\r\n\tThe objective of the proposed book is to give a multi-perspective view on role of autophagy in injury, infection and cancer diseases. The book chapters aim to elucidate autophagy pathways in sustaining the host defense mechanisms, adaptive homeostasis as well as in remodeling and regeneration events that are essential for recuperation of the affected tissues. A specific subject for discussion will be up-regulation and/or impairment of autophagy and crinophagy in phagocytes/granulocytes and adult stem cells.
\r\n
\r\n\tRationale: \r\n\tThe cell/tissue responses to acute stress, trauma/injury or pathogens are mediated by expression and release of plethora of paracrine and endocrine effectors including DAMPs, PAMPs and inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, defensins, and reactive intermediate species. These effectors drive the integrative interactome constituted by hubs of the acute phase response modules, the inflammatory response modules, the module of the adaptive homeostatic response in the damaged parenchymal cells, vascular cells, immunocompetent cells and emerging stem cells. Among these defense mechanisms is autophagy – the lysosomal pathway for processing of compromised cell constituents and/or bacterial and viral pathogens. In this light, explication of the role of autophagy in cellular pathology may arouse R&D of new modalities for management of devastating diseases such as injury, acute infections or cancer.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3daed6048bc8ff8368c4279558f109d7",bookSignature:"Dr. Nikolai Gorbunov",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7997.jpg",keywords:"Autophagy-related Genes, Autophagy-related Proteins, Organelle Network, Signaling Mechanisms and Modulators, Cell Damage, Tissue Damage, PAMP and DAMP, Inflammasome, Autophagy Evasion, Cancer Stem Cells, Cancer Target Therapy, Disease",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 23rd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 14th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 13th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 2nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 1st 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"180960",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",middleName:null,surname:"Gorbunov",slug:"nikolai-gorbunov",fullName:"Nikolai Gorbunov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180960/images/system/180960.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gorbunov obtained his Ph.D. degree in Biology from the Russian Academy Sciences. Then, he was a recipient of the NRC NAS (http://sites.nationalacademies.org/pga/rap/) and the Department of Energy fellowship awards to pursue postdoctoral training in translational science at the University of Pittsburgh and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (https://www.emsl.pnl.gov/emslweb Washington, USA). His translational research area has encompassed molecular pathology of trauma and countermeasures against acute radiation injury that was explored at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (http://wrair-www.army.mil) and the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences. His research interests are the disease-specific mechanisms driving alterations and defense responses in organelles, cells and tissues constituting biological barriers. With this perspective, the main objectives of his research are : i) to define the key components and pathways which regulate adaptive homeostasis and sustain intrinsic resistance to the harmful exposures and mediate recovery from the produced stress, cytotoxicity and damage; and (ii) to employ the acquired knowledge for advancement of injury-specific therapeutic modalities.",institutionString:"Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270941",firstName:"Sandra",lastName:"Maljavac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270941/images/7824_n.jpg",email:"sandra.m@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5295",title:"Autophagy in Current Trends in Cellular Physiology and Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e16382542f283b73017bdb366aff66ad",slug:"autophagy-in-current-trends-in-cellular-physiology-and-pathology",bookSignature:"Nikolai V. 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1. Introduction
It is well known that emission processes reflect certain inherent properties of atoms, but it has also been demonstrated, in both theory [1,2] and experimentation [3-8], that these same processes are also sensitive to incidental boundary conditions. One example is how they can be modified if contained inside a cavity of dimensions comparable to the emitted light wavelength. The modification can involve emission enhancement or inhibition and is a result of an alteration of field mode structure inside the cavity compared to free space, which can be explained in terms of an interaction between atom and cavity modes [9,10].
The density of states (DOS) can be interpreted as a probability density of exciting a single eigen-state of the electromagnetic (e.m.) field. When the plot of DOS vs. frequency over atomic transition spectral range is found to be smooth, then the rate of emission can be defined by Fermi’s golden rule. However, emission dynamics can be drastically modified by photon localization effects [11] and sudden changes in DOS. Such modifications can be interpreted as long-term memory effects and examples of non-Markovian atom-reservoir interactions.
Marked transformations can be induced in the DOS using photonic crystals. These dielectric materials exhibit very noticeable periodic modulations in their refractive indices which result in the formation of inhibited [12,13] frequency bands or photonic band gaps. The DOS inside a photonic band gap (PBG) is automatically zero. It is proposed in literature [14-17] that these conditions might result in classical light localization, inhibition of single-photon emissions, fractionalized single-atom inversions, photon-atom bound states, and anomalously strong vacuum Rabi splitting.
There have been rigorous investigations of spontaneous decay of two-level atoms coupled with narrow cavity resonance according to Hermitian "universal" modes as against the dissipative quasi-modes of the cavity by reference [18]. These have concentrated in particular on cases in which the atomic line-width\n\t\t\t\t is nearly equal to the cavity resonance width γ, the so-called strong-coupling regime, when significant corrections are found into the golden rule. When the quality factor Q of cavity resonance falls within intermediate values, then spontaneous emission is seen to decay rapidly.
The emission processes investigated in this chapter regard a 1D unenclosed cavity, analysed according to the theory of reference [18]. There is specific discussion of the stimulated release of an atom under strong coupling regime inside a 1D-PBG cavity generated by two colliding laser beams. Atom-e.m. field coupling is modelled by quantum electro-dynamics, as per reference [18], with the atom considered as a two tier system, and the e.m. field as a superposition of normal modes. The coupling is in dipole approximation, Wigner-Weisskopf and rotating wave approximations are applied for the motion equations. An unenclosed cavity is conceived in the Quasi-Normal Mode (QNM), as in reference [18], and so the local density of states (LDOS) is defined as the local probability density of exciting a single cavity QNM. As a result the local DOS is effectively dependent on the phase difference between the two laser beams.
1.1. Quasi-Normal Modes (QNMs)
Describing a field inside an unenclosed cavity presents a problem that various authors have confronted, with references [19-22] proposing a QNM-based description of an electromagnetic field inside an open, one-sided homogeneous cavity. Because of the leakage, the QNMs exhibit complex eigen-frequencies as a consequence of leakage from the unenclosed cavity, with an orthogonal basis being assumed only inside the cavity and following a non-canonical metric.
The QNM approach was extended to open double-sided, non-homogeneous cavities and specifically to 1D-PBG cavities in references [23,24].
It is only possible to quantize a leaky cavity [25], considered a dissipative system, if the container is viewed as part of the total universe, within which energy is conserved [26]. A fundamental step towards the application of QNMs to the study of quantum electro-dynamics phenomena in cavities was already achieved in reference [27].
The second QNM-theory-based quantization scheme was extended to 1D-PBGs in reference [28]. References [29,30] applied the second QNM quantization to 1D-PBGs, excited by two pumps acting in opposite directions. The commutation relations observed for QNMs are not canonical, while also depending on the phase-difference between the two pumps and the unenclosed cavity geometry. Reference [31] applies QNM theory in an investigation of stimulated emission from an atom embedded inside a 1D-PBG under weak coupling regime, with two counter-propagating laser beams used to pump the system. The most significant result in reference [31] is the observation that the position of the dipole inside the cavity controls decay-time. This means that the phase-difference of the two laser beams can be used to control decay-time, which could be applicable on an atomic scale for a phase-sensitive, single-atom optical memory device.
