",isbn:"978-1-83969-150-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-149-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-151-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7409b2acd5150a93004300800918b736",bookSignature:"Prof. Karmen Pažek",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10548.jpg",keywords:"Lean Manufacturing, Agriculture, Production and Process, Costs Reduction, Lean Principles, Industry, Tools, Implementation, Sustainability, Modeling, Environment, Planning",numberOfDownloads:7,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 20th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 17th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 16th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 6th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 5th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Pažek is Head of the undergraduate study program Agricultural economics and rural development and Vice-dean for education. She is the author or co-author of 61 scientific papers, 6 scientific books, and 24 book chapters.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"179642",title:"Prof.",name:"Karmen",middleName:null,surname:"Pažek",slug:"karmen-pazek",fullName:"Karmen Pažek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179642/images/system/179642.jpg",biography:"Karmen Pažek achieved her Ph.D. at University of Maribor, Faculty of Agriculture in 2006. She is active as Full Professor for Farm management in the Department for Agriculture Economics and Rural Development on Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Maribor. Her research includes development of decision support tools and systems for farm management (simulation modeling, multi-criteria decision analysis, option models, investment analysis) and economics of agricultural production. She is involved in teaching activities as thesis supervisor at postgraduate study programs and involved in national and international research projects. She is author or coauthor of 61 scientific papers (including 34 papers in journals with impact factor), 6 scientific books and 24 book chapters. Currently she is Head of the undergraduate study program Agricultural economics and rural development and Vice dean for education. \r\n\r\nAcademic activities\r\nResearch:\r\n-\tFarm management\r\n-\tDecision support, simulation, forecasting, multi criteria decision making in the area of agriculture with emphasis on field crops, farm tourism and fruit producon\r\n\r\nCurrent Research work:\r\n- Financial parameters assessment based on perfect and in-perfect information in agrifood \r\n systems \r\n- Option modeling of agrifood projects\r\n-\tEfficiency assessment in farm tourism \r\n-\tEfficiency of sugar beet production systems \r\n\r\nTeaching:\r\nUndergraduate Programmes and Courses\r\n-\tFarm management I and II\r\n-\tIntroduction to decision theory\r\n-\tOrganic fam management\r\n-\tManagement od supplementary activities\r\n-\tEconomics and management of rural tourism\r\n-\tSelected issues in agricultural entrepreneurship\r\n\r\nMaster Programmes and Courses\r\n\r\n-\tResearch methods in farm management\r\n-\tDecision theory\r\n-\tProject planning and quality management\r\n-\tOrganic fam management\r\n\r\n \r\nPhD Programme and Course\r\n\r\n-\tProject management (transferable skills)\r\n-\tSelected issues in farm management",institutionString:"University of Maribor",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Maribor",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"74769",title:"Development of Integrated Lean Six Sigma-Baldrige Framework for Manufacturing Waste Minimization: A Case of NAS Foods Plc",slug:"development-of-integrated-lean-six-sigma-baldrige-framework-for-manufacturing-waste-minimization-a-c",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247865",firstName:"Jasna",lastName:"Bozic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247865/images/7225_n.jpg",email:"jasna.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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1. Introduction
Photoconducting agents and other photoelectronic compounds embedded in polymer films as nanocomposite films have attracted considerable attention, as they exhibit many useful optical and electrical properties. Because of their large chemical and structural stability, as well as their optical and electrical properties, metallic phthalocyanines (MPcs) have been introduced into polymeric matrices as nanoparticles. A polymeric matrix composite (PMC) is a compound material consisting of a polymeric primary phase, or matrix, which is embedded in a secondary phase based mainly on matrix-reinforcing fibres and particles. The polymeric matrix enhances material stability, as it limits the introduction of environmental oxygen or water, which could reduce the potential usefulness of the MPcs. Nanostructuring also permits two other goals: to achieve optical homogeneity of the polymeric composite medium and to take advantage of specific properties of MPcs in their crystalline form. MPcs are usually ordered in crystalline arrangements, as their aromatic rings stack neatly. Due to the strength of π bonds, MPcs can be accommodated in a large number of different structures, which depend on the substituents they have. The type of structure determines the physical properties of a specific MPc, as well as its applications. The main modes of MPc molecular organization that may be observed are: (i) crystals, which can be in the alpha or beta allotropic forms (the beta polymorph being thermodynamically more stable). The two types are distinguished by the angle formed between the symmetry axis and the stacking direction. Alpha and beta crystals form angles of 26.5 and 45.8°, respectively. (ii) Liquid crystals, where Pcs are substituted by flexible lipophilic chains, which allow the formation by substituents of a quasi-liquid medium surrounding the in-plane aromatic nuclei, which overlap in columns distributed over two-dimensional positions with hexagonal or tetragonal symmetries. (iii) Thin films are solid structures whose thicknesses can be neglected for many physical purposes. In applications involving interaction with electromagnetic waves, thin-film thickness must be of the same order as the wavelength of the interacting disturbance. Thin films represent the Pcs arrangement most commonly considered for electronic applications. (iv) Skewer-structured polymers are obtained by polymerizing MPcs through bridge ligands; due to the variety of ligands that may be used and their properties, the distance between molecules can be controlled rather well and, thanks to the rigidity of the unidirectional connection in this type of structures, very good electronic and optical properties can be obtained from the material.
The purpose of this work is to report the generation of MPc crystals, their dispersion into a polymeric matrix and the evaluation of their optical and electrical properties in thin-film form. In this study, a polystyrene polymeric matrix was used. The materials thus obtained were characterized by different methods, including infrared (IR) and ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, as well as scanning electron microscopy (SEM). First nanoparticles were synthesized in a molecular solution obtained from a supersaturated MPc solution. Second a solid composite was prepared by introducing pre-grown colloidal MPc particles into a polymeric matrix in a spin coating process. Spin coating leads to the production of uniform, flat, high-quality films or coatings. This process involves the application of a certain amount of nanoparticles suspended in a polymer and previously solved in an organic solvent. A small amount of the fluid is put on a substrate attached to a plate that is made to rotate at high speed, so that the resulting centripetal force spreads the suspension until the desired film thickness is achieved for the composite material. This process has four stages: deposition, centrifugation, de-centrifugation and evaporation. The evaporation of the fourth stage represents the main thinning mechanism for the film. After the film is deposited, it is annealed for 10 min at 90°C to accelerate matrix polymerization.
As some polymeric materials have conductivities similar to those of metals, they represent an important research area for the next generation of organic electronic devices. Conductivities in some polymers, such as poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), are comparable to those of indium oxide or tin, while showing significant optical transmission. In this work, the electrical conductivity of the thin films was evaluated by means of a four-point technique. The films’ electric properties and their dependence in the presence of radiation of several wavelengths were evaluated in order to determine whether this type of PMC films may have applications in the construction of electronic and optoelectronic flexible devices, such as OLEDs, photovoltaic devices and visual information devices. Additionally, the optical activation energies were evaluated by the Cody and Tauc methods from the transmittance values of the films at different thicknesses [1, 2].
2. Research method
2.1. Crystallization process
To carry out the crystallization of MPcs embedded in a polymeric matrix, the gel crystallization method was used, where a very viscous medium that favours slow crystallization is used to mix the constituent phases, mainly by diffusion. In this method, crystal growth in the gel takes place by diffusion-controlled mass transport. This procedure minimizes the sedimentation and convection effects of traditional crystallization by evaporation methods. One must take into account that the crystallization mechanism consists of three steps, i.e. solution supersaturation, formation of crystalline nuclei and crystal growth. The gel is a means to transport molecules or ions (precipitant agents, shock absorbers), with no or almost no chemical reactivity to molecules and ions that diffuse through their three-dimensional polymeric network. Gels can be classified, according to their preparation method, as chemical or physical. Chemical gels are those obtained by poly-addition processes, like those achieved from neutralization of sodium metasilicate, or by poly-condensation processes, such as those obtained from the hydrolysis reaction of tetramethoxysilane. The physical gels, including agar and agarose, are defined as those where the gelation process is carried out by the variation of some physical parameter, like temperature.
For the current study, tetramethoxysilane gel at 10% volume, with 50% of ethanol for crystallization in FePc capillary tubes, was used. Before introducing the solved gel into the capillary, this tube must be carefully washed with detergent, followed by double-distilled water and then acetone, and finally dried with warm air. The introduction of gel into the capillary is carried out by the application of air pressure with a syringe, taking care to avoid the formation of bubbles in the gel. The gel must occupy the central 4-cm section of the capillary. After the dispersion has gelled (a process which takes about 4 weeks), MPc is added through the ends of the capillary, travelling a distance of 3 cm of length. These MPcs, previously dissolved, must be added in the same way as the gel, by means of air pressure with the help of a syringe, while taking care not to form bubbles. The capillary is then sealed at the two ends and kept at a constant temperature of 22°C, until the product is formed. The conformation of the system used for gel crystallization can be shown in Figure 1, where the diagram of the tube used for the crystallization is divided into three parts, as shown in the figure: one in the middle, where the gel was initially placed and the two ends where the dissolved MPc was placed before the MPc molecules migrated to the gel zone, where they nucleated and grew. This gel-based technique provides continuous control over the crystal or particle growth process, since it becomes possible to increase the growth rate by adding a larger amount of reagents through the ends of the capillary. Moreover, it also reduces the risk of damage to the crystal or the particle that could occur because of physical instabilities in the experimental arrangement, as it avoids the direct manipulation of the grown crystals.
