentration solution to the low-concentration solution [30, 59]. This phenomenon reduces or removes the ethanol from the wine, resulting in a low- or non- alcoholic wine, depending on the remaining ethanol content. The most commonly used membrane separation processes at the commercial level include reverse osmosis (RO), osmotic distillation (OD), and pervaporation (PV) (Figure 2) [6, 8, 9, 30].
Membrane separation techniques for removal of alcohol from wine.
In PV, the transfer of compounds (by adsorption, diffusion, and desorption) occurs through a close-packed polymer membrane based on the partial evaporation of liquid mixtures with similar boiling points confined in an azeotropic mixture, with the liquid phase changing to the vapor phase [59, 60]. PV has been used to remove ethanol and recover aromatics from wines [61, 62]. It is highly selective, consumes little energy, operates at lower temperatures, causes less loss of aromatics, and is a clean method (i.e., it produces water and ethanol as by-products that can be recycled or reused). Nevertheless, the high cost of the PV machine and membranes, the low diffusion rate at low temperatures, and the limited market for PV membranes are some disadvantages of using PV to produce low-alcohol and nonalcoholic wines.
RO also works on the principle of membrane separation, in which a concentration gradient between two solutions through a hydrophilic, semipermeable hollow fiber membrane causes the solvent to flow from the high-concentration solution through the membrane to the low-concentration solution, retaining salts, peptides, and proteins [30]. The use of RO in the production of wines and beverages with or without alcohol content has been reported [8, 9, 63, 64]. In a diafiltration configuration, an industrial-scale plant of RO was used to produce nonalcoholic red, white, and rosé wines with a final alcohol concentration of 0.7% v/v, but most of the basic oenological parameters, volatile composition, and sensory quality of the wines were affected [65]. In contrast, some studies reported that low-alcohol or nonalcoholic wines produced with RO had no negative effects on the main aroma compounds and had similar taste and aromas to normal wines [66, 67]. RO can be operated at low temperatures and meets the requirements for a clean technology, as it can recover and reuse ethanol from the dealcoholization byproduct (water and ethanol solution). However, adding water during diafiltration to achieve effective alcohol removal is a drawback of this method, as the addition of water to wine is prohibited in some wine-producing countries or regions.
Another modern membrane separation process that has found application in the production of low-alcohol and nonalcoholic wine is osmotic distillation (OD), also known as evaporative pertraction (EP). In this membrane-based technology, two liquid phases, wine and a stripping liquid (usually water), circulate in countercurrent on opposite sides of a hydrophobic hollow fiber membrane, as shown in Figure 2. In this process, the vapor pressure of the volatile solutes in the wine and the stripping liquid is the driving force [68]. The mechanism for ethanol removal in the OD process is as follows: evaporation of ethanol from the wine on one side of the membrane, followed by diffusion of ethanol vapor through the membrane pores, then finally exit of ethanol vapor from the opposite side of the membrane and condensation in the stripping water solution [68]. Minimal loss of aroma compounds was observed after alcohol reduction up to 5% v/v in Garnacha, Xarelo, and Tempranillo wines by OD [69]. Similarly, alcohol reduction up to 6% v/v in fermented beverages with OD at 10 ° C–20 °C did not result in significant losses of aroma compounds [70]. Moreover, OD was used to reduce the alcohol content (−10.5% v/v) of
Thermal processes such as spinning cone column (SCC) and distillation under vacuum/vacuum distillation (VD) are two very common methods for reducing alcohol in wine and other alcoholic beverages based on the principle of heating and evaporation [8, 9, 30]. The SCC is a falling film separator consisting of a rotating vertical shaft and vertically stacked cones that rotate alternately and are fixed in place (Figure 3a). The SCC process is considered very cost-effective and efficient for retaining aroma compounds from wine, beverages, and other liquid foods [30]. In particular, it has reportedly been used to recover concentrates from grape juice, lower the ethanol content in wines, remove sulfur dioxide from grape juice, and recover aroma compounds from wines and beer [2, 9, 30, 72]. To reduce the alcohol content of the finished wine, the SCC technique uses a two-stage process. In the first stage, the wine is passed through the SCC at a reduced vacuum pressure (0.04 atm) and temperature (about 28 °C) to extract the wine aroma compounds in about 1% of the total wine volume. Subsequently, the ethanol content of the wine is reduced to produce a low-alcohol or nonalcoholic wine (depending on the final alcohol content) in the second stage at a slightly higher vacuum pressure and temperature (about 38 °C) to remove the alcohol. The aroma of the low-alcohol or alcohol-free wine is then improved by adding the recovered wine aromas (i.e., the aroma compounds extracted in the first stage) [30]. In a previous study, SCC was successfully used to recover about 97–100% of aroma compounds from white, rosé, and red wines by regulating the extraction percentage and flow rate of the base wines [72]. Moreover, 94% of ethanol was recovered from a water-ethanol mixture (14.8% v/v ethanol) using SCC at medium-high stripping rates (0.1–0.6), high feed and medium temperatures (40–50°C). However, when the alcohol content of a Chardonnay grape juice (2% v/v) was reduced halfway through fermentation with SCC, a reduction in volatile compounds of about 25% was observed. The significant change in the concentration of volatile aroma compounds after alcohol reduction could be due to the remaining ethanol content [65], the chemical-physical properties of the aroma compounds [73], and the composition of the nonvolatile matrix of the wine [74]. The high cost of SCC technology and the costs associated with its operation are two of its main drawbacks [75].
Production of nonalcoholic wine using (a) spinning cone column; and (b) vacuum distillation.
VD is another interesting technique used to reduce the alcohol content of wines and alcoholic beverages (Figure 3b). In this technique, the feed (usually wine) from the feed tank or flask is heated to a temperature (15–20°C) [74] suitable for the evaporation or vaporization of the ethanol of the wine from the wine medium under vacuum [72], which then condenses as a distillate in a still flask, leaving a low-alcohol or alcohol-free wine, depending on the remaining ethanol content. In some cases, some important volatile aroma compounds removed along with the ethanol could be recovered from the first distillate and added back to the nonalcoholic wine. At the same time, the ethanol could also be recovered and used for ethanol correction of wines. Previous studies have reported the use of VD to reduce the alcohol content (at 0.7–5% v/v) of wines [65, 74]. For example, the alcohol content of rosé and red wines was reduced to 5% v/v, producing reduced-alcohol wines without significantly affecting polyphenols, anthocyanins, cations, and organic acids. However, significant losses in volatile aroma compounds were observed [74]. Also, VD was used to produce nonalcoholic wines (0.7% v/v ethanol) from white, rosé, and red wines, but also significantly affected most chemical parameters and volatile composition. In particular, pH, free sulfur dioxide, total sulfur dioxide, and volatile acidity decreased significantly, while reducing sugar, color intensity, and total acidity increased significantly [65]. In addition, 92–99% of esters and terpene compounds were lost [65]. VD can significantly improve the nonvolatile components in wine compared with membrane separation methods [74]. Nevertheless, VD can significantly reduce almost all volatiles in wine, especially ethyl esters, alcohols, and terpenes [65].
Another evolving technique used in the production of low and nonalcoholic wines and beverages is an integrated membrane/distillation system known as a multistage membrane/distillation system. This technique involves the combination of two or more alcohol removal methods to remove ethanol from wines and beers while minimizing the loss of important volatile aroma compounds associated with individual membrane and thermal separation processes such as RO, PV, OD, and VD [8, 9, 12, 65, 73, 74]. Commonly used multistage membrane/distillation systems include integrated PV and distillation units [76], reverse osmosis-evaporative pertraction (RO-EP) [77], and nanofiltration-pervaporation system (NF-PV) [78], of which RO-EP is the most commonly used (Figure 4). These integrated systems have proven successful in producing reduced-flavor, low-alcohol, or alcohol-free wines and beers with similar or improved aroma and flavor compared with the original wine or beer product [76, 78, 79]. However, significant losses of alcohols (up to 27%), acids (up to 24%), esters (up to 22%), phenols (up to 18%), and lactones (up to 14%) have been reported at ethanol reduction up to 5.5% v/v in the case of RO-EP used for alcohol reduction of a
Scheme of reverse osmosis-evaporative pertraction (RO-EP) for nonalcoholic wine production. RO membrane; reverse osmosis membrane and EP; and evaporative pertraction membrane.