The present chapter discusses stimulated emission of an atom enclosed inside a 1D-PBG cavity under strong coupling regime, generated by two counter-propagating laser beams [32,33]. The principal observation is a demonstration that high LDOS values can be used as a definition for a strong coupling regime. Further observations agree with literature in stating that the atomic emission probability decays with an oscillating pattern, and the atomic emission spectrum split into two peaks, known as Rabi splitting. What makes the observations of this chapter unique compared to literature is that by varying the laser beam phase difference it is possible to effectively control both the atomic emission probability oscillations, and the characteristic Rabi splitting of the emission spectrum. Some criteria are proposed for the design of active cavities, comprising a 1D-PBG together with atom, as active delay line, when it is possible to achieve high transmission in a narrow pass band for a delayed pulse by applying suitably differing laser beams phases.
In section 2, quantum electro-dynamic equations are used to model the coupling of an atom to an e.m. field, as an analogy of the theory of an atom in free space. In section 3, the atom is also contained within an unenclosed cavity, and the local probability density of a single QNM being excited is considered a definition of LDOS probability density. The atomic emission processes are modelled in section 4 with the LDOS of the stimulated emission depending on the phase difference of two counter-propagating laser beams. Section 5 discusses the probability of atomic emission under strong coupling regime. In section 6, the atomic emission spectrum is defined on the basis of its poles. Some criteria for the design of an active delay line are proposed in section 7, while section 8 is dedicated to a final discussion and concluding remarks.
2. Coupling of an atom to an electromagnetic (e.m.) field
The present case study examines an atom coupled to an e.m. field at a point x0∈U inside a one-dimensional (1D) universe U={x|x∈[−L/2,L/2],L→∞} with refractive index n0, and an unenclosed cavity C={x|x∈(0,d),d<L} with an inhomogeneous refractive index n(x).
The atom is quantized into two levels, with an oscillating resonance of Ω [25]. The 1D universe modes are applied to quantize the e.m. field
{gλ(x)=1Lexp(iωλρ0x)ωλ=λπ(L/2)ρ0 , λ∈ℤ,E1
\n\t\t\t
when ρ0=(n0/c)2, and c is the speed of light in a vacuum. The dipole operator μ [25] is used to model the atom along the direction of polarization of the e.m. field, and the coupling of the atom to the e.m. field is described using the electric dipole approximation [26].
At start time (t=0) the atom is in an excited state |+〉 and the e.m. field is in a vacuum state |{0}〉=∏λ=−∞∞|0λ〉. The system dynamics under these initial conditions can be described with basis states and corresponding eigen-values [18] as follows:
when |+,{0}〉 denotes the upper state of the atom, without any photons in all the e.m. modes; and |−,1λ〉 denotes the lower state of the atom, with one photon in the λth e.m. mode but any photons in the other e.m. modes.
2.1. Quantum electro-dynamic equations
If an initial condition |+,{0}〉 is assumed, then the atom-field system state at time instant t>0 can be defined as
|ψ(t)〉=c+(t)|+,{0}〉+∑λ=−∞∞c−,λ(t)|−,1λ〉,E3
\n\t\t\t\t
introducing the probability amplitudes c+(t) and c-,λ(t) with c+(0)=1 and c-,λ(0)=0, and assuming the rotating wave approximation [26]. The time evolution equations for the probability amplitudes c+(t) and c-,λ(t) [18] are used as a starting point, thus
when ε0 is the dielectric constant in vacuum and M=|〈+|μ|−〉|2.
It is possible to establish a correspondence between the discrete modes and continuous modes of, respectively, a 1D cavity of length L, and an infinite universe of length L → ∞. As L → ∞, the mode spectrum approaches continuity, since Δωλ=π/(L/2)ρ0≈dω→0. When this limit is reached, sums over discrete indices can be transformed into integrals over a continuous variable of frequency,
1L∑λ=1∞⇒∫0∞dωσ(loc)(x0,ω),E6
\n\t\t\t\t
when σ(loc)(x,ω) is the local density of states (LDOS), which can be interpreted as the density of probability for an excited level of the e.m. field, at a point x, collapsed into a single eigen-state, oscillating around the frequency ω [34,35]. Strictly speaking, in Equation (6), the range of integration over ω only extends from 0 to ∞, given that the physical frequencies are defined as positive. Nevertheless, it is possible to extend the range from –∞ to ∞ without significant errors, due to the fact that most optical experiments utilize a narrow band source B [36], such that B<<ωc, with ωc the bandwidth B as the central frequency. The time evolution Equation (5) therefore becomes
As emerges from Equation (8), there is a marked dependence of the kernel function on the LDOS through σ(loc)(x,ω). It is possible to reinterpret the latter as the density of photon states in the reservoir. Essentially, the kernel function (8) is a gauge of the memory of previous state of the photon reservoir, within the evolutionary time scale of the atomic system, thus K(x, t) could be considered the photon reservoir\'s memory kernel.
2.2. Atom in free space
If an atom is located at a given point x0 outside the unenclosed cavity, so that x0<0 or x0>d, then the local DOS σ(loc)(x,ω) refers to free space (see references [26,31]):
σ(loc)(x,ω)=σfree-space(ω)=σref=ρ02π.E9
\n\t\t\t\t
The probability of atomic emission decays exponentially in free space,
|c+(t)|2=exp(−Γ0t) , t≥0,E10
\n\t\t\t\t
being Г0 the atomic decay rate:
Γ0=Mℏρ0ε0n02Ω/[1+14(Mℏρ0ε0n02)2].E11
\n\t\t\t\t
Free space is an infinitely large photon reservoir (a flat spectrum), and so it should respond instantaneous, with any memory effects associated to emission dynamics being infinitesimally short relative to any time intervals of interest. According to the so-called Markovian [26] interactions, an excited state population gradually decays to ground level in free space, regardless of any driving field strength. This result is generally valid for almost any smoothly varying broadband DOS.
The following parameter is now introduced as a step for the analysis of the next section,
R=Γ0Ω≅Mℏρ0ε0n02,E12
\n\t\t\t\t
interpretable as the degree of atom-field coupling, and with the possibility of expressing Equation (8) as:
K(x,t)=−R2ρ0∫−∞∞dω⋅ωσ(loc)(x,ω)exp[−i(ω−Ω)t].E13
\n\t\t\t
3. Atom inside an unenclosed cavity
Assuming 0<x0<d, which represents an atom embedded at a point x0 inside an open, inhomogeneous cavity with refractive index n(x), if the resonance frequency Ω of the atom is coupled with the nth QNM oscillating at frequency Reωn, then the coupling will exhibit frequency detuning:
Δn=Reωn−ΩR.E14
\n\t\t\t
3.1. Density Of States (DOS) as the probability density to excite a singleQNM
By filtering two counter-propagating pumps at an atomic resonance Ω≈Reωn, it emerges that only the nth QNM, and no other QNMs, can be excited, because the nth QNM is the only one oscillating at the frequency Reωn and within the narrow range 2|Imωn|<<|Reωn|, which is sufficiently remote to exclude the other QNMs [23,24]. Around point x, the local probability density that the e.m. field is in fact excited on the nth QNM is [31]
σn(loc)(x,ω)=1Inσn(ω)ρ(x)|fnN(x)|2 , ∀x|0<x<d,E15
\n\t\t\t\t
which is related directly to the (integral) probability density σn(ω) for the nth QNM. In Equation (15), ρ(x)=[n(x)/c]2, In denotes an appropriate overlapping integral [28], while fnN(x)=fn(x)2ωn/〈fn|fn〉 is the normalized QNM function, with 〈fn|fn〉 representing the QNM norm.