Figure 1.
Capillary system used for crystallization.
2.2. Thin-film deposition and characterization
Most of the advanced devices manufactured today depend, at some point of their fabrication, on the synthesis and growth of films or thin layers. For this work, thin-film deposition of FePc particles nucleated and grown in gels was carried out in air by spin coating. The material was deposited onto a Corning 7059 glass, quartz, (100) single-crystalline silicon (c-Si) 200 Ω-cm wafers and ITO-coated glass slides. The quartz and Corning glass substrates were ultrasonically degreased in warm methanol and dried under a nitrogen atmosphere. The silicon substrates were chemically etched with a p-etch solution and dried under a nitrogen atmosphere. The composition of the solution was selected to have an FePc: polystyrene ratio of 1:3 in chloroform. The solution was spin coated on the substrates in a two-step process: 2500 rpm for 30 s, followed by annealing at 393 K for 10 min. These processes, spin coating and annealing, were repeated to obtain a suitable thickness. The thicknesses of the films obtained in the present study are shown in Table 1. We also report the determination of optical parameters related to the main transitions in the UV-Vis region, as well as the fundamental energy gap calculations for these films. Devices consisting of polystyrene matrix film were placed onto Corning glass substrates with a contact conductor of indium tin oxide (ITO) by spin coating. After the deposition, in order to diffuse MPc particles into the polystyrene matrix, the films were heat treated at 393 K for 10 min. The electric conductivity at 298 K of the device was evaluated with a four-point probe; for these measurements, the substrates were ITO-coated glasses with silver strips acting as electrodes. The strips were deposited by the painting process, the current due to hole-injection from positively-biased ITO was measured and the current due to hole-injection from silver was measured by reversing the polarity of the bias voltage [3].
Sample
Film thickness (nm)
Direct Cody optical gap (eV)
Indirect Cody optical gap (eV)
Direct Tauc optical gap (eV)
Indirect Tauc optical gap (eV)
Thin Film 1
29
5.4
5.4
5.4
5.1
Thin Film 2
35
5.3
5.3
5.3
4.7
Thin Film 3
52
5.3
5.2
5.3
4.7
Thin Film 4
75
5.3
5.2
5.3
4.3
Thin Film 5
99
5.3
5.1
5.3
4.3
Thin Film 6
122
5.3
4.7
5.3
4.2
Thin Film 7
348
4.3
4.3
4.2
3.8
Table 1.
Characteristic parameters of the FePc/polystyrene films.
2.3. Instruments
For the preparation of the thin films, a Best Tools Smart Coater 200, operating at 400 W, 110 V and 50/60 Hz, was used. FT-IR measurements were obtained with a Nicolet iS5-FT spectrophotometer using KBr pellets for the powders and silicon wafers as substrates for the thin films. Film thickness values were determined by profilometry in a quartz substrate with a Bruker profilometer, model DEKTAK XT, with STYLUS, LIS 3, 2 μm RADIUS-Type B. For SEM, a ZEISS EVO LS 10 scanning electron microscope was coupled to a microanalysis system and operated at a voltage of 20 kV and a focal distance of 25 mm, using thin films on a glass substrate. The size and distribution of dispersed particles were observed using a JEOL JEM2010 transmission electron microscope (TEM), LaB6 cathode at 200 kV, 105 μA. UV-Vis spectroscopy was carried out in a Unicam spectrophotometer, model UV300, with a quartz substrate. Electric characterization was performed with a programmable voltage source, an auto-ranging pico-ammeter Keithley 4200-SCS-PK1 and a sensing station with a Next Robotix lighting controller circuit.
3. Results and discussion
The capillaries with FePc at the ends and tetramethoxysilane in the centre were allowed to stand at 22°C for 2 weeks. Subsequently, the generated particles were extracted from the capillary within the gel and were observed by SEM. Figure 2a and b show, at different magnifications, the FePc particles embedded in tetramethoxysilane. Despite being very small, they showed several structures-amorphous particles, regular particles and needles. In all cases, there was a heterogeneous distribution of particles inside the gel. The particles were removed from the tetramethoxysilane, washed and dried in a vacuum. The use of this technique demonstrated its applicability to the in situ formation of nanometric-size particles inside the gel. A preliminary TEM study of the nanometric FePc particles was also performed. Figure 2c shows a high-resolution bright field image of the FePc sample, where particles ranging in size between 2.8 and 20 nm can be seen. The shape of the particles is irregular, although some quasi-spherical forms can be discerned. A heterogeneous dispersion of the nanoparticles can also be seen. Among the advantages of using this technique for reinforcing particles in the manufacture of composite materials are that a very small sample can be used and the continuous manipulation of particles can be avoided; furthermore, it permits a continuous control of the growth process. It is difficult to determine the crystalline arrangement from TEM imaging in real space, so a wider characterization by IR spectroscopy was required. IR spectroscopy was specifically used to identify the structural nature of FePc, given that the IR spectrum depends on the crystal structure [4]. MPcs are known to have different polymorphs which are strongly identified by the IR absorption technique [4, 5]. It has been reported that the α-form of MPc can be characterized by a band around 720 cm−1, while the β-form can be characterized by a band at a greater wave number at approximately 778 cm−1 [4–7]. In Table 2, it can be observed that FePc particleswere present in the α and β crystalline structures.
Sample
ν (C─C) cm−1
ν (C═N) cm−1
ν (C─H) cm−1
α-form cm−1
β-form cm−1
FePc (particle)
1609
1336
1164, 1119, 750
724
771
Thin Film 1
1607
1331
1163, 1119, 754
-
769
Thin Film 2
1609
1336
1164, 1119, 750
724
771
Thin Film 3
1603
1330
1164, 1117, 754
720
770
Thin Film 4
1604
1330
1163, 1119, 754
720
771
Thin Film 5
1604
1331
1166, 1117, 755
721
771
Thin Film 6
1603
1331
1165, 1119, 755
719
769
Thin Film 7
1603
1331
1165, 1116, 754
719
769
Table 2.
Characteristic FT-IR bands for particles and thin films (cm−1).
Figure 2.
Gel with FePc particles (a) 1000×, (b) 7000× and (c) HRTEM micrographs.
IR spectroscopy was also used in this study to ascertain the presence of the more representative bonds in the FePc compound and to determine whether significant chemical changes took place in this compound during gel nucleation and growth. Table 2 shows the characteristic bands of the FePc particles deposited in the gel. The band appearing at 1605 ± 4 cm−1 was assigned to the C═C stretching vibration for pyrrole. The peak responsible for carbon-nitrogen stretching and bending occurs at 1332 ± 4 cm−1. The peaks located at 1164 ± 2, 1117 ± 2 and 753 ± 2 cm−1 are due to the interaction of carbon atoms with the peripheral-ring hydrogen atoms [8–10]. As mentioned above, spin coating and annealing were carried out to produce the thin films. IR spectroscopy was performed in these films in order to verify that no chemical changes occurred in the FePc when interacting with the polymeric matrix. The results reported in Table 2 indicate that the MPc did not experience any chemical changes during the deposition; on the other hand, in the thinnest film, the crystalline phase α is not observed. It is worth mentioning that the signals in the MPc film show slight changes in location. This occurs because, in thin films deposited by any method, internal stress affects intramolecular angles and bonding energies. Nevertheless, no significant changes occurred in these films, so we may conclude that the production of thin films from the FePc-polystyrene composite by the spin coating and annealing method is appropriate.
The films obtained by spin-coating were analysed by SEM. Figure 3 shows the presence of the two phases-polymeric matrix and reinforcement. During the annealing, polymerization of polystyrene generated the needles shown in the images, while the FePc appears as irregular conglomerates. It is possible to observe that the MPc particles have been embedded in the matrix homogeneously, i.e. the particles are not agglomerated or separated, which in turn indicates that polystyrene is an appropriate matrix for this kind of films.
Figure 3.
SEM images for spin-coated films (a) 83×, (b) 500× y (c) 1000×.
Optical absorption measurements are widely used to characterize the electronic properties of the thin films through the determination of parameters describing the electronic transitions, such as the band gap [11]. Additionally, the absorption spectra of different polymorphs of some Pc compounds show significant differences among each other [7, 12]. MPcs have two typical absorption bands, namely the Q-band in the visible region and the B or Soret-band in the near-ultraviolet region [13–17]. The Q-band absorption is responsible for the characteristically intense blue/green colour of the FePc and this band has been interpreted in terms of π-π* excitation between bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals [7, 18]. The electronic spectrum of the FePc particles obtained in tetramethoxysilane (Figure 4a) shows the characteristic Q-band absorption in the 578–750 nm region. The Soret-band of FePc arising from the deeper π levels → LUMO transitions is observed in the UV region at about 400–463 nm. On the other hand, the optical transmittance spectra of the thin-films deposited on quartz were recorded from 200 to 1100 nm and are shown in Figure 4b. Differences in the transmittance of the films under examination can be attributed to differences in thickness (see Table 1) according to Beer’s law [19]. When the thickness of the film increases, its transmittance diminishes. The UV-Vis spectra of FePc-polystyrene thin films exhibited a characteristic B-band in the region between 285 and 305 nm. The observation of a single peak in the Soret band resembles that observed for CoPc, NiPc and other Pc thin films [20, 21]. This may imply that the splitting structure of this peak could be affected by the orbital overlap of the Pc ring with the central metal [21], although this effect could also be attributed to the presence of the polymeric matrix which, while protecting the FePc from oxygen and environmental humidity, also alters its optical properties in the visible region of the spectrum.