As mentioned earlier, this chapter is focused on low and nonalcoholic wines production methods used after complete fermentation (post-fermentation stage) of wine since these methods are mostly preferred to those used at pre-fermentation and concurrent fermentation stages of wine due to their ability to achieve best results, thus, produce low and nonalcoholic wines with high concentration of fermentative aroma compounds resulting from fully fermented juice. Therefore, in this section we discuss the effect of these methods on the quality of low and nonalcoholic wines, in particular, their effect on the phenolic composition, volatile compounds, and sensory characteristics.
The phenolic composition of wine (both alcoholic and non-alcoholic) is one of the key factors influencing its quality, especially red wine, which mainly includes flavonoids (anthocyanins, flavanols, flavones, flavonols, and proanthocyanidins) and non-flavonoids (hydroxybenzoic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, and resveratrol) [81, 82, 83]. Table 1 summarizes some reported effects of production methods on the phenolic composition of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines. The production of nonalcoholic wines at the post-fermentation stage of winemaking using physical methods is mainly applicable to finished wines based on the principle of ethanol reduction. During the reduction of alcohol from wine, water is also removed together with the ethanol, which can have either a positive or negative effect on the phenolic composition of the final product. Wine ethanol reduction has been reported to impact wine phenolic compounds [79, 84]. The removal of ethanol from 2011 vintage Barbera red wine (14.6% v/v), Verduno Pelaverga red wine (15.2% v/v), and Langhe Rosè (13.2% v/v) by VD and membrane contactor method to a final ethanol content of 5% v/v resulted in the loss of anthocyanins and polyphenols [74]. In contrast, reduction of the alcohol level in a white wine from 12.5% v/v to 0.3% by OD had no significant effect on the total phenols and flavonoids of nonalcoholic wine compared with the base wine [11]. Similarly, flavonoids, total anthocyanins, and total phenols were not affected after the removal of ethanol (−10.5% v/v) from a red wine (13.2% v/v) [12], whereas a reduction of up to 5% v/v ethanol in a red wine by RO-EP caused an increase in the color intensity and phenolic compounds concentration [87]. Furthermore, SCC was reported to modify the phenolic composition of red wines reduced to less than 0.3 % v/v such that the concentrations of phenolic compounds including total phenols, anthocyanins, stilbenes, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, and non-flavonoids increased significantly [84].
Method used | Type of wine | Final alcohol content (% v/v) | Phenolic composition | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
OD | Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 5.4 | Insignificant decrease in the concentrations of total anthocyanins and total phenols | [88] |
Barbera red wine, Langhe Rosè wine, and Verduno Pelaverga red wine | 5.0 | Increased the concentrations of total flavonoids and total anthocyanins | [83] | |
Aglianico red wine | 0.4–4.9 | Increased the content of total phenols | [80] | |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 2.7 | Flavonoids and phenolic compounds remained unaffected | [21] | |
Falanghina white wine | 0.3 | No significant effect on the contents of total flavonoids and total phenols | [20] | |
RO | Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 9.0 | Total anthocyanins decreased Total phenols increased | [88] |
Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Tempranillo red wines | 2.0–4.0 | No significant effect on the concentrations of total anthocyanins and phenolic compounds Increased color intensity by 20% due to high concentration of anthocyanins | [93] | |
SCC | White, rose, and red wines | < 0.3 | Increased the contents of flavonols, anthocyanins, total phenols, and phenolic compounds contents by 24% | [92] |
VD | Langhe Rosè wine, Verduno Pelaverga red wine, and Barbera red wine | 5.0 | Increased the contents of total anthocyanins and total flavonoids | [83] |
RO–EP | Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine (cv.) | 5.5 | Increased the content of total phenols Decreased the content of total anthocyanins | [88] |
Some reported effects of production methods on the phenolic composition of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines.