For the investigation of spontaneous emissions, the two pumps are modelled as fluctuations of vacuum, based on the e.m. field ground state (for examples, see references [26,28-30]). The (integral) probability density that the nth QNM is excited within the unenclosed cavity can be expressed as [31]:
From Equation (16) it was deduced that the probability density due to fluctuations in vacuum for the nth QNM is a Lorentzian function, with parameters including real and imaginary parts of the nth QNM frequency. There is a relation between the overlapping integral In and the statistical weight of the nth QNM in the DOS. Equation (17) also integrates the probability density σn(I)(ω) into the range of negative frequencies ω∈[−Reωn−|Imωn|,−Reωn+|Imωn|], since with Reωn>0 the QNM frequency ωn is also represented by frequency ω−n=−ωn∗ with Reω−n<0 [23,24].
Stimulated emissions are considered by modelling the two pumps as a pair of laser beams in a coherent state (see references [26,28-30] for examples). When the symmetry property is achieved by the refractive index n(x), so that n(d/2–x)=n(d/2+x), then the probability density that the e.m. field is excited to the nth QNM inside the cavity can be written as [31]:
σn(II)(ω)=σn(I)(ω)[1+(−1)ncosΔφ].E18
\n\t\t\t\t
Equation (18) shows that the phase-difference Δφ of the pair of counter-propagating laser beams can be used to control the probability density for the nth QNM.
4. Atomic emission processes
With an atom at point x0 of an unenclosed inhomogeneous cavity, so that 0<x0<d, and electromagnetic field coupling limited to the nth QNM [ωn,fnN(x)] of the unenclosed cavity, then the local probability density σn(loc)(x,ω) is related to the integral probability density σn(ω) as in Equation (15) and the atomic emission processes exhibit a characteristic kernel function K(x,t), which can be expanded as [see Equation (13)]:
4.1. Spontaneous emission: DOS due to vacuum fluctuations
If the unenclosed cavity is only affected by fluctuations of vacuum filtered at the atomic resonance Ω and close to the cavity\'s nth QNM frequency (Ω≈Reωn), then Equations (16) and (17) can be used to express the integral probability density σn(I)(ω) for the nth QNM, and atomic spontaneous emission exhibits a characteristic time evolution [see Equation (7)] in which the kernel function Kn(x,t) can be expressed as [see Equation (19)]:
4.2. Stimulated emission: DOS dependant on the phase difference of a pair of counter-propagating laser-beams
If the unenclosed cavity is pumped coherently by two counter-propagating laser beams with a phase difference Δφ, tuned to the atomic resonance Ω and closed to the nth QNM frequency (Ω≈Reωn), then the probability density σn(II)(ω) for the nth QNM, for the state of the two laser beams, is related to σn(I)(ω), which is calculated using Equation (18) when vacuum fluctuations are present. The atomic stimulated emission exhibits a characteristic kernel function Kn(x,ω), which can be expressed as follows [see Equation (20)]:
Kn(II)(x,t)=Kn(I)(x,t)[1+(−1)ncosΔφ].E26
The quantity (ωn–Ω) can be re-expressed in terms of frequency detuning (14), as (ωn–Ω)=(Reωn–Ω)+iImωn=RΔn+iImωn so that the second order differential equation for emission probability becomes:
d2c+dt2+i(RΔn+iImωn)dc+dt−Kn(x0,t=0)c+(t)=0E27
5. Atomic emission probability
The initial conditions being the same as Equation (25), the algebraic equation associated with the Cauchy problem (27) can be recast as:
which permit expression of the particular integral of the differential Equation (27) as:
c+(t)=p2p2−p1exp(ip1t)−p1p2−p1exp(ip2t).E30
The atom and the nth QNM are coupled under a strong regime when the behaviour of the particular integral (30) is oscillatory, and when the two roots (29) of the relative algebraic Equation (28), are complex conjugates [18].
5.1. Strong coupling regime
Spontaneous emission is examined in order to assess the atom - nth QNM coupling under strong regime. Given that,
Equation (32) shows that a strong coupling regime is present when the probability density (16) inside the unenclosed cavity, sampled at atomic resonance in units of DOS (9) with reference to free space, is in excess of the inverse of the atomic parameter R [see Equation (12)]. An interpretation of parameter R as a level of atom field coupling is thus legitimated: the greater R becomes, the better Equation (32) is satisfied. The two roots (29) become complex conjugates in the hypothesis of a strong coupling regime (32),
p1,2≅−RΔn+iImωn2±iKn(I)(x0,t=0),E33
\n\t\t\t\t
and the behaviour of the particular integral (30) is oscillatory:
In reality [see Equation (22)] Kn(I)(x0,t=0)=−Kn(I)(x0,t=0). It is possible to interpret the oscillatory behaviour as emission re-absorption of a single photon and so the net decay rate can thus be determined from the rate of photon leakage, which is |Imωn|/2.
In the case of stimulated emissions, the coupling between atom and the nth QNM can again be considered under strong regime. Given a phase difference of ∆φ for the pair of counter-propagating laser beams, then the atom - nth QNM coupling exhibits the kernel function (26). Assuming hypothetical strong coupling as expressed by a similar condition to Equation (32), the behaviour of the particular integral (30) is oscillatory,
when Kn(II)(x0,t=0) is linked to the phase difference ∆φ through Equation (26). The quantity of atomic emission probability oscillations is dependent on the position of the atom inside the cavity and so the phase-difference of the paired laser-beams can be used to control it. The condition,
1+(−1)ncosΔφ=0,E36
\n\t\t\t\t
is satisfied if the atom is coupled to an odd QNM, i.e. n=1,3,... and the paired laser beams are in phase, i.e. ∆φ=0; or if the atom is coupled to an even QNM, i.e. n=0,2,... and the paired laser beams are out of phase, i.e. ∆φ=π. When Equation (36) is satisfied, the probability of emission is over-damped within the entire cavity. Even under strong coupling, no oscillation occurs [see Equation (35)]:
An atom located at point x0 is in its upper state at initial time (t=0) and there are no photons present in any normal mode, i.e. c+(x0,t=0)=1. Following atomic decay (t=∞), Equation (4) can be used to derive the coefficient of probability c-,λ(x0,t) of finding the atom in its lower state with one photon in the λth e.m. mode and no photons in all the other modes:
If decay has occurred (t=∞), it is possible to define the atomic emission spectrum as the probability density that the atom at point x0 emitted at frequency ω [18], i.e.
If sums over discrete quantities are converted to integrals over continuous frequencies, using Equation (6), then the Dirac delta properties can be used to reduce the emission spectrum (42) to:
when α´ is a suitable normalization constant and σ(loc)(x,ω) is the local density of states (DOS). Equation (12) is used to define the atomic parameter R.
Given that most optical experiments apply a narrow band source [36], it is possible to extend the frequency range from –∞ to ∞ without significant errors, and the closure relation can be applied to establish the normalization constant α´
∫−∞∞W(x0,ω)dω=1,E44
\n\t\t\t
which derives directly from the interpretation of emission spectrum probability (43). Assuming 0<x0<d and n(x0)>n0, the atom is embedded inside an unenclosed cavity with inhomogeneous refractive index ρ(x)=[n(x)/c]2. The atom with resonance frequency Ω can be assumed coupled to the nth QNM and oscillating at the frequency Reωn. This atom to nth QNM coupling is characterized by frequency detuning Δn (14). The normalization condition (44) can be reduced to:
2∫Ω−|Imωn|Ω+|Imωn|W(x0,ω)ndω=1.E45
\n\t\t\t
Integrals over positive frequencies are multiplied by a factor of 2 in Equation (45) in order to include the contribution of negative frequencies [see comments following Equation (17)].