Figure 4.
UV-Vis spectroscopy for: (a) FePc and (b) thin films.
Considering the above results, we further apply the Cody and the Tauc models for the determination of the band gaps of the thin films [7, 22, 23]. The Cody model provides an effective option for the determination of the optical band of thin films in terms of its thickness. It uses the dependence between the photon energy (hν) and the absorption coefficient (α). The optical gap associated with the thin films is determined by extrapolating the linear trend observed in the spectral dependence of (α/hν)n on hν. Here, n is a number characterizing the transition process, depending upon the nature of the electronic transitions responsible for the absorption; for direct transitions, n = ½, and, for indirect transitions, n = 2. The intersection with the x-axis of this linear extrapolation corresponds to the Cody optical gap for a given thickness of the film [22, 23]. The Cody optical gaps Egi and Egd for both transitions were obtained from the curves corresponding to those shown in Figure 5 for the film with the largest thickness (Thin Film 7), which was of 348 nm.
Figure 5.
Plot of (a) (α/hν)1/2 and (b) (α/hν)2 versus photon energy hν of Thin Film 7.
For this film, the optical gap value is similar for both transitions, direct and indirect (see Table 1); apparently, the high concentration of FePc related to the highest thickness could be the cause of the similar values, but this could also be related to the fact that 4.3 eV is the lower (indirect) gap of the films under examination and may be quantitatively close to the direct gap for that particular film. On the other hand, the Tauc model argues that the optical gap associated with the thin film is determined through an extrapolation of the linear trend observed in the spectral dependence of (αhν)n over a limited range of hν [1, 2]. The Tauc optical gaps for Egi and Egd were obtained from the curves corresponding (see Table 1) and they are shown in Figure 6 for the film with the largest thickness (Thin Film 7). According to Table 1 for the thicker film the smaller gap is obtained. At this thickness, the concentration of FePc is sufficient to decrease the gap and increase the overlap between Pc molecules. As the stacking between molecules increases, the electron flux increases significantly with respect to films with small thickness. On the other hand, for each of the remaining films, the indirect transition is the predominant one, with significantly lower values than the direct transition; this may be expected because of the mainly amorphous characteristics of the films and their effect on orbital overlap, despite FePc showing some α or β crystalline forms. It is important to mention that the variations in optical gaps obtained for the different films are of low significance. This may be attributed to the similar morphology of these systems, which differ only in the quantity and size of the FePc particles and the arrangement of their molecules in the polymeric matrix. Additionally, the gap depends on the number of electrons of the metal in the Pc ring [7, 19], which is the same for all these films.
Figure 6.
Plot of (αhν)1/2 and (αhν)2 versus photon energy hν of Thin Film 7.
Finally, in order to evaluate the electrical properties of the thin films, the four-point technique was employed, using the glass substrate with an ITO conducting contact. This study was performed on the sample labelled Thin Film 7, which was the one having the lowest optical gap. The film had a surface area of 2.16 cm2. Figure 7 shows the I-V characteristics of Thin Film 7 under different illumination types (yellow light, white, blue, orange, green, infrared, UV and dark [no light]). Regardless of the wavelength of the incident radiation, the thin film follows the same behaviour. At lower voltages (around 10 V), ohmic conduction is evident, while space-charge limited conductivity (SCLC) governed by an exponential trap distribution is found at higher voltages. On the other hand, the I-V characteristics display symmetric behaviour, both when (a) the current due to hole injection from positively biased ITO was measured and also when (b) the current due to hole injection from silver was measured by reversing the polarity of the bias voltage. This can be explained by a negligible energy barrier at the ITO/FePc-polystyrene and FePc-polystyrene/Ag interfaces leading to a SCL bulk current when either the ITO or silver electrode is positively biased [24–26].
Figure 7.
I-V characteristics of Thin Film 7: (a) ITO is positively biased and (b) ITO is negatively biased.
4. Conclusions
Different types of particles and crystalline polymorphs of FePc can be obtained with tetramethoxysilane. This blend of structures can be used to produce thin films of a polystyrene matrix in a FePc matrix-reinforcing base by spin coating. Upon examination of the resulting films by SEM, a homogeneous particle distribution is found within the polystyrene matrix. IR spectral analysis confirms that FePc is rich in α and β polymorphs. None of the MPc samples suffers chemical degradation during the thin-film deposition and annealing processes. The UV-Vis spectra of the particles in tetramethoxysilane show two well-defined absorption bands, namely, the Soret and the Q-bands. The exact position of these bands depends on their particular structure, metal complexation, and peripheral substituents. However, only the Soret band appears in the UV-Vis spectra of the thin films, which can be attributed to the presence of the polymeric matrix. The optical gap was calculated from the Cody and Tauc models and the information obtained from the absorption spectra indicates that these films absorb light on either side of the blue-green region. Since these FePc compounds absorb light on either side of the blue-green spectrum, they could be used as photosensitive materials in practical applications. The electrical conductivity of the films was evaluated and ohmic characteristics were found at low voltages, while an SCLC-type behaviour can be observed at higher voltages. Bias inversion in the I-V measurements does not have a significant effect on the thin-film electric transport characteristics.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the technical support of M.I. Mariel Leyva-Esqueda (Universidad Anáhuac) for technical help. María Elena Sánchez-Vergara gratefully acknowledges the financial support of Universidad Anáhuac México under grant INNADBSEVM140129141.
\n',keywords:"thin films, spin coating, metallophthalocyanines, optical properties, electrical properties",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/54217.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/54217.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54217",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54217",totalDownloads:809,totalViews:164,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 28th 2016",dateReviewed:"January 23rd 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 21st 2017",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this work, thin-film deposition of FePc particles nucleated and grown in gels was carried out in air by spin coating. The surface morphology and structure of these films were analysed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The optical parameters have been investigated using spectrophotometric measurements of transmittance in the wavelength range of 200–1100 nm. The absorption spectra recorded in the UV-Vis region for the deposited samples showed a single band, namely the B or Soret band in the region between 285 and 305 nm. The dependence of the Tauc and Cody optical gaps associated with the thickness of the film was determined and found to be around 4.2 eV from direct transitions and 3.8 eV from non-direct transitions. The films’ electric properties and their dependence in the presence of radiation of several wavelengths were evaluated. At lower voltages, ohmic conduction is evident, while space-charge limited conductivity (SCLC) governed by an exponential trap distribution is to be found at higher voltages.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/54217",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/54217",book:{slug:"phthalocyanines-and-some-current-applications"},signatures:"María Elena Sánchez-Vergara, Angelina Romo Ubeda, Enrique\nGaribay Ochoa and José Ramón Alvarez-Bada",authors:[{id:"52357",title:"Dr.",name:"María Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez",fullName:"María Elena Sanchez",slug:"maria-elena-sanchez",email:"elena.sanchez@anahuac.mx",position:null,institution:null},{id:"199810",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez Bada",fullName:"Jose Ramón Alvarez Bada",slug:"jose-ramon-alvarez-bada",email:"ramon.alvarez@anahuac.mx",position:null,institution:null},{id:"204770",title:"BSc.",name:"Angelina",middleName:null,surname:"Romo Ubeda",fullName:"Angelina Romo Ubeda",slug:"angelina-romo-ubeda",email:"angieromo13@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"204771",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Garibay Ochoa",fullName:"Enrique Garibay Ochoa",slug:"enrique-garibay-ochoa",email:"e.garibay.8a@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Research method",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Crystallization process",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Thin-film deposition and characterization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Instruments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mok T.M., O’Leary S.K. The dependence of the Tauc and Cody optical gaps associated with hydrogenated amorphous silicon on the film thickness: αl experimental limitations and the impact of curvature in the Tauc and Cody plots. Journal of Applied Physics. 2007;102:113525. DOI: 10.1063/1.2817822.'},{id:"B2",body:'O’Leary S. K., Lim P. K. On determining the optical gap associated with an amorphous semiconductor: a generalization of the Tauc model. Solid State Communications. 1997;104(1):17–21. 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DOI: 10.1088/0022-3727/37/5/006.'},{id:"B14",body:'Ottaviano L., Di Nardo S., Lozzi L., Passacantando M., Picozzi P., Santucci S. Thin and ultra-thin films of nickel phthalocyanine grown on highly oriented pyrolitic graphite: an XPS, UHV-AFM and air tapping-mode AFM study. Surface Science. 1997;373(2–3):318–332. DOI: 10.1016/s0039-6028(96)01179.'},{id:"B15",body:'Guo L., Ma G., Liu Y., Mi J., Qian S., Qiu L. Optical and non-linear optical properties of vanadium oxide phthalocyanine films. Applied Physics B. 2014;74(3):253–257. DOI: 10.1007/s003400200801.'},{id:"B16",body:'Djurišić A.B., Kwong C.Y., Lau T.W., Guo W.L., Li E.H., Liu Z.T., Kwok H.S., Lam L.S.M., Chan W.K. Optical properties of copper phthalocyanine. Optics Communications. 2002;205(1–3):155–162. DOI: 10.1016/s0030-4018(02)01311-1.'},{id:"B17",body:'Andzelm J., Rawlett A.M., Orlicki J.A., Snyder J.F., Baldridge K.K. Optical properties of phthalocyanine and naphthalocyanine compounds. 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Fourier-transform infrared and UV-Vis spectroscopes of nickel phthalocyanine thin films. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2005;92(1):185–189. DOI: 10.1016/j.matchemphys.2005.01.008.'},{id:"B22",body:'Cody G., Tiedje T., Abeles B., Brooks B., Goldstein Y. Disorder and the optical-absorption edge of hydrogenated amorphous silicon. Physical Review Letters. 1981;47(20):1480–1483. DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.47.1480.'},{id:"B23",body:'Cody G.D. Chapter 2 The Optical Absorption Edge of a-Si:H. Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon-Optical Properties. Semiconductors and Semimetals. 1984;21(Part B):11–82. DOI: 10.1016/s0080-8784(08)62910-5.'},{id:"B24",body:'Anthopoulos T.D., Shafai T.S. SCLC measurements in nickel phthalocyanine thin films. Physica Status Solidi (A). 2000;181(2):569–574. DOI: 10.1002/1521-396X (200010).'},{id:"B25",body:'Gravano S., Hassan A.K., Gould R.D. Effects of annealing on the trap distribution of cobalt phthalocyanine thin films. International Journal of Electronics. 1991;70(3):477–484. DOI:10.1080/00207219108921297.'},{id:"B26",body:'Hassan A.K., Gould R.D. The interpretation of current density-voltage and activation energy measurements on freshly prepared and heat treated nickel phthalocyanine thin films. International Journal of Electronics. 1993;74(1):59–65. DOI:10.1080/00207219308925813.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"María Elena Sánchez-Vergara",address:"elena.sanchez@anahuac.mx",affiliation:'
School of Engineering, The Anahuac University Mexico, State of Mexico, Mexico
School of Engineering, The Anahuac University Mexico, State of Mexico, Mexico
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Male reproductive function can be divided into three subdivision: (i) hormonal balance of male reproductive function (ii) spermatogenesis, development of sperm; and (iii) fulfill of male sexual act.