The aroma and flavor of wines are mainly associated with volatile aroma compounds belonging to different chemical groups such as esters, organic acids, alcohols, terpenes, monoterpenes, C-13 norisoprenoids, aldehydes, ketones, lactones, and sulfur compounds [85]. These compounds are either of varietal (imparted from the grape skins), fermentative (produced during wine fermentation) or post-fermentative (produced from aging or additives after fermentation) origin. Factors such as grape variety, viticultural practices, and winemaking methods define the volatile composition of wines as well as its aroma and flavor [86]. As regards the production of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines using post-fermentation methods such as membrane separation and heat treatment processes, the removal of alcohol can affect the volatile compounds of the final product. For example, the total removal of ethanol from a Tokaji Hárslevelű wine with an alcohol content of 13.1% v/v by PV resulted in a 70% loss of the total aroma compounds [61]. In addition, the production of a nonalcohol wine (0.5% v/v) from a Cabernet Sauvignon red wine (12.5% v/v) using PV led to losses of 99, 28, and 40% of esters, organic acids, and alcohols, respectively [62]. Furthermore, losses of about 9, 4, and 18% were observed in the total concentration of volatile compounds in white, rose, and red wines, respectively, after treated with SCC [72]. More recently, Sam et al. [65] compared RO and VD in the obtainment of nonalcoholic wines (with final ethanol content of 0.7 v/v) from white wine (13.4% v/v), rose wine (12.2% v/v), and red wine (13.9% v/v). They observed significant losses of volatile compounds in the nonalcoholic wines, in particular, VD resulted in losses of the total concentration of esters in white, rosé, and red wines by 96, 98, and 96%, respectively, whereas respective losses of 92, 81, and 87% were observed in RO-treated wines. Alcohol removal is not solely responsible for the losses of volatile aroma compounds during the production of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines, other factors such as the type of method used, the operating conditions applied, the type of membrane used (in the case of membrane processes), the chemical-physical properties of the volatile compounds, and the nonvolatile matrix of the wine can also play a vital role [8, 9]. Some reported effects of production methods on the volatile compounds of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines are summarized in Table 2.
Method used | Type of wine | Final alcohol content (% v/v) | Losses of volatile compounds (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
OD | Aglianico red wine | 8.8 | Esters = 60.9 Alcohols = 31.8 Acids = 17.1 Terpene compounds = 32.3 | [96] |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 5.4 | Esters = 19.0 Alcohols = 3.0 Acids = 25.0 lactones = 25.0 Phenols = 10.0 | [88] | |
Langhe Rosè wine, Barbera red wine, and Verduno Pelaverga red wine | 5.0 | Esters = 23.8–47.8 Alcohols = 59.9–63.9 Acids = 17.4–30.9 | [83] | |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 2.7 | Esters = 85.0 Alcohols = 84.0 Acids = 23.0 lactones = 37.0 Phenols = 37.0 | [21] | |
Falanghina white wine | 0.3 | Esters = 99.0 Alcohols = 98.9 Acids = 98.7 Ketones = 99.9 Lactones = 98.2 | [20] | |
Aglianico red wine | 0.2 | Esters = 89.9 Alcohols = 99.9 Acids = 78.9 Ketones & lactones = 97.9 Aldehydes = 100 Sulfur compounds = 78.7 Phenols = 100 | [82] | |
RO | Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 9.0 | Esters = 8.0 Alcohols = 30.0 Acids = 22.0 Phenols = 13.0 Lactones = 14.0 | [88] |
Chardonnay white wine, Pinot Noir rose wine, and Merlot red wine | 0.7 | Esters = 81–92 Alcohols = 58–75 Acids = 73–89 Terpenes = 48–70 Other compounds = 75–87 | [74] | |
PV | Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | 0.5 | Esters = 99.9 Alcohols = 39.5 Acids = 28.2 | [71] |
SCC | White wine | 0.3 | Esters = 53.0 Aliphatic alcohols = 98.0 Aromatic alcohols = 3.0 Acids = 20.0 Ketones = 71.0 | [97] |
VD | Chardonnay white wine, Pinot Noir rose wine, and Merlot red wine | 0.7 | Esters = 96–98 Alcohols = 85–95 Acids = 85–91 Terpene compounds = 92–96 Other compounds = 91–99 | [74] |
Langhe Rosè wine, Barbera red wine, and Verduno Pelaverga red wine | 5.0 | Esters = 19.5–22.9 Alcohols = 50.4–53.6 Acids = 2.3–13.7 | [83] | |
RO–EP | Shiraz red wine | 10.4 | Esters = 49.5 Alcohols = 38.9 Terpene compounds = 35.3 Lactones = 21.4 | [98] |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 5.5 | Esters = 22.0 Alcohols = 27.0 Acids = 24.0 Phenols = 18.0 Lactones = 14.0 | [88] |
Some reported effects of production methods on the volatile compounds of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines.