Equation (15) showed that the local probability density σn(loc)(x,ω) for the nth QNM was proportional to σn(ω). Now if Equation (15) is included into Equation (43), the atomic emission spectrum is expressed as
when α′n is the normalization constant that satisfies Equation (45).
The atomic emission processes exhibit a characteristic kernel function Kn(x,t), here expressible as in Equation (22), while for stimulated emission as in Equation (26). By including Equation (22) into Equation (46), the emission spectrum (46) assumes the form:
The emission spectrum Wn(x0,ω) emerging from Equation (47) depends on both the probability density σn(ω), and the initial kernel function value Kn(I)(x0,t=0).
Now, by applying the Laplace transformation of the Cauchy problem (27), and the initial conditions derived from Equation (25), gives finally [37]
when ξ is the shifted frequency (ω–Ω), with Ω denoting atomic resonance.
6.1. Poles of the emission spectrum
The two poles that solve Equation (28), p1 and p2, can be used to describe the atomic emission spectrum, as expressed in Equation (29). Hypothesizing a strong coupling regime [see Equation (32)], the atomic emission spectrum Wn(x0,ξ) as a function of the shifted frequency ξ =(ω–Ω), exhibits two characteristic peaks, centred approximately in the Rep1 and Rep2 resonances with bandwidths linked to 2│Imp1│and 2│Imp2│. There is thus a Rabi splitting with the two peaks separated by:
Δξ=Rep1−Rep2.E49
\n\t\t\t\t
Considering stimulated emission processes, the paired counter-propagating laser beams are set to a phase difference ∆φ, and so the emission spectrum Wn(x0,ξ) can be described using a kernel function Kn(x0,t=0) associated with ∆φ [see Equation (26)]. The Rabi splitting thus depends not only on the position of the atom inside the cavity, but can also be imposed by the phase-difference of the paired laser-beams.
If the operative condition is close to that defined by Equation (36), such that Kn(x0,t=0)≈0, the spectrum Wn(x0,ω) as a function of the pure frequency ω is limited to two pulses that almost superimpose each other: 1) a Lorentzian function centred in the nth QNM frequency Reωn, with bandwidth 2|Imωn|, superimposed on 2) a Dirac distribution of atomic resonance Ω≈Reωn, so that [see Equations (16)-(18)]
Wn(x0,ω)≈σn(II)(ω)+α″ndδ(ω−Ω)→δ(ω−Ω),E50
\n\t\t\t\t
when α″n is the normalization constant that satisfies condition (45). The two poles, ω1 and ω2, can be simplified as [see Equations (14), (28) and (29)]:
ω1≈Reωn+iImωnω2≈Ω.E51
\n\t\t\t
7. Criteria for designing an active delay line
In references [23,24] and subsequent papers, the QNM theory was applied to a photonic crystal (PC) as a symmetric Quarter-Wave (QW) 1D-PBG cavity. The present study considers a symmetric QW 1D-PBG cavity with parameters λref=1μm, N=5, nh=2, nl=1.5 (see Figure 1). The motivation for choosing this cavity is that it provides a relatively simple physical context for discussion of criteria in order to design an active delay line. An atom is located in the centre of the 1D-PBG, so that x0=d/2 (see Figure 1). Reference [28] discusses how in a symmetric QW 1D-PBG cavity with reference wavelength ωref and N periods, the [0, 2ωref) range includes 2N+1 QNMs, which are identified as |n〉, n∈[0,2N] (with the exclusion of ω=2ωref). If the location of the atom is the centre x0 of the 1D-PBG cavity, then it can only be coupled to one of the even QNMs n because the QNM intensity |fn|2 in this position has a maximum for even values of n and is almost null for odd values of n.
The active cavity consists of the 1D-PBG cavity containing one atom, and it is characterized by a G(x0,ω) global transmission spectrum, this being the product of the 1D-PBG |t(ω)|2 transmission spectrum, and the W(x0,ω) emission spectrum of the atom [in units of s], so
G(x0,ω)=W(x0,ω)|t(ω)|2[in units ofs].E52
\n\t\t\t
It is possible to define the active cavity\'s “density of coupling” (DOC) σC(x0,ω), as the probability density that an atom embedded at point x0, is coupled to only a single QNM, with a oscillation close to the frequency ω. The DOC σC(x0,ω) [in units of s2/m] is the product of the atomic emission spectrum W(x0,ω), and the DOS σ(ω) [in units of s/m]. It is possible to introduce an “acceleration of coupling” aC(x0, ω) inside the active cavity as:
aC(x0,ω)=1σC(x0,ω)=1W(x0,ω)σ(ω)=v(ω)W(x0,ω)[in units ofm/s2].E53
\n\t\t\t
when v(ω)=1/σ(ω). If the active cavity is to be designed as an ideal delay line, then the pulsed input needs to be retarded and highly amplified, but free of any distortion. For a narrow pass band the global transmission (52) needs to be very high, with a quasi-constant acceleration of coupling (53).
As described above, an atom embedded in the centre of a symmetric QW 1D-PBG cavity with N=5 periods (Figure 1) can only be coupled to a single QNM, oscillating close to an even transmission peak n=0,2,...,2N. If it is assumed that the atom is coupled to the (N+1)th QNM, close to the edge of the high frequency band, then the 1D-PBG cavity quality factor will be
QN+1=Ω|ImωN+1|,E54
\n\t\t\t
when Ω is the atom\'s resonance frequency. If it is also assumed that a strong coupling regime is in force, then the active delay line directories can be satisfied by an appropriate coupling degree value,
R=Γ0Ω,E55
\n\t\t\t
when Γ0 denotes the atomic decay rate in vacuum, and by a suitable atomic frequency detuning value - (N+1)th QNM coupling,
ΔN+1=ReωN+1−ΩR.E56
\n\t\t\t
If spontaneous emission occurs, assuming perfect tuning so that ΔN+1=0, then the oscillation of the atom is at the frequency of the (N+1)th QNM, which is Ω=ReωN+1. A suitable value of coupling degree R thus exists (see Figures 2.a and 2.b) as R*=0.002506, making the two poles [Equations (29) and (22)] of the atomic emission spectrum distinct for R>R* or coincident for 0<R<R*. Alternatively stated, when R>R*, there is a Rabi splitting (see Figure 3.a) in the atomic emission spectrum [Equations (47), (48) and (22)], generating an oscillation (see Figure 4.a) in the atomic emission probability [Equations (34) and (22)]. Conversely, when 0<R<R*, the emission spectrum comprises two superimposed peaks, indicating over-damping of the emission probability. In an attempt to identify Rabi splitting under strong coupling and consistent with experimentation (Γ0 ~ |ImωN+1|) [38], the following degree of coupling is postulated:
R=RN+1=1QN+1.E57
\n\t\t\t
The two spontaneous emission spectrum poles, shifted by the atomic resonance Ω, are ξ1=0.06383+i0.01770 and ξ2=–0.06383+i0.01995 in units of ωref (see Figures 2.a and 2.b). They describe the two emission spectrum peaks in resonance and bandwidth, with maxima of W1=21.87 and W2=15.66 in units of ωref (see Figure 3.a). Assuming the disappearance of emission probability after the second oscillation, then the decay time value is τ=94.3 in units of 1/ωref (see Figure 4.a). The active cavity designed in this way is a less than ideal optical amplifier, in the sense that the amplification of an input pulse is accompanied by distortion. In the case of spontaneous emission plotted in Figures 5.a and 5.b the pass band is narrow, with ξ = ω–Ω ≈ (–0.06, 0.06) (in units of ωref), where the global transmission spectrum exhibits relatively high values, GC,N+1∈(Gmin,Gmax)=(2.881,14.43) in units of 1/ωref. While the coupling acceleration is modulated close to the value vC,N+1=0.03445 in units of ωref/vref.