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Spermatogenesis begins within the seminiferous tubules of testis through the successive mitotic, meiotic and post meiotic phases which results in the formation of spermatozoon, the end product of this process. To expand the spermatogonial population, the germ line stem cell during the mitotic phase undergo a series of division which culminates into two meiotic division and formation of haploid spermatids without the replication of DNA. For the development of male gametes these two phases are very significant. During this phase the remodeling of spermatids occurs extensively into sperm by acrosome formation, condensation of nucleus, development of flagella and loss of cytoplasm. The head and flagellum are the two-substantial component of sperm. These two components are joined together by a connective piece. The head carries the nucleus, cytoskeleton element and cytoplasm. It comprises various types of enzymes homogeneous to lysosomes of a typical cell, including hyaluronidase (having the ability to digest proteoglycan filaments of tissue) and powerful proteolytic enzymes which can digest proteins having an important role in the process of oocyte fertilization. The flagellum is divided into three regions: mid piece, principle piece and terminal piece. A central complex of microtubules covered by outer dense forms the axoneme. Mitochondria are present in the mid piece which surrounds the outer dense fibers and neighboring axoneme. The principle part of the flagellum is mostly comprised by the existence of fibrous sheath which surrounds the dense fibers and axoneme. In higher vertebrates these dense fibers and fibrous sheath are developed due to internal fertilization and these are cytoskeletal material of sperm flagellum [1]. The plasma membrane as in sperm head surrounds the flagellum tightly and contains scattered cytoplasm. Invertebrate’s sperm usually have an acrosome in the head region and mitochondria and an axoneme in the flagellar region but the accessory or additional cytoskeletal elements are absent [2]. To achieve the fertilization the acrosome, have an enzyme which plays a key role to penetrate into egg. The flagellum of the sperm contains the source of energy that generates sperm motility required to reach the egg. All these characteristics of sperm are necessary to deliver the genetic material exists in sperm nucleus to egg. After that, zygote is formed by the fusion of haploid pronuclei of male and female, and thus development initiates. In most mammals, the nucleus of haploid sperm carries the sex chromosome decides the sex of resulting animals [3]. The genome of both maternal and paternal parents is essentially required to proceed the normal development, generally due to distinctive genes imprinting in males and females during gametogenesis [4, 5].
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This chapter gives center of attention on the unique features of mammalian spermatozoa with especial consideration to molecules presently known that enrich to the structure and function of sperm. The main topics contemplated are; physiology of male sexual organ, spermatogenesis, sperm count, heritable effect on human sperm structure, regulation of sperm motility, effect of oxidative stress on male reproductive system, sources of reactive oxygen species in seminal plasma, physiological role of ROS in seminal plasma, consequence of Oxidative Stress on male Reproductive System, management and prevention of oxidative stress, correlation between biology of male reproduction and sleep and role of inflammation in infertility.
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2. Physiology of male sexual organ
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The favorable outcome of male reproductive system depends mainly upon the cohesive function of vast array of tissues. It comprises of assembly of sperm in the testes, sperm maturation in epididymis, secretion of seminal fluid by addition sex glands, deliver sperm into the reproductive tract of female, erection of penis, emission and final ejaculation. Fertilization of the egg requires the motility of sperm, successful capacitation and acrosomal reaction. These entire needs are dependent directly or indirectly on the secretion of testosterone hormone by the Leydig cells. The testis of male is comprised of up to 900 coiled seminiferous tubules, in which the sperm is formed and each seminiferous tubule exceeds up to 1 meter long in average. The sperm then discharged into one more coiled tube which is about 6-meter long known as epididymis. The epididymis enlarges into vasa deferens that infiltrates into prostate gland. There are two seminal vesicles and the material (Is secreted) from both the ampulla and seminal vesicles. The excretion from both the prostate gland and seminal vesicles enters into the ejaculatory duct through the body of prostate gland and then vacant into the internal urethra. Mucus released from urethral gland and more from bilateral bulbourethral glands which is located near to urethra is supplied to urethra [6].
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3. Spermatogenesis
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The process of spermatogenesis takes place in each of the testis tubules. In this process the spermatozoa are produced by the population of germ cells (spermatogonia) through process of mitosis and meiosis. This entire spermatogenesis process starts during the onset of puberty and last till the old age. This process involved various stages starting with germ cells formation in the germinal epithelium and followed by continuous development into primary and secondary spermatocytes. These spermatocytes finally developed into functional spermatozoa. Spermatogenesis is extremely well-ordered process; male germ cells proliferate and differentiate rapidly and the modulation of spermatogenesis occurs at the extra testicular and intra testicular level and can be dispersed ubiquitously. As aforementioned, spermatogonia originated from the primordial germ cells that migrate into the genital ridge of the indifferent gonads, during embryo development and are present in two to three layers in seminiferous tubules. At puberty, the spermatogonia starts mitotic division, proliferate and differentiate continuously to form mature sperm cells [7] (Figure 1).
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Figure 1.
General characteristics of germ.
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3.1 Steps of spermatogenesis
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The process of spermatogenesis starts at an average age of 12–13 years, continues throughout the remaining life, and markedly decreases during the older age. During the initial stage of spermatogenesis, the spermatogonia shift toward the central lumen of seminiferous tubules. The Sertoli cells are part of a seminiferous tubule and support the process of spermatogenesis. Its main function is to nourish the developing sperm cells throughout the stages of spermatogenesis. Sertoli cells control the entry and exit of nutrients, hormones and other substances into the tubules of the testis. The Sertoli cells are also responsible for establishing and maintaining the spermatogonial stem cell niche, which ensures the renewal of stem cells and the differentiation of spermatogonia into mature germ cells, that progress stepwise through the long process of spermatogenesis, ending in the release of spermatozoa.
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3.2 Meiosis
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Spermatogonia which are able to pass across Sertoli cell layer change and grow in size progressively into primary spermatocytes. The two secondary spermatocytes are formed by meiotic division from the primary spermatocytes. These secondary spermatocytes, also divide to produce spermatids that transform into sperm after a period of time. During the process of spermatocyte to spermatid stage transformation, the 23 pair of chromosomes (46 chromosome total) of spermatocytes also divides, and as a result, 23 chromosomes go to one spermatid and the rest 23 chromosomes to the other spermatid. It takes about 74 days to complete the entire process of spermatogenesis, from spermatogonia to spermatozoa [6] Figure 2. Suggested: Round and elongated spermatids will differentiate into mature spermatozoa, by the process of spermiogenesis.
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Figure 2.
Steps of spermatogenesis.
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4. Sperm motility
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Motility of sperm cells is provided by the back-and-forth movement of tail and it results from rhythmic longitudinal sliding motion between the anterior and posterior tubules [8]. Different molecular markers of sperm, such as mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), DNA fragmentations and ROS have presently concluded as reliable estimators of sperm function that can be used to evaluate the quality of the sperm [9]. Due to the overloading of ROS, osmatic stress is increased which in turn decreases the MMP and increases the fragmentation of DNA, affecting the viability of sperm [10]. It is broadly accepted that motility of sperm mainly depends upon ATP which is produced by the mitochondria. The latest is located in mid piece of spermatozoa, which explains the correlation between motility and mitochondrial membrane potential [11, 12].
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4.1 Sperm count: how much is considered normal?