Volatile compounds, especially terpenes and esters, contribute significantly to the aroma and flavor of wines [90, 91], and their complete loss or decrease due to the removal of ethanol from wine can significantly affect the sensory characteristics of the final wine product. Ethanol can enhance the perception of viscosity, bitterness, and hotness in wine, while masking other sensory characteristics such as astringency and acidity [92, 93, 94]. Some important findings on the effect of ethanol reduction using nonalcoholic wines production methods are presented in Table 3. Studies have shown that the production of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines by post-fermentation techniques can significantly affect sensory attributes such as hotness, bitterness, aroma intensity, color, astringency, acidity, sweetness, wine body, red fruits, dried fruits, etc. [12, 62, 65, 71, 89, 95, 96]. A nonalcoholic white wine (0.3% v/v ethanol) produced by OD was characterized by low sweetness, aroma, viscosity, and high acidity in comparison to the original the wine with an alcohol content of 12.5%, giving it an unbalanced taste and unpleasant aftertaste [11]. Similar observations were made in nonalcohol white, rose, and red wines produced by RO and VD [65]. Moreover, the reduction of ethanol in Aglianico red wines at 5% v/v by a membrane contactor technique decreased aroma notes such as red fruits and cherry in the final reduced wine products [87]. Furthermore, when SCC was used to reduce the alcohol content of oaked Chardonnay wine, the perceptions of hotness and overall aroma intensity reduced substantially compared with the original wine [97]. It is worth mentioning that low and nonalcoholic wines (< 0.5–5.5% v/v ethanol) usually have poor sensory quality and consumer preferences due to their imbalanced body and flavor, reduced hotness, and high acidity and astringency when compared with original wines [65, 89, 96] unless supplemented with additives. Meanwhile, lower and reduced wines (6.5–10.5% v/v ethanol) typically have acceptable preferences [12, 87, 98] due to less negative impact on the sensory characteristics arising from less ethanol removal and aroma compounds. For example, the reduction of alcohol in a white Chardonnay wine (14.2% v/v) by 4.5% v/v negatively affected consumer liking of the final product, while a reduction of 1.5% and 3.3% v/v had no significant effect. Also, when a red wine with alcohol content of 13.2% v/v was dealcoholized (i.e., its ethanol reduced) by 8% v/v, no substantial changes in the color intensity and overall acceptability were observed between the two wines [12]. In addition, an ethanol reduction by 3 and 5% v/v in two red wines (cv. Aglianico) with different initial alcohol contents (15.4 and 13.3 % v/v) using a membrane contactor technique increased the bitterness, acidity, and astringency of the final lower alcohol wines, while a 2% v/v reduction resulted in no significant differences between the base wines and the final wine products [87]. Similarly, Meillon et al. [98] reported a decrease in consumer preference for a Syrah red wine (13.4% v/v) dealcoholized by 5.5% v/v and a nonsignificant effect on the preference at dealcoholization by 2% and 4% v/v using RO. The inability of most consumers to notice alcohol reductions ≤2% v/v may have accounted for these results [8].