An example of stimulated emission is now considered, with the atom inside the symmetric QW 1D-PBG cavity being excited by a pair of counter-propagating laser beams. The phase difference ∆φ of the two laser beams can thus be added as a new degree of freedom for the realization of an active delay line. If perfect tuning is assumed during stimulated emission, when ΔN+1=0, the atom again oscillates at the frequency of the (N+1)th QNM, which is Ω=ReωN+1. The phase difference range ∆φ, this being (Δφ1,Δφ2)=(2.747,3.524) in rad units, is adequate (see Figures 2.c and 2.d) to make the two poles [Equations (29) and (26)] of the atomic emission spectrum distinct for ∆φ<∆φ1 and ∆φ>∆φ2, but coincident for ∆φ1 <∆φ<∆φ2. In other terms, when ∆φ<∆φ1 and ∆φ>∆φ2 Rabi splitting (see Figure 3.a) occurs in the atomic emission spectrum [Equations (47), (48) and (26)], with an oscillation (see Figure 4.a) in the probability of atomic emission [Equations (35) and (26)]. When ∆φ1<∆φ<∆φ2, the emission spectrum comprises two superimposed peaks with over-damping of emission probability. The Rabi splitting and decay time oscillations can therefore be controlled using the phase difference of the paired laser beams.
Using stimulated emission to obtain an ideal delay line, requires that the paired laser beams have higher quadrature, so ∆φ>π/2. Compared to spontaneous emission, the emission spectrum must show narrower Rabi splitting and the emission probability must have a longer decay time. The active cavity comprising the 1D-PBG together with the atom can thus act as a delay line, because the active cavity delay time is linked to the atomic decay time (for examples, see references [39-41]). As noted above, then it is necessary that the phase difference remains within a maximum of ∆φ1=2.747 (in rad units), beyond which the Rabi splitting tends towards zero. In the same time domain, increasing the phase difference relative to ∆φ ≈ π/2, causes the decay time to become even longer, while in the frequency domain the global transmission (52) exhibits high gain but instead the acceleration of coupling (53) exhibits a narrow pass band. The active cavity thus acts as an active but not ideal delay line when ∆φ → ∆φ1. This leads to the conclusion that the 1D-PBG cavity should be pumped by paired laser beams exceeding a tilt angle quadrature of:
Δφ=π2+π10.E58
\n\t\t\t
The two stimulated emission spectrum poles are shifted by the resonance Ω, and are respectively ξ1=0.05205+i0.01787 and ξ2=–0.05205+i0.01978 (in units of ωref) (see Figures 2.c and 2.d). The two poles are closer by Δξ=0.02356 compared to spontaneous emission. They describe the resonance and band width of the two stimulated emission spectrum peaks, with maxima of W1=14.36 and W2=10.93 (in units of ωref) (see Figure 3.a). Compared to spontaneous emission, the two maxima are reduced by ΔW1=7.51 and ΔW2=4.73. If an emission probability of almost zero is assumed after the second oscillation, then the stimulated emission decay time is τ=113.5 (in units of 1/ωref) (see Figure 4.a). Compared to spontaneous emission, this time is increased by Δτ=19.2. The phase difference of the two laser beams thus enables control of atomic decay time and of active cavity delay time [39-41]. At this point a less than ideal delay line has been designed, in which an input pulse is retarded and amplified but somewhat distorted. The plots of Figures 5.a and 5.b show that, compared to spontaneous emission, there is a narrower pass band, with ξ = ω–Ω ≈ (–0.04, 0.04), with the global transmission spectrum exhibiting similar values, so GC,N+1∈(Gmin,Gmax)=(3.270,9.24) (in units of ωref), and most significantly the acceleration of coupling is now slightly modulated around the value vC,N+1=0.05310 (in units of ωref/vref).
Finally, stimulated emission is considered in the presence of a degree of detuning, when the atom inside the symmetric QW 1D-PBG cavity remains coupled to the (N+1)th QNM, but no longer oscillates at the (N+1)th QNM frequency. The active delay line design can be improved with a final degree of freedom by varying the frequency detuning of the atom - (N+1)th QNM coupling (56). The application of maximum detuning is proposed to improve the active delay line. The atomic resonance Ω is lowered to within the photonic band gap, close to the (N+1)th QNM frequency ReωN+1, and the atom only remains coupled to the (N+1)th QNM if the atomic resonance is within the limit
Ω=ReωN+1−|ImωN+1|,E59
\n\t\t\t
when detuning is maximum:
ΔN+1=ReωN+1−ΩRN+1=|ImωN+1|RN+1.E60
\n\t\t\t
Detuned in this way, the two stimulated emission spectrum poles are shifted by the resonance Ω and exhibit real parts Reξ1=0.03738 and Reξ2=–0.07380, and imaginary parts Imξ1=0.01176 and Imξ2=0.02588 (both in units of ωref) (see Figures 2.c and 2.d). Compared to perfect tuning, the real parts are reduced by ΔReξ1=0.01467 and ΔReξ2=0.02175, while one imaginary part is reduced by ΔImξ1=0.00611 and the other is raised by ΔImξ2=0.0061. They describe the resonance and bandwidth of the two peaks of the stimulated emission spectrum when detuned, with maxima of W1=38.83 and W2=0.2974 (in units of ωref) (see Figure 3.b). Compared to perfect tuning, the first peak is raised by ΔW1=24.47 and the second peak is lowered by ΔW2=10.63. If the atomic emission probability is assumed to be almost zero after the second oscillation, then the stimulated emission decay time (linked to the active cavity delay time) in the detuned example is τ=111.2 (in units of 1/ωref) (see Figure 4.b). Compared to perfect tuning, the emission probability (and thus the input pulse) is somewhat warped and retarded by Δτ=2.3.
The result is the design of a close to ideal delay line, with an input pulse being retarded, amplified and only slightly distorted. The plots of Figures 5.c and 5.d show that compared to stimulated emission, the detuned example has an even narrower pass band, at ξ =ω–Ω ≈ (0.02, 0.06), with the global transmission spectrum exhibiting higher values, with GC,N+1∈(Gmin,Gmax)=(6.005,36.77) (in units of 1/ωref). Most significantly, the coupling acceleration is completely no modulated and almost constant at vC,N+1≅0.007182 (in units of ωref/vref). As seen in Figure 5.d, the coupling acceleration modulation is shifted into the unused frequency range ξ ≈ (–0.07, –0.04).
Figure 1.
Symmetric Quarter-Wave (QW) one dimensional (1D) Photonic Band Gap (PBG) cavity with λref=1μm as reference wavelength, N=5 periods, consisting of two layers with refractive indices nh=2 and nl=1.5 and lengths h=λref/4nh and l=λref/4nl. Terminal layers of the symmetric QW 1D-PBG cavity with parameters: nh and h=λref/4nh. Length of the 1D-PBG cavity: d=N(h+l)+h. One atom is present, embedded in the centre of the 1D-PBG, so that x0=d/2 (Figure reproduced from references [32,33]).