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The spermatozoon is the cell of male reproductive system. Sperm count, also known as sperm concentration, is the parameter to measure the number of sperm cells in the ejaculate. During each coitus the quantity of ejaculated semen in average, is about 3.5 milliliters, and 120 million sperm might be present in average in each milliliter of semen. However, in normal males this count can vary from 35 to 200 million. In several milliliters of each ejaculated semen, an average of total of 400 million sperms might be present. When the sperm count is less than 20 million in 1 milliliter (ml), it might point to infertility. A relatively high sperm count might elevate the chances of conception [6].
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There are several causes of infertility in males such as genetic factors like cryptorchidism, congenital absence of vas deferens, karyotype abnormalities and some acquired factors like trauma, varicocele, medication, urogenital infection, inflammation, testicular torsion and idiopathic factors.
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Semen deficiencies are termed as
Oligospermia or oligozoospermia—lower than normal number of spermatozoa in semen.
Aspermia—complete lack of semen.
Azoospermia—absence of sperm cells in semen.
Hypospermia—reduction in the seminal volume.
Teratospermia—abnormal morphology of sperm cells.
Asthenozoospermia—reduced motility of sperm.
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4.1.1 Oligospermia
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Oligospermia, is one of male infertility causes, defined as low concentration of sperm cells in the ejaculate. Semen with decreased concentration of sperm may often depict considerable abnormalities in morphology and motility of spermatozoa. Low sperm count may be due to an endocrinopathy such as varicocele, prolactinoma or it may be a genetic cause. In about 6 and 15% of patients with severe low sperm count or azoospermia (respectively), microdelitions can be found in azoospermic factor (AZF) region of Y chromosome. AZF refers to one of several proteins or their genes, which are coded from the AZF region located in the human male Y chromosome. Deletions in this region are associated with inability to produce sperm. Subregions within the AZF region are AZFa, AZFb and AZFc, located in the long arm of Y chromosome [13]. By cytogenetic analysis, chromosomal abnormalities were detected in 2% of men having low sperm count and 15–20% with no sperm count. These abnormalities include translocation of nonsex chromosome and Klinefelter syndrome [14].
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4.1.2 Asthenozoospermia
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Asthenozoospermia, low sperm motility, could be derived due to:
Inborn metabolic deficiency (such as Kartagener’s syndrome or immotile cilia syndrome—ICS).
Abnormal ultrastructure of the sperm flagellum: as primary ciliary dyskinesia; spermatozoa consist of altered peri-axonemal structure but have normal axoneme. Densed individual fibers are extended abnormally along the axoneme, location and number of longitudinal columns of fibrous sheath are modified and change in the order of termination of these structures [15].
Sperm with the following syndromes: abnormal axoneme, partial or complete lacking of dynein (a family of cytoskeletal motor proteins that move along microtubules in cells and convert the chemical energy stored in ATP to mechanical work), lack of central sheath and lack of inner arms might be unable to show motility;
Necroozospermia—binding of antisperm antibodies or an increase in white blood cell concentration in the ejaculate, which later results in the overproduction of reactive oxygen species, might lead to damages in the spermatozoa [16].
Dysplasia of fibrous sheath spermatozoa: spermatozoa with very short, thick, rigid and immotile tail, mainly due to disorganized and hyperplastic fibrous sheath [17, 18].
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5. Heritable effect on human sperm structure
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The hereditary condition which causes the defects in the flagella of sperm is termed as Kartagener’s syndrome, immotile cilia syndrome (ICS), or primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD). It often leads to chronic respiratory problems, male sterility and situs inversus [19]. These states are linked directly or indirectly with the autosomal recessive traits. The aforementioned conditions make the flagella unable to show normal movement. Sperm with these syndromes have abnormal axoneme lacking dynein arm partially or completely, lack of central sheath, lack of inner arms [20]. Due to variety of defects presented in sperm and cilia, many genes are mutated and contribute to the syndrome [21]. Another flagellar defect characterized by severe asthenozoospermia is familiar as dysplasia of fibrous sheath. In this type of disorder, the sperm have disorganized and hyperplastic fibrous sheath, and very short, thick, rigid and immotile tail [17, 18]. Another flagellar defect which appears in sperm cells of infertile men is known as flagellar dyskinesia [15]. This type of defect was observed in brothers and has been suggested that it arises due to the genetic abbreviation [22]. The sperm consist of altered peri-axonemal structure but have normal axoneme. Densed individual fibers are extended abnormally along the axoneme location and number of longitudinal columns of fibrous sheath are modified and else, there are changes in the order of termination of these structures [15].
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6. Regulation of sperm motility
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Sperm depicts two kinds of motility:
Progressive motility—typical for newly ejaculated sperm.
Spermatozoa acquire the ability of progressive motility in the epididymis. Relatively symmetrical motion of flagella which leads to forward movement has been shown in this type of motility [23].
Hyperactivated motility—after sometimes either in reproductive tract of female or in culture, sperm achieves the hyperactivated motility that is characterized by whip like beating of flagellum, asymmetrical flagellar bends and circular swimming [24].
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6.1 Activation of motility
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It is broadly acquired that precious motility of sperm is the chief component of fertility of male. During the beginning of progressive motility and origin of hyper activation of sperm, key factors are involved. These key factors are calcium (Ca2+), cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and bicarbonate (HCO3\n−). Olfactory and GABA receptors are the possible candidates which trigger the progressive and hyperactivated motility of sperm.
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6.2 Role of calcium in motility
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Calcium plays a key role in sperm function by different aspects. Recent studies have been demonstrated that in knockout mice there are at least four components participate in the intracellular regulation of calcium level and initiation of sperm motility. These are CatSper1, CatSper2, Cav2.3 and PMCA4. CatSper1 are localized in the principle piece of sperm and it is a voltage gated Ca2+ channels of the testis. Lacking or any mutation in CatSper1 gene reduces the progressive motility and causes infertility. A sperm cell that lacks the CatSper1 showed progressive motility but failed to develop hyperactivated motility [25]. CatSper2 present in flagellum shows similarity to CatSper1 and it is also a voltage-gated ion channel. Sperm of mice having knockout CatSper2 gene depict decreased flagellar amplitude and also failed to develop hyperactivated motility [26]. Disruption of gene for PMCA4, that have Ca2+/calmodulin dependent ATPase activity involve in efflux of Ca2+, also causes infertility in men. In developing sperm cells and sperm flagellum the cyclic nucleotide gated Ca2+ channels are present. The role of these channels is to regulate the influx of calcium in various micro domains of the flagella [26].
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6.3 cAMP and motility
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During sperm motility regulation, cAMP is the second key messenger. Adenylate cyclase converts the ATP into cAMP. Thus, the level of cAMP increases and in turn activates the cAMP dependent kinase A (PKA) which phosphorylates the serine and threonine residues in the flagellum, which ultimately causes the phosphorylation of tyrosine residues in the proteins [27, 28]. In most cells the adenylyl cyclase is activated by G protein in response to external stimuli. In mouse sperm the plasma membrane bounds (mACs) activated by G protein take a part in the acrosome reaction, and in chemotaxis and hyperactivation in human sperm [29]. It was demonstrated that HCO3\n− and Ca2+ are inculpated in cAMP regulated activation of sperm motility. The activity of soluble adenylyl cyclase is augmented by HCO3\n− with increased activation of enzymes (adenylyl cyclase) and by reducing the substrate inhibition that happens at higher concentration of ATP-Mg2+. Due to low level of HCO3\n−, activity of soluble adenylyl cyclase would be reduced in sperm by substrate inhibition stored in epididymis [30].
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6.4 PKA and motility
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PKA causes the phosphorylation of tyrosine residue of flagellar proteins. The proteins anchoring with PKA site (AKAP3, AKAP4 and TAKAP-80) in the fibrous sheath, point out that the main role of this structure is to bind PKA in the principle piece of flagellum [31]. Regulatory and catalytic subunits are present in PKA holoenzyme. Four genes (RIα, RIβ, RIIα and RIIβ) are present in regulatory subunits (R subunit) in human and mouse; three catalytic (C subunit) Cα, Cβ and Cγ in human, and two C subunit Cα and Cβ in mice. The cAMP binding site are present in R and C subunits. C subunits is released when cAMP binds to R subunits and their catalytic site is activated by cAMP. The R and C subunits are involved in the motility of sperm (Figure 3).
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Figure 3.
Signalling pathway showing regulation of motility of sperm in mammals.
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7. Effect of oxidative stress on male reproductive system
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Oxidative stress is a state which causes disproportion between systemic reactive oxygen species and detoxifying capability of biological system to neutralize the reactive intermediates, also called antioxidant defenses. Spermatozoa have antioxidant defense mechanism that quench the ROS and therefore protects the cells of gonads and mature spermatozoa from oxidative damage [32]. Statistics from United States depicted that the major cause of male infertility is ROS. In 30–40% of infertile men’s seminal plasma, there is an increase in the level of ROS [33]. In spermatozoa ROS are generated by two methods.
At the level of sperm plasma membrane—by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase system.
At the level of mitochondria—by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-dependent oxidoreductase reaction [34].