Method used | Type of wine | Final alcohol content (% v/v) | Sensory characteristics | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
OD | Aglianico red wine | 8.8–11.6 | Astringency, bitterness, and acidity increased, while red fruits, sweet, and cherry aromas decreased. | [96] |
Falanghina white wine | 0.3–9.8 | Unbalanced taste and liking, with an unpleasant aftertaste due to reduced sweetness, body, and odor | [20] | |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 2.7–8.3 | Lower acceptability due to high acidity, low sweetness, and low red fruits and spices notes | [21] | |
RO | Syrah red wine | 9.6 | Hotness, sweetness, and wine length in the mouth decreased, while red fruits, woody and blackcurrant aromas increased | [105] |
Syrah red wine | 7.9 | Aromas, persistence, and complexity decreased | [107] | |
Chardonnay white wine, Pinot Noir rose wine, and Merlot red wine | 0.7 | Acidity, astringency, and color intensity increased, while viscosity, sweetness, fruity and floral notes, red fruits, bitterness, hotness, aroma intensity, and overall acceptability decreased | [74] | |
PV | Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | 0.5 | Good smell and taste due to high retention of fruity aromas | [71] |
VD | Chardonnay white wine, Pinot Noir rose wine, and Merlot red wine | 0.7 | Acidity, astringency, and color intensity increased, while viscosity, sweetness, fruity and floral notes, red fruits, bitterness, hotness, aroma intensity, and overall acceptability decreased | [74] |
RO–EP | Shiraz red wine | 10.4 | Dark fruit, raisin/prune, and black pepper notes increased. Astringency and overall aroma intensity also Increase | [98] |
Some reported effects of production methods on the sensory properties of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines.
The aroma profiles of lower, reduced, low, and non-alcoholic wines have a great impact on consumers’ acceptability and mostly depend on volatile compounds. As the removal of alcohol from finished wines usually results in substantial loss of volatile compounds leading to changes in organoleptic properties, innovative ways for correcting these adverse effects are needed. Ways of improving the aroma and sensory properties of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines are rarely reported in the literature although the use of fruit-based, herb-based, and other rarely used aroma additives in enhancing the aroma profile of wines and alcoholic beverages has been reported [99]. For example, the concentration of monoterpenes and monoterpene glycosides significantly increased after the addition of phenolic-free glycosides, resulting in an increase in floral and fruity aroma, flavor, and aftertaste attributes, without altering the bitterness or astringency [100]. Similarly, dehydrated waste grape skins were used to improve the aroma composition of red wines [101]. Furthermore, addition of hydroalcoholic plants macerates to Vermouth and basic wines improved their sensory characteristics such as aroma, taste, and smell [102]. Moreover, when 2 g/L of Ganoderma lucidum extract was added to a Shiraz wine product, it imparted the wine with fruity and floral notes [103]. Also, the addition of oak chips to Verdejo wines imparted the wines with higher concentrations ethyl acetate, hexyl acetate, isoamyl acetates, higher alcohols, and ethyl esters of straight-chain fatty acids [104], which are known to contribute fruity and floral aromas to the wines. Other wines aromatized with botanical extracts include Benedictine, Chartreuse, liqueurs, and bitters [105]. Possibly, the reciprocation of these studies in lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines would significantly improve their aroma profile. However, the ongoing debate at OIV whether to permit the use of flavorings or exogenous aroma additives from grapes or non-grapes origin in the aroma improvement of these categories of products is a major hindrance to the scientific exploration in this field. Nevertheless, some studies have reported on the aroma improvement of dealcoholized wines (lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines) and beers [11, 76, 106]. In an attempt to improve the aroma profile of a white wine (11.5% v/v) dealcoholized to a final ethanol content of 0.8% v/v by vacuum evaporation, glycosidic aroma precursors isolated from Muscat grapes were added to the dealcoholized wine. This increased concentrations of β-phenylethyl alcohol, linalool, and geraniol, imparting the final product with high fruity and floral odors [106]. Similarly, Liguori et al. [11] developed an alcohol-free wine beverage with improved aftertaste and flavor from an OD dealcoholized white wine (0.3% v/v ethanol) by adding grape must, sodium carbonate solution, and some floral wine flavors. Furthermore, the aroma profile of a nonalcoholic beer with alcohol content of less than 0.5% was improved by first extracting aroma compounds from non-carbonated alcoholic beer (5.67% v/v ethanol) by pervaporation. Subsequently, the alcohol was removed from the alcoholic beer by spinning cone column distillation. The dealcoholized beer was then reconstituted with about 5–10% v/v of the original beer and 0.3% v/v of the extracted aroma compounds and finally carbonated, resulting in a nonalcoholic beer with improved aroma profile similar to the original beer [76]. Recently, a study was conducted at Gansu Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, China to investigate the effect of rose (
Spider plot of sensory analysis (means) performed on (a) rose wine; and (b) red wine. Different letters (a–c) represent significant differences at a significant level of 0.05. OW; original merlot wine (control), DW; dealcoholized merlot wine (control), R-RDW; rose reconstituted dealcoholized wine, P-RDW; peach reconstituted dealcoholized wine, L-RDW; and lily reconstituted dealcoholized wine.