Figure 2.
If the atom embedded inside the 1D-PBG cavity of Figure 1 oscillates at the (N+1)th Quasi-Normal Mode (QNM), close to the high-frequency band limit [i.e. perfectly tuned ∆N+1,=0, see Equation (56)], spontaneous emission under strong coupling regime exhibit two characteristic atomic emission spectrum poles, each pole being shifted by the atomic resonance Ω [see Equations (29) and (22)]; the real (Figure 2.a) and imaginary (Figure 2.b) parts, in units of the 1D-PBG reference frequency ωref, are plotted as functions of the degree of coupling R=0/Ω, this being the ratio between the atomic decay-rate in vacuum 0, and resonance Ω [see Equation (55)].
Figure 3.
The emission spectrum of the atom embedded inside the 1D-PBG cavity of Figure 1 is plotted in units of the 1D-PBG reference frequency ωref, and as a function of the dimensionless shifted frequency ξ=(ω–Ω)/ωref, with Ω denoting atomic resonance. The atom is coupled to the (N+1)th QNM frequency and emission occurs under strong coupling regime [for RN+1=1/QN+1]. Figure 3.a illustrates hypothetical tuning, with the spontaneous atomic emission spectrum [see Equations (47) and (48)] compared to the stimulated emission spectrum [see Equations (47) and (48)], when the 1D-PBG is pumped by paired laser beams with an appropriate phase difference: ∆φ=(π/2)+(π/10) [see Equation (58)]. Figure 3.b instead illustrates a case of stimulated emission, comparing the perfectly tuned atomic emission spectrum with the detuned emission spectrum (Figure reproduced from references [32,33]).
Figure 4.
The emission probability of the atom embedded inside the 1D-PBG cavity of Figure 1 is plotted as a function of the normalized time ωreft, with ωref being the 1D-PBG reference frequency. With reference to the operative conditions of Figure 3: hypothetical tuning is shown in Figure 4.a, comparing the spontaneous atomic emission probability [see Equation (34)], with stimulated emission probability [see Equation (35)] when the 1D-PBG is pumped by paired laser beams with an appropriate phase difference: ∆φ=(π/2)+(π/10). Figure 4.b illustrates stimulated emission, comparing atomic emission probability under perfect tuning with emission probability when detuned (Figure reproduced from references [32,33]).
If a pair of counter-propagating laser beams are tuned to the resonance Ω and the atom is coupled to the (N+1)th QNM, [i.e. QN+1=Ω /ImωN+1, see Equation (54)], the stimulated emission under strong coupling [for RN+1=1/QN+1, see Equation (57)] exhibits two characteristic atomic emission spectrum poles, each pole being shifted by the resonance Ω [see Equations (29) and (26)]. The real (Figure 2.c) and imaginary (Figure 2.d) parts, in units of the 1D-PBG reference frequency ωref, are plotted as functions of the phase difference ∆φ between the paired laser beams regardless of whether the atom oscillates at the (N+1)th QNM frequency [i.e. perfectly tuned ∆N+1=0] or at a frequency in the band gap close to the high frequency band limit [i.e. detuned ∆N+1=ImωN+1/ RN+1, see Equation (60)] (Figure reproduced from references [32,33]).
Figure 5.
A delay line using an active cavity comprising the 1D-PBG cavity plus atom (Figure 1) can be designed by characterizing the line according to global transmission [see Equation (52)], and “coupling acceleration” [see Equation (53)] of the electromagnetic (e.m.) field. Global transmission, in units of the 1D-PBG reference frequency ωref, and coupling acceleration, in units of ωref/vref, being vref the group velocity of the e.m. field in vacuum, are plotted as functions of the dimensionless shifted frequency ξ=(ω–Ω)/ωref, with Ω denoting atomic resonance. With reference to the operative conditions of Figure 3: perfect tuning is shown in Figure 5.a (Figure 5.b), comparing the global transmission (coupling acceleration) of the active delay line for spontaneous emission, with the global transmission (coupling acceleration) for stimulated emission when the 1D-PBG is pumped by paired laser beams with an appropriate phase difference: ∆φ=(π/2)+(π/10). Figure 5.c (Figure 5.d) compares the global transmission (coupling acceleration) of the active delay line when perfectly tuned, with the global transmission (coupling acceleration) when detuned under stimulated emission (Figure reproduced from references [32,33]).
8. Final discussion and concluding remarks
This chapter discussed atomic stimulated emission processes, under strong coupling, inside a one dimensional (1D) Photonic Band Gap (PBG) cavity, which is pumped by a pair of counter-propagating laser beams [32,33]. The atom-field interaction was modelled by quantum electro-dynamics, with the atom considered as a two level system, the electromagnetic (e.m.) field as superposition of its normal modes, and applying the dipole approximation, the Wigner-Weisskopf equations of motion, and the rotating wave approximations. The unenclosed cavity example under investigation was approached applying the Quasi-Normal Mode (QNM), while the local density of states (LDOS) was interpreted as the local probability density of exciting a single QNM within the cavity. In this approach, the LDOS depends on the phase difference of the paired laser beams, and the most significant result is that the strong coupling regime can occur with high LDOS values. The investigation also confirms the well known phenomenon [39-41] that atomic emission probability decays with oscillation, causing the atomic emission spectrum to split into two peaks (Rabi splitting). The novelty that emerged in this chapter is that it appears to be possible to coherently control both the atomic emission probability oscillations and the Rabi splitting of the emission spectrum using the phase difference of the paired laser beams. Finally, some criteria were proposed for the design of an active cavity comprising a 1D-PBG cavity plus atom, to serve as an active delay line. It is seen that suitable phase differences between the paired laser beams make it possible to achieve high delayed pulse transmission in a narrow pass band.
The issue of e.m. field interaction with atoms when the e.m. modes are conditioned by the environment (inside a cavity, or proximal to walls) can be approached in several ways. For example, the dynamics of the e.m. field can first be established inside and outside the cavity (or proximal/distant from walls), and then atomic coupling with the normal modes (NMs) of the combined system [42-46] can be considered. An alternative approach applies the discrete (dissipative) QNMs of the unenclosed cavity in place of the continuous (Hermitian) NMs. When applying the QNMs, the internal field cavity is coupled to the external e.m. fields (beyond the two cavity limits) by boundary conditions [47-50].
A third approach is proposed in the present chapter, combining both those described above with the aim of merging their analytic potentials. Canonical quantum electro-dynamics is applied for the definition of an e.m field as a superposition of NMs, while an unenclosed cavity is defined adopting a QNM approach, when LDOS is interpreted as the local probability density of exciting a single QNM of the cavity. The DOS is linked to the cavity boundary conditions. The e.m. field satisfies incoming and outgoing wave conditions on the cavity surfaces, and so the DOS depends on the externally pumped photon reservoir. When the cavity is excited by paired counter-propagating pumps, the DOS expresses the probability distribution of exciting a single QNM of the cavity.
In the case of spontaneous emission, the paired pumps are modelled as vacuum fluctuations from the ground state of the e.m. field, while the DOS is construed simply as a feature of cavity geometry. Instead, in the case of stimulated emission, the paired pumps are modelled as two laser beams in a coherent state, so that the DOS depends on the cavity geometry and can be controlled by the phase difference of the paired laser beams. These results clearly highlight how the DOS of an unenclosed cavity is determined by the cavity excitation state.