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The production of ROS at the level of mitochondria is the chief source. Large concentration of mitochondria is present in spermatozoa because of a constant need of energy to spermatozoa for motility. In semen, presence of nonfunctional spermatozoa considerably increases the level of ROS that in turn impair the function of mitochondria and motility of sperm. In human spermatozoa, ROS which is produced in large concentration is O2\n−. It reacts with itself to generate H2O2 by dismutation. H2O2 and O2\n− generates most destructive and reactive OH− by Haber-Weiss reaction in the presence of iron and copper. OH− affects the function of sperm by disrupting the fluidity of membrane [35, 36]. Recent studies depicting that O2 production in spermatozoa showed the presence of calcium dependent NADPH oxidase also called NOX5 has been residing in acrosomal and midpiece region of spermatozoa [37]. Initially the NOX5 resides in human testis. It is activated upon binding of calcium to its cytosolic domain and causes conformational changes in cells [35]. ROS is generated during the normal metabolism of cells. Under physiological conditions the mitochondrial respiration is the chief source of superoxide anion radicals. Quality of sperm and function is affected by the high concentration of ROS and is potentially toxic.
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8. Sources of reactive oxygen species in seminal plasma
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The production of ROS in the seminal plasma originated from different endogenous and exogenous pathways. Ejaculate of human contains varieties of mature and immature cells, epithelial cells, leukocytes and round cells. Of these, leukocytes, immature spermatozoa, macrophages and neutrophils are considered to be the main endogenous source. Others life style practices as: excessive alcohol consumption, smoking and environmental factors (e.g., toxins and radiations) may contribute to exogenous ROS production [38, 39, 40].
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8.1 Endogenous sources of ROS
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8.1.1 Leukocytes
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Peroxidase-positive leukocytes include polymorphonuclear leukocytes in about 50–60% and macrophages 20–30%. Peroxidase-positive leukocytes originates in large proportion from prostrate and seminal vesicles of male. These main sources of ROS are activated by different intracellular and extracellular responses such as inflammation and infection. The latest can produce 100 times reactive oxygen species than normal and also increase the secretion of NADPH through hexose monophosphate shunt [41, 42]. There is a decrease in the level of antioxidant superoxide dismutase and an increase in the concentration of proinflammatory cytokines, which can lead to the increased level of ROS and respiratory burst ultimately leading to formation of oxidative species OS. OS will than cause the damage of sperm if the concentration of seminal leukocytes is abnormally high [43]. Although in phagocytic clearance and immuno surveillance of unhealthy (abnormal) sperm, leukocytes and ROS play a decisive role. Inflammatory changes are depicted in the testes of smokers due to increased concentration of leukocyte activated free radicals. These leukocytes overcome the protective action of antioxidants and lead to oxidative stress. OS causes severe single and double stranded breaks in DNA by changing sperm chromatin integrity, modification of bases, deletions and rearrangement of chromosome [7].
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8.1.2 Immature spermatozoa
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During the process of spermatogenesis, the developing spermatozoa expel their cytoplasmic content to prepare itself for the process of fertilization. Due to the arrest in spermiogenesis, the abnormal spermatozoa retained excess of cytoplasm around the midpiece. This condition is referred as excess residual cytoplasm (ERC). By virtue of hexose monophosphate shunt the ERC activates the NADPH system, which is used as a source of electron by spermatozoa for production of ROS and OS [30]. Therefore, ERC affects the morphology, motility and fertilization potential of sperm which can lead to infertility [44].
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8.1.3 Varicocele
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Varicocele is a condition of abnormal enlargement of vein in scrotum, i.e., in the plexus pampiniformis situated throughout the spermatic cord. It is considered to be an etiology of male infertility, because varicocele is found in 19–40% of male partners in infertile couples. Current evidence suggested that oxidative stress is the central element contributing to infertility in men with varicocele [45]. Varicocele arises when damage occurs in valves into the spermatic vein(s) resulting in dysfunction and retrograde blood flow into scrotum from abdomen creating an inappropriate environment for development of sperm. Several studies reveal that oxidative stress also leads to varicocele in male, which occurs due to decrease in the concentration of antioxidants. It results in the deterioration of structure of cell membrane and in the DNA integrity. Nitric oxide is a lipophilic molecule which is presented in the spermatic vein of varicocele patient. Both NO and superoxide might cause a damage in spermatozoa [46].
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8.2 Exogenous sources of ROS
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8.2.1 Radiation
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Radiation, a natural source of energy, has a considerable effect on humans. Several studies have been depicted that radiation emitted from mobile phone increases the concentration of ROS in human semen resulting in impaired sperm quality [47, 48]. In vitro studies showed that in human, spermatozoa electromagnet radiation urges the production of ROS and damages of DNA. These changes further diminish the vitality and motility of sperm cells [49]. Due to the presence of varieties of charged molecules in the cytosol the flow of electron along the internal membrane of cells can be negatively affected by these radio frequency electromagnet radiations, and therefore interferes with the functions of the cell and the organelles [50].
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8.2.2 Toxins
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Toxins which are discharged from industrial products and structural materials accumulates in the body of human and increases the production of ROS in the testes. This might result in the negative impact on the structure and function of sperm [51]. Phthalates which are found in the plastics objects used for industrial and domestic’s purpose have been found to impair the spermatogenesis process and causes DNA damages in spermatozoa. Moreover, it has been studied that those laborers who were continuously exposed to metal toxins such as chromium, mercury, manganese and cadmium were more probable to have diminished quality of sperm, sperm count, density and volume [50].
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8.2.3 Smoking
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Tobacco is familiar to be one of the major causes of worldwide death. It has been reported that more than 4000 toxic chemical compounds have been present in cigarettes which includes nitrosamines, alkaloids and inorganic molecules. In the semen of smokers some of those chemicals were depicted to be the source of imbalance between antioxidant and ROS [41]. This disproportion between the ROS level and antioxidant adversely affects the overall quality of semen. It has been depicted that smoking increases by 48% the concentration of seminal leukocytes and 107% the ROS level in semen [52]. Due to the substantial increase in the level of 8-OHdG which is also a biomarker of oxidative damage, a decrease of the antioxidant level in seminal plasma, like vitamin C and vitamin E occurs, thus causing more risk of oxidative damage [40]. A study performed on smokers found an increased concentration of lead and cadmium in their semen and blood, which led to increase the production of ROS with a decrease in the motility of the sperm [53]. Moreover, the spermatozoa of smoker were substantially more prone to acid mediated denaturation as compare to nonsmoker spermatozoa which led to DNA strand break [54]. Furthermore, it was shown that prolonged smoking damages sperm DNA and apoptosis which results in male infertility.
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8.2.4 Alcohol consumption
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Alcohol is widely known as the inducer of ROS and it interferes with the antioxidant defense mechanism of the body, mainly in the liver. Acetaldehyde which is the byproduct of ethanol metabolism, may react with protein and lipids forming the ROS, and may lead to damages in DNA, protein and lipids at the molecular level. The excessive consumption of alcohol is linked with a decrease in the concentration of normal sperm in asthenozoospermia patients [55] (Figure 4).
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Figure 4.
Demonstration of various factors responsible for male infertility (origin).
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9. Physiological role of ROS in seminal plasma
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Physiological level of ROS plays a significant task in the physiological process such as capacitation, hyperactivation, acrosomal reaction, fusion of sperm and oocyte in order to assure the proper fertilization [56].
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9.1 Capacitation
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When spermatozoa pass the epididymis, it is supposed to be mature and their activity is checked by different inhibitory factors which are produced by genital duct epithelia. However, at that time sperm is unable to fertilize the ova. Ejaculated mammalian spermatozoa should reside in the female genital tract for several hours before gaining their fertilizability. In humans however, sperm must move out of the seminal plasma immediately after ejaculation and appear in the fallopian tube within minutes. As soon as sperm cells are moving out of the ejaculate and passing the cervical mucus, they undergo several biochemical changes collectively called capacitation. These changes involve molecules absorbing on, or integrating into, the sperm plasma membrane during epididymal maturation. The removal or alteration of these molecules prepares the sperm toward successful binding, penetration and fertilization with the egg [57]. During the process of capacitation a production of ROS occurs in spermatozoa that initiates various molecular modifications. Firstly, there is an increase in cAMP; in various organisms and varieties of life processes, this cAMP pathway is necessary because it might activate various enzymes and might regulate the expression of genes [58]. cAMP activates the protein kinase A and causes the phosphorylation of PKA substrate like arginine, serine and threonine. This successively leads to the phosphorylation of MEK, threonine-glutamate-tyrosine, and tyrosine phosphorylation of fibrous sheath proteins. This cAMP increase makes the hyperactivation of sperm. Only the hyperactivated spermatozoa undergo acrosomal reaction due to increased motility and acquired all those properties which are necessary for fertilization [59, 60].
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9.2 Hyperactivation
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Hyperactivation is the peculiar condition of sperm motility. The hyperactivation process is significant for lucrative fertilization and it regarded a subcategory of capacitation. Hyperactivated sperm have characteristics of asymmetric flagellar movement, high amplitude, side to side head displacement and also a nonlinear motility [61].