With health risks awareness, consumer preferences are shifting toward new product offerings and alternatives, with increasing percentage of the adult population seeking lower alcohol wines more frequently. This has boosted nonalcoholic wine production and sales, with many industries and researchers already abreast with different nonalcoholic wine production techniques at the various stages of winemaking. In this chapter, we focus on the methods used for the production of NW from high-strength alcoholic wines after complete fermentation (wine post-fermentation stage). Specifically, their impact on the aroma profile and sensory characteristics of NW as well as the state-of-the-art methods of improving the aroma profile of such product. Among the methods of NW production, physical dealcoholization methods are usually used as they can achieve the best results when used on a finished wine. Also, when used in the reduction of ethanol at several percent (2–4% v/v), they can preserve the phenolic compounds, volatile compounds, and sensory quality of the wine. Furthermore, the end product usually has a taste almost similar to original wine. In contrast, the other methods discussed in this chapter can produce unbalanced wines (with high acidity, unfermented juice, and low fermentative aroma compounds) with legality issues in the case of the juice fermentable sugars dilution with water. Nevertheless, some important aroma compounds can be lost using physical dealcoholization methods in the production of NW. Therefore, subsequent aroma enhancement may be needed to compensate for the loss of important volatile compounds associated with the aroma profile of the NW during dealcoholization. Currently, there are few studies that scientifically evaluate or optimize the parameters of the production process of aroma-enhanced dealcoholized wines, which could be one of the future research areas. To date, there is limited research on new types of aroma-enhanced dealcoholized wines, though there is evidence that the use of fruit-based, herb-based, and other rarely used aromatic materials in winemaking improves the aroma profiles of wines and dealcoholized wines. Moreover, the unapproved use of fruit-based, herb-based, and other aromatic materials as an oenological practice by the European Union (EU) and the International Organization of Vine and Wine (OIV) is a major setback to their use as wine additives. Nevertheless, for the category of special and aromatized wines, they could be added. The development of novel products from dealcoholized wines reconstituted with fruit-based, herb-based, or new aroma additives represents a potential new market for the wine industry. Therefore, future development of such products will benefit not only the wine industry by producing diversified and high-quality commercial NW and wine products, but also consumers by providing options for novel aroma-enhanced dealcoholized wines with unique and pleasant aroma profiles.
The authors would like to thank the Department of Commerce of Gansu Province fund, through the wine style exploration, solidification, and typical new product development in Gansu Hexi Corridor appellation, project: GSPTJZX-2020-4, and the Ministry of Education of Gansu Province fund, through the wine production practice teaching reform and practice based on industry chain system, project: CXCYJG2021003. We would also like to thank the late professor Shun-Yu Han from the College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, and a former Dean of Gansu Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology for his help in fund acquisition and his contribution in the conception of this chapter, and express our gratitude to professor Yong-Cai Li, the dean of College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University for his support in writing this book chapter.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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The research resented can consist of primary studies on various animal biology fields such as genetics, nutrition, behavior, welfare, and animal production, to name a few. 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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