Acknowledgments
The author, Dr. Alessandro Settimi, is extremely grateful to Dr. Sergio Severini for his outstanding support and friendship, to Prof. Concita Sibilia and Prof. Mario Bertolotti for their interesting pointers to literature regarding photonic crystals, and to Prof. Anna Napoli and Prof. Antonino Messina for their valuable discussions regarding stimulated emission.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/48100.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/48100.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48100",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48100",totalDownloads:1025,totalViews:106,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"July 16th 2014",dateReviewed:"November 11th 2014",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 22nd 2015",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/48100",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/48100",book:{slug:"photonic-crystals"},signatures:"Alessandro Settimi",authors:[{id:"172934",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alessandro",middleName:null,surname:"Settimi",fullName:"Alessandro Settimi",slug:"alessandro-settimi",email:"alessandro.settimi@ingv.it",position:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Quasi-Normal Modes (QNMs)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Coupling of an atom to an electromagnetic (e.m.) field",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1. Quantum electro-dynamic equations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2. Atom in free space",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Atom inside an unenclosed cavity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1. Density Of States (DOS) as the probability density to excite a singleQNM",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Atomic emission processes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1. Spontaneous emission: DOS due to vacuum fluctuations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2. Stimulated emission: DOS dependant on the phase difference of a pair of counter-propagating laser-beams",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Atomic emission probability",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.1. Strong coupling regime",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"6. Atomic emission spectrum",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.1. Poles of the emission spectrum",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"7. Criteria for designing an active delay line",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"8. Final discussion and concluding remarks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Purcell E. M. Spontaneous emission probabilities at radio frequencies. Physical Review 1946; 69, 681.'},{id:"B2",body:'Kleppner D. Inhibited Spontaneous Emission. Physical Review Letters 1981; 47 (4) 233-236, DOI: /10.1103/PhysRevLett.47.233.'},{id:"B3",body:'Drexhage K. H. Interaction of light with monomolecular dye layers. In: Wolf E. (ed.) Progress in Optics. New York: North-Holland; 1974. vol. 12, p. 165.'},{id:"B4",body:'Goy P., Raimond J. M., Gross M., Haroche S. Observation of Cavity-Enhanced Single-Atom Spontaneous Emission. Physical Review Letters 1983; 50 (24) 1903-1906, DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.50.1903.'},{id:"B5",body:'Hulet R. G., Hilfer E. S., Kleppner D. 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Dissipation in Quantum Mechanics. The Harmonic Oscillator. II. Physical Review 1961; 124 (3) 642-648, DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev.124.642.'},{id:"B45",body:'Senitzky I. R. Dissipation in Quantum Mechanics. The Two-Level System. Physical Review 1963; 131 (6) 2827-2838, DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev.131.2827.'},{id:"B46",body:'Lax M. Quantum Noise. IV. Quantum Theory of Noise Sources. Physical Review 1966; 145 (1) 110-129, DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev.145.110.'},{id:"B47",body:'Dekker H. A note on the exact solution of the dynamics of an oscillator coupled to a finitely extended one-dimensional mechanical field and the ensuing quantum mechanical ultraviolet divergence. Physics Letters A 1984; 104 (2) 72-76, DOI: 10.1016/0375-9601(84)90965-4.'},{id:"B48",body:'Dekker H. Particles on a string: Towards understanding a quantum mechanical divergence. Physics Letters A 1984; 105 (8) 395-400, DOI: 10.1016/0375-9601(84)90715-1.'},{id:"B49",body:'Dekker H. 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Saucedo-Muñoz, Victor M. Lopez-Hirata and Hector J. Dorantes-Rosale",authors:[{id:"76298",title:"Dr.",name:"Víctor Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"López-Hirata",fullName:"Víctor Manuel López-Hirata",slug:"victor-manuel-lopez-hirata"},{id:"103382",title:"Prof.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Saucedo-Muñoz",fullName:"Maribel Saucedo-Muñoz",slug:"maribel-saucedo-munoz"},{id:"107864",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Dorantes-Rosales",fullName:"Hector Dorantes-Rosales",slug:"hector-dorantes-rosales"}]},{id:"30936",title:"Cutting Mechanism of Sulfurized Free-Machining Steel",slug:"cutting-mechanism-of-sulfurized-free-machining-steel",signatures:"Junsuke Fujiwara",authors:[{id:"105232",title:"Dr.",name:"Junsuke",middleName:null,surname:"Fujiwara",fullName:"Junsuke Fujiwara",slug:"junsuke-fujiwara"}]},{id:"30937",title:"Catalyst Characterization with FESEM/EDX by the Example of Silver-Catalyzed Epoxidation of 1,3-Butadiene",slug:"catalyst-characterization-with-fesem-edx-by-the-example-of-the-epoxidation-of-1-3-butadiene-",signatures:"Thomas N. Otto, Wilhelm Habicht, Eckhard Dinjus and Michael Zimmerman",authors:[{id:"114899",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Otto",fullName:"Thomas Otto",slug:"thomas-otto"}]},{id:"30938",title:"Fractal Analysis of Micro Self-Sharpening Phenomenon in Grinding with Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN) Wheels",slug:"fractal-analysis-of-self-sharpening-phenomenon-in-grinding-with-cubic-boron-nitride-cbn-wheel-",signatures:"Yoshio Ichida",authors:[{id:"105836",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshio",middleName:null,surname:"Ichida",fullName:"Yoshio Ichida",slug:"yoshio-ichida"}]},{id:"30939",title:"Evolution of Phases in a Recycled Al-Si Cast Alloy During Solution Treatment",slug:"evolution-of-phases-in-a-recycled-al-si-cast-alloy-during-solution-treatment",signatures:"Eva Tillová, Mária Chalupová and Lenka Hurtalová",authors:[{id:"23964",title:"Prof.",name:"Mária",middleName:null,surname:"Chalupová",fullName:"Mária Chalupová",slug:"maria-chalupova"},{id:"100623",title:"Prof.",name:"Eva",middleName:null,surname:"Tillova",fullName:"Eva Tillova",slug:"eva-tillova"},{id:"135822",title:"Dr.",name:"Lenka",middleName:null,surname:"Hurtalová",fullName:"Lenka Hurtalová",slug:"lenka-hurtalova"}]},{id:"30940",title:"Strength and Microstructure of Cement Stabilized Clay",slug:"strength-and-microstructure-of-cement-stabilized-clay",signatures:"Suksun Horpibulsuk",authors:[{id:"103519",title:"Prof.",name:"Suksun",middleName:"-",surname:"Horpibulsuk",fullName:"Suksun Horpibulsuk",slug:"suksun-horpibulsuk"}]},{id:"30948",title:"FE-SEM Characterization of Some Nanomaterial",slug:"fe-sem-characterization-of-some-nanomaterials-",signatures:"A. Alyamani and O. M. Lemine",authors:[{id:"99805",title:"Dr.",name:"O.Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Lemine",fullName:"O.Mohamed Lemine",slug:"o.mohamed-lemine"},{id:"120388",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmaed",middleName:null,surname:"Alyamani",fullName:"Ahmaed Alyamani",slug:"ahmaed-alyamani"}]},{id:"30949",title:"A Study of the Porosity of Activated Carbons Using the Scanning Electron Microscope",slug:"a-study-of-the-porosity-of-activated-carbons-using-the-scanning-elctrom-microscope",signatures:"Osei-Wusu Achaw",authors:[{id:"107889",title:"Dr.",name:"Osei-Wusu",middleName:null,surname:"Achaw",fullName:"Osei-Wusu Achaw",slug:"osei-wusu-achaw"}]},{id:"30950",title:"Study of Structure and Failure Mechanisms in ACA Interconnections Using SEM",slug:"study-of-structure-and-failure-mechanisms-in-aca-interconnections-using-sem",signatures:"Laura Frisk",authors:[{id:"110630",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Frisk",fullName:"Laura Frisk",slug:"laura-frisk"}]},{id:"30951",title:"Exploring the Superconductors with Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)",slug:"exploring-the-superconductors-with-scanning-electron-microscopy-sem-",signatures:"Shiva Kumar Singh, Devina Sharma, M. Husain, H. Kishan, Ranjan Kumar and V.P.S. Awana",authors:[{id:"105419",title:"Mr.",name:"Shiva",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Singh",fullName:"Shiva Kumar Singh",slug:"shiva-kumar-singh"},{id:"109865",title:"Prof.",name:"Mushahid",middleName:null,surname:"Husain",fullName:"Mushahid Husain",slug:"mushahid-husain"},{id:"109866",title:"Dr.",name:"V. P. S.",middleName:null,surname:"Awana",fullName:"V. P. S. Awana",slug:"v.-p.-s.-awana"},{id:"137474",title:"MSc.",name:"Devina",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",fullName:"Devina Sharma",slug:"devina-sharma"},{id:"137475",title:"Dr.",name:"H.",middleName:null,surname:"Kishan",fullName:"H. Kishan",slug:"h.-kishan"},{id:"143941",title:"Dr.",name:"Ranjan",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Ranjan Kumar",slug:"ranjan-kumar"}]},{id:"30952",title:"Morphological and Photovoltaic Studies of TiO2 NTs for High Efficiency Solar Cells",slug:"morphological-and-photovoltaic-studies-of-tio2-nanotubes-for-high-efficiency-solar-cells",signatures:"Mukul Dubey and Hongshan He",authors:[{id:"107873",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongshan",middleName:null,surname:"He",fullName:"Hongshan He",slug:"hongshan-he"},{id:"107874",title:"Mr.",name:"Mukul",middleName:null,surname:"Dubey",fullName:"Mukul Dubey",slug:"mukul-dubey"}]},{id:"30953",title:"Synthesis and Characterisation of Silica/Polyamide-Imide Composite Film for Enamel Wire",slug:"synthesis-and-characterization-of-spherical-silica-polyamide-imide-composite-film-for-enamel-wire",signatures:"Xiaokun Ma and Sun-Jae Kim",authors:[{id:"105601",title:"Prof.",name:"Sun-Jae",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Sun-Jae Kim",slug:"sun-jae-kim"},{id:"107938",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaokun",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Xiaokun Ma",slug:"xiaokun-ma"}]},{id:"30954",title:"Scanning Electron Microscope for Characterising of Micro- and Nanostructured Titanium Surfaces",slug:"scanning-electron-microscope-for-characterising-of-micro-and-nanostructured-titanium-surfaces-",signatures:"Areeya Aeimbhu",authors:[{id:"99729",title:"Dr.",name:"Areeya",middleName:null,surname:"Aeimbhu",fullName:"Areeya Aeimbhu",slug:"areeya-aeimbhu"}]},{id:"30955",title:"Application of Scanning Electron Microscopy for the Morphological Study of Biofilm in Medical Devices",slug:"application-of-scanning-electron-microscopy-for-the-morphological-study-of-biofilm-in-medical-device",signatures:"R. M. Abd El-Baky",authors:[{id:"103658",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab Mahmoud",middleName:null,surname:"Abd El-Baky",fullName:"Rehab Mahmoud Abd El-Baky",slug:"rehab-mahmoud-abd-el-baky"}]},{id:"30956",title:"Interrelated Analysis of Performance and Fouling Behaviors in Forward Osmosis by Ex-Situ Membrane Characterizations",slug:"interrelated-analysis-of-performance-and-fouling-behaviors-in-forward-osmosis-by-ex-situ-membrane-ch",signatures:"Coskun Aydiner, Semra Topcu, Caner Tortop, Ferihan Kuvvet, Didem Ekinci, Nadir Dizge and Bulent Keskinler",authors:[{id:"109299",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Coskun",middleName:null,surname:"Aydiner",fullName:"Coskun Aydiner",slug:"coskun-aydiner"}]},{id:"30957",title:"Biodegradation of Pre-Aged Modified Polyethylene Films",slug:"biodegradation-of-pre-aged-modified-polyethylene-films",signatures:"Bożena Nowak, Jolanta Pająk and Jagna Karcz",authors:[{id:"103087",title:"Dr.",name:"Bożena",middleName:"Danuta",surname:"Nowak",fullName:"Bożena Nowak",slug:"bozena-nowak"},{id:"108409",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",middleName:null,surname:"Pająk",fullName:"Jolanta Pająk",slug:"jolanta-pajak"},{id:"108412",title:"Dr.",name:"Jagna",middleName:null,surname:"Karcz",fullName:"Jagna Karcz",slug:"jagna-karcz"}]},{id:"30958",title:"Surface Analysis Studies on Polymer Electrolyte Membranes Using Scanning Electron Microscope and Atomic Force Microscope",slug:"surface-analysis-studies-on-polymer-electrolyte-membranes-using-scanning-electron-microscope-and-ato",signatures:"M. Ulaganathan, R. Nithya and S. Rajendran",authors:[{id:"102326",title:"Dr.",name:"M",middleName:null,surname:"Ulaganathan",fullName:"M Ulaganathan",slug:"m-ulaganathan"},{id:"102329",title:"Prof.",name:"S",middleName:null,surname:"Rajendran",fullName:"S Rajendran",slug:"s-rajendran"}]},{id:"30959",title:"Characterization of Ceramic Materials Synthesized by Mechanosynthesis for Energy Applications",slug:"characterization-of-ceramic-materials-synthesized-by-mechanosynthesis-for-energy-applications",signatures:"Claudia A. Cortés-Escobedo, Félix Sánchez-De Jesús, Gabriel Torres-Villaseñor, Juan Muñoz-Saldaña and Ana M. Bolarín-Miró",authors:[{id:"39070",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Bolarin-Miro",fullName:"Ana Maria Bolarin-Miro",slug:"ana-maria-bolarin-miro"},{id:"106669",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"Cortés-Escobedo",fullName:"Claudia Alicia Cortés-Escobedo",slug:"claudia-alicia-cortes-escobedo"},{id:"107412",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Munoz-Saldana",fullName:"Juan Munoz-Saldana",slug:"juan-munoz-saldana"},{id:"107419",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez-De Jesus",fullName:"Felix Sanchez-De Jesus",slug:"felix-sanchez-de-jesus"},{id:"124602",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Torres-Villasenor",fullName:"Gabriel Torres-Villasenor",slug:"gabriel-torres-villasenor"}]},{id:"30960",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Environmental SEM: Suitable Tools for Study of Adhesion Stage and Biofilm Formation",slug:"scanning-electron-microscopy-sem-and-environnmental-sem-suitable-tools-for-study-of-adhesion-stage-a",signatures:"Soumya El Abed, Saad Koraichi Ibnsouda, Hassan Latrache and Fatima Hamadi",authors:[{id:"102518",title:"Dr.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"El Abed",fullName:"Soumya El Abed",slug:"soumya-el-abed"},{id:"135701",title:"