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9.3 Acrosome reaction
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Hyperactivated spermatozoon binds to zona pellucida after passing the cumulus oophorus, starting the exocytotic discharge of hyaluronidase and proteolytic enzymes, sperm acrosome reaction (AR) induced by oocyte investment, is a prerequisite event for the spermatozoa. It is obligatory for the sperm cell to enable to penetrate the zona pellucida (ZP) and to fuse with the oocyte. Progesterone (P4), secreted by cumulus cells, is an important cofactor for the occurrence of this exocytosis event. The AR results from the fusion between outer acrosomal and plasma membranes leading to inner acrosomal membrane exposure. Binding of agonists, P4 or ZP3 glycoprotein, to plasma membrane sperm receptors activates intraspermatic signals and enzymatic pathways involved in the AR. Among the proteins or glycoproteins described as potential sperm receptors for ZP, Gi/Go protein-coupled and tyrosine kinase receptors have been described. ZP- and P4-promoted AR is mediated by an obligatory intracellular calcium increase, appearing first at the acrosome equatorial segment and spreading throughout the head. The plasma membrane channels involved in calcium entry are operated by a plasma membrane depolarization and protein phosphorylation mediated by protein kinase C and tyrosine kinase protein. Part of the calcium increase could also be due to intracellular store release through nucleotide (cAMP)-gated channels. Besides adenylate cyclase and phospholipase C activations, intracellular calcium increase also stimulates phospholipase A2 and actin depolymerization, leading to membrane fusion [62]. The sperm cell crosses the physical barrier of zona pellucida and within few minutes it fuses with the oocytes. ROS is involved in the action of the spermatozoa by phosphorylating three plasma membrane proteins [63].
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9.4 Sperm-oocyte fusion
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High concentration of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) plays a considerable part in maintaining the fluidity of the membrane of spermatozoa. ROS enhances the fluidity of membrane and sperm-oocyte fusion rate, during the process of capacitation and acrosomal reaction. Throughout the entire capacitation process, ROS hinder the protein tyrosine phosphate activity and arrest the dephosphorylation and turnoff the phospholipase A2. PLA2 increases the fluidity of the membrane by cleaving the secondary fatty acid from the triglycerol backbone of membrane phospholipid [64, 65].
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10. Management and prevention of oxidative stress
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Sperm DNA of healthy males is protected from osmotic stress by two mechanisms;
Tightly packed and coiled DNA so that the genetic material is less exposed to ROS [66].
Production of ROS is minimized by natural antioxidant present in seminal plasma and spermatozoa.
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Enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidant like superoxide dismutase (SOD), Catalase, Vitamin C, Vitamin E and Carotenoids react with ROS and neutralize it, thus prevent the onset of osmatic stress and also preserves the function of sperm [67] (Table 1).
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Antioxidant
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Mechanism of action
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Effect
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Superoxide dismutase
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Neutralizes the superoxide anions
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Prevents lipid peroxidation.
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GSH/GPX
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Scavenges the free radicals
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Prevents the lipid peroxidation and enhance the sperm membrane characteristics.
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Catalase
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Splits down the H2O2 into H2O and O2.
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Also arrests the lipid peroxidation.
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Vitamin C
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Counteracts free radicals
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Protects the viability and motility of sperm.
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Vitamin E
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Counteracts free radicals
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Blocks the lipid peroxidation and enhance the activity of other antioxidant.
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Carotenoids
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Suppresses the singlet molecular O2.
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Blocks the lipid peroxidation.
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Carnitine
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Acts as energy source and neutralize the free radical.
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Prevents the damage of DNA and lipid peroxidation.
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Cysteines
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Elevates the concentration of GSH synthesized.
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Inhibits lipid peroxidation.
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Pentoxifylline
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Prevents the breakdown of cAMP and quench the formation of proinflammatory factors.
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Inhibits lipid peroxidation.
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Table 1.
Procedure of action and consequences of different antioxidants.
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11. Correlation between biology of male reproduction and sleep
\n
The whole process of spermatogenesis is controlled by hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis. Hypothalamus secretes GnRH that stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete LH and FSH. FSH act on the testicular tissue and LH triggers the secretion of testosterone in the testis by Leydig cells. Maximum level of testosterone secretion occurs during sleep. This nocturnal rise in testosterone secretion appears at the same time with the beginning of resting eye movement sleep and it is not concerned with the change in the level of melatonin [68]. In male reproductive system, prolactin hormone secreted by anterior pituitary o has also a key role. Prolactin increases in Leydig cells the utterance of LH receptors at physiological level. The latest leads to increased secretion of testosterone promoting spermatogenesis. The increasing pervasiveness of 24/7 constant distribution of entertainment, disrupts the circadian rhythm and impair the duration and quality of sleep on population level. The schedule of sleep and wake is delayed by the use of electronic devices at night time. More over blue light emitted by LED reduces the secretion of melatonin and thus decreases the prolonged, objective and subjective sleepiness. Sleep restriction disrupts the level of gonadal hormone. The level of testosterone is reduced in 10 volunteer’s healthy males in 1 week of restricted sleep. While in another examination of sleep restriction of 4–5 hours in 15 men is also associated with reduction in the level of testosterone. Effect of sleep restriction and resting eye movement deprivation was analyzed by Alvarenga et al. on parameter of sperm and expression of testis specific genes in male rat. Both sleep restriction (SR) and rapid eye movement sleep deprivation (RSD) group has decreased viability of sperm [69].
\n
\n
\n
12. Inflammation and infertility
\n
Inflammation is a complexed process of response to tissue damage and injury. It starts with the aggregation of leukocytes and more plasma molecules to infection site. Several factors may be responsible for inflammation in reproductive tract of male. (i) Blockage of ejaculatory duct (ii) epididymitis that causing pain, swelling in scrotal area, penile leakage and presence of blood in urine (iii) sexual transmitted diseases by several agents like E. coli (iv) Urethritis (v) testicular torsion is another pathology affects the fertility in male. It occurs due to abnormality in supportive tissue of testis and causing the testis to pervert inside the scrotum which result in severe swelling and pain [70]. During the process of inflammation, the quality of semen is reduced due to abnormal function of accessory glands, sperm transport hindrance and spermatogenesis dysregulation [71, 72]. Cytokines which are either secreted by activated cells or secreted after receiving stimulus might assist help in normal function of reproductive system [73, 74]. Testicular macrophage is the chief source of cytokine in male but Leydig and Sertoli cells are also depicted to secrete cytokines. Two types of changes are seen due to inflammation in male genitalia; an increase in secretion of seminal fluid leads to redness, local heat and depletion in velocity of seminal flow. Cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1) induce the oxidative damages that impair the quality of semen and have bad impact on fertility of male. Raised level of few cytokines in male semen also disrupts the quality, density and morphology of sperm. The increased level of TNF-α is linked with low sperm count, motility and morphology of sperm. In semen raised level of TNF-α induced apoptosis due to proliferation and differentiation of B-cell, T- cell and NK cells. At the site of inflammation, the blood vessels are dilated permitting the leukocytes in high concentration to migrate out of blood and bind with vascular endothelium. Accumulation of local fluid due to increased permeability causes pain and swelling. So different types of disorders either due to hormonal imbalance, physical or physiological problems lead to infertility in male [7].
\n
\n
\n
13. Summary
\n
Vast array of knowledge about the structural and functional characteristics of spermatozoa has been obtained in last few decades. This study provides an information about the molecular composition and mechanism of function responsible behind the unique features of spermatozoa. No doubt that the function of spermatozoa is to carry the haploid genome of male and deliver it to the oocyte, so that it can fuse with haploid genome of female to begin the development of future generation. In the last decade the most substantial approaches in knowledge regarding spermatozoa have come by using many tools of molecular biology and proteomics to recognize the gene and protein controlling composition of spermatozoa and using gene targeting method for ascertaining the function of particular gene in sperm. A few of these advances are;
Determination of calcium channels that helps in motility of sperm.
Identification of activated adenylyl cyclase.
Phosphorylation of tyrosine flagellar proteins during capacitation.
Finding the role of heredity on the structure and function of sperm.
\n\n
About 15% of couples are diagnosed as infertile and in these cases, male contributes 40%. Osmatic stress has been recognized as the inducer of male fertility due to dysfunction of sperm. It has been depicted that antioxidant defense mechanism is disrupted by the production of ROS in large concentration, while only a little concentration of ROS is demanded for normal function of sperm. This augmented production of ROS has negative impact on spermatozoa quality and damage their capacity of fertilizing the egg. ROS itself and their metabolites can cause the death of cells by attacking DNA, proteins and lipids, impair the function of the enzymes, creating irreparable damage and ultimately results to diminish in semen parameter concerned with infertility of male. So, an enhanced knowledge is also needed about the composition, organization and function of spermatozoon so that highly specific approaches are to be developed to regulate the function of sperm and essential for determining the environmental effect on male fertility.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"sperm, spermatogenesis, ROS, infertility, oxidative stress, motility",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70916.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70916.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70916",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70916",totalDownloads:189,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 11th 2019",dateReviewed:"December 23rd 2019",datePrePublished:"January 27th 2020",datePublished:"May 6th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"This section considers the structural characteristics of spermatozoon, its assembly, composition, and mechanism behind regulation of their peculiar function. The spermatozoon is tremendously peculiar cell with an arrangement of structural characteristics which furnish it with remarkable capability of carrying the genome of male to the egg. A variety of genes are only expressed in spermatids and result in the formation of proteins that are very crucial and distinctive to spermatozoa. These proteins package the DNA, form the head of sperm, account the component of matrix and enzymes of acrosome, construct the flagellar structure, and work as ion channels that are associated in modulating the motility of sperm and also become adenylyl cyclase which yields cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) to induce signaling effect which regulates the function of spermatozoon. These proteins are critical essential to sperm and, sometimes, mutation inhibits their synthesis or disrupts their function which leads to male infertility. Researchers are trying to identify those proteins that are significant for proper function of sperm through gene knockout approach in mice that are probable to be necessary in humans as well. However, various questions still persist regarding the spermatozoon composition, organization, and function and need to be answered.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70916",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70916",signatures:"Mohd Sajad and Sonu Chand Thakur",book:{id:"7725",title:"Innovations In Assisted Reproduction Technology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Innovations In Assisted Reproduction Technology",slug:"innovations-in-assisted-reproduction-technology",publishedDate:"May 6th 2020",bookSignature:"Nidhi Sharma, Sudakshina Chakrabarti, Yona Barak and Adrian Ellenbogen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7725.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"220214",title:"Prof.",name:"Nidhi",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"nidhi-sharma",fullName:"Nidhi Sharma"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"290919",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohd",middleName:null,surname:"Sajad",fullName:"Mohd Sajad",slug:"mohd-sajad",email:"mohdsajadrose@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"291264",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonu",middleName:"Chand",surname:"Thakur",fullName:"Sonu Thakur",slug:"sonu-thakur",email:"sthakur@jmi.ac.in",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Physiology of male sexual organ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Spermatogenesis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Steps of spermatogenesis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Meiosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Sperm motility",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1 Sperm count: how much is considered normal?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"4.1.1 Oligospermia",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.1.2 Asthenozoospermia",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Heritable effect on human sperm structure",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Regulation of sperm motility",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.1 Activation of motility",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.2 Role of calcium in motility",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.3 cAMP and motility",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.4 PKA and motility",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"7. Effect of oxidative stress on male reproductive system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"8. Sources of reactive oxygen species in seminal plasma",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"8.1 Endogenous sources of ROS",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"8.1.1 Leukocytes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"8.1.2 Immature spermatozoa",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"8.1.3 Varicocele",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"8.2 Exogenous sources of ROS",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"8.2.1 Radiation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"8.2.2 Toxins",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"8.2.3 Smoking",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"8.2.4 Alcohol consumption",level:"3"},{id:"sec_27",title:"9. Physiological role of ROS in seminal plasma",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"9.1 Capacitation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"9.2 Hyperactivation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"9.3 Acrosome reaction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"9.4 Sperm-oocyte fusion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_32",title:"10. Management and prevention of oxidative stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_33",title:"11. Correlation between biology of male reproduction and sleep",level:"1"},{id:"sec_34",title:"12. Inflammation and infertility",level:"1"},{id:"sec_35",title:"13. Summary",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nBaccetti B. Evolutionary trends in sperm structure. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. A, Comparative Physiology. 1986;85(1):29-36\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nRoosen-Runge E. The process of spermatogenesis in mammals. In: Developmental and Cell Biology Series. Vol. 10. CUP Archive; 1977\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nSegal S. Sexual differentiation in vertebrates. In: MBL Lectures in Biology, vol. 7: The Origin and Evolution of Sex. 1985. pp. 263-270\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nSurani MA, Allen ND, Barton SC, Fundele R, Howlett SK, Norris ML, et al. Developmental consequences of imprinting of parental chromosomes by DNA methylation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 1990;326(1235):313-327\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nKelly TL, Trasler JM. 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Free radicals generation in an in vitro fertilization setting and how to minimize them. World Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2012;1:29-34\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nSharma RK, Agarwal A. Role of reactive oxygen species in male infertility. Urology. 1996;48:835-850\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nHair WM, Gubbay O, Jabbour HN, Lincoln GA. Prolactin receptor expression in human testis and accessory tissues: Localization and function. Molecular Human Reproduction. 2002;8:606-611\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nPalnitkar G, Phillips CL, Hoyos CM, Marren AJ, Bowman MC, Yee BJ. Linking sleep disturbance to idiopathic male infertility. Sleep Medicine Reviews. 2018\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nMitchell RN, Cotran RS. Acute and chronic inflammation. In: Kumar V, Cotran RS, Robbins SL, editors. Robbins Basic Pathology. Vol. 127. Philadelphia: Saunders Press; 2003. 33 p\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nPurvis K, Christiansen E. Infection in the male reproductive tract. Impact, diagnosis and treatment in relation to male infertility. International Journal of Andrology. 1993;16(1):1-13\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nComhaire FH, Mahmoud AM, Depuydt CE, Zalata AA, Christophe AB. Mechanisms and effects of male genital tract infection on sperm quality and fertilizing potential: The andrologist\'s viewpoint. Human Reproduction Update. 1999;5(5):393-398\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nHales DB, Diemer T, Hales KH. Role of cytokines in testicular function. Endocrine. 1999;10(3):201-217\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nSoder O, Sultana T, Jonsson C, Wahlgren A, Petersen C, Holst M. The interleukin-1 system in the testis. Andrologia. 2000;32(1):52-55\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Mohd Sajad",address:null,affiliation:'
Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia University, New Delhi, India
Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia University, New Delhi, India
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7725",title:"Innovations In Assisted Reproduction Technology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Innovations In Assisted Reproduction Technology",slug:"innovations-in-assisted-reproduction-technology",publishedDate:"May 6th 2020",bookSignature:"Nidhi Sharma, Sudakshina Chakrabarti, Yona Barak and Adrian Ellenbogen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7725.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"220214",title:"Prof.",name:"Nidhi",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"nidhi-sharma",fullName:"Nidhi Sharma"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"190834",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rodica",middleName:"Elena",surname:"Ionescu",email:"elena_rodica.ionescu@utt.fr",fullName:"Rodica Ionescu",slug:"rodica-ionescu",position:null,biography:"Rodica Elena Ionescu earned one Ph.D. degree from the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel in Biotechnological Engineering in 2004 and a second Ph.D. degree in Chemistry, from the University of Bucharest, in 2007. She has performed three post-doctoral positions in France in the field of electrochemical biosensors. Between February-October 2008, Dr. Ionescu was a researcher fellow at the National Nanotechnology Laboratory, Lecce (Italy) working on impedimetric cell-chips based interdigitated microlectrodes. In November 1st 2008, Dr. Ionescu joined the Université de Technologie de Troyes (UTT) as an Assistant Professor, becoming a member of the Laboratoire de Nanotechnologie et d’Instrumentation Optique (LNIO). In December 4th 2009, Dr. Ionescu obtained the Habilitation Title for conducting independent research (HDR) equivalent to an Associate Professor position. Thanks to the obtained research grants, Dr. Ionescu developed novel acoustic and optical platforms for ultrasensitive detection of biomolecules and pesticides. In 2012, Dr. Ionescu was awarded with a national OSEO Innovation grant. Between April 1st 2014 to March 30, 2015 Dr. Ionescu was the research manager of a Proof-of Concept (POC) Grant-NRF-POC 002-026 supported by the Singapore National Research Foundation concerning the Electrochemical lateral flow biosensor detection and quantification of Dengue virus in whole blood at the Nanyang Technological University, School of Materials Science and Engineering under an international CREATE-NTU-HUJ-BGU program. Her current research activities include the development of multi-analyte biosensing platforms, specific (bio)functionalization of surfaces, atomic force microscopy nanopipette applications, controllable synthesis of nanoparticle, evaluation of nanoparticles and water pollutants toxicity to living cells and microorganisms. She has published over 40 pre-reviewed articles, 4 book chapters and 7 patents with 9 extensions.",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190834/images/4570_n.jpg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology of Troyes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Biosensor Platforms for Rapid Detection of E. coli Bacteria",slug:"biosensor-platforms-for-rapid-detection-of-i-e-coli-i-bacteria",abstract:"Risks of contamination with the well-known food pathogen Escherichia coli are increasing over the years. Therefore, rapid and portable technologies using different types of advanced devices named biosensors with various transduction capabilities (electrochemical, optical, or acoustic) were developed and seem to offer the most elegant solutions for research communities and final users-humans. Thus, integration of microfluidic biochips/biosensors into smartphones offer the real-time detection of any infection with E. coli, helping doctors in proceeding immediately with the clinical treatment. The present chapter will discuss about the analytical performances of biosensors and microfluidics such as selection of substrates, type of (bio)functionalization, low limit of detection, specificity, and response time for monitoring different E. coli strains. Thus, it is possible to rapidly identify (30–90 s) very low concentrations of E. coli (101 CFU/mL) down to a single bacterium in real samples (water, urine, milk, beef-meat) by simple integration of an angle scatter method and microfluidic-cellulosic pads (μPAD) loaded with micro-/nanoparticles functionalized with either polyclonal anti E. coli antibodies or with DNA strains into a portable device—a smartphone. Such biosensor configuration can also be used for the detection of other types of microorganisms with potential human and animal health concerns.",signatures:"Rodica Elena Ionescu",authors:[{id:"190834",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rodica",surname:"Ionescu",fullName:"Rodica Ionescu",slug:"rodica-ionescu",email:"elena_rodica.ionescu@utt.fr"}],book:{title:"Escherichia coli",slug:"-i-escherichia-coli-i-recent-advances-on-physiology-pathogenesis-and-biotechnological-applications",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"190201",title:"Dr.",name:"Wanda",surname:"Reygaert",slug:"wanda-reygaert",fullName:"Wanda Reygaert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oakland University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"190960",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",surname:"Price",slug:"robert-price",fullName:"Robert Price",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190960/images/system/190960.jpeg",biography:"Professor Price is an Emeritus Professor of Biochemistry, King’s College London. 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If your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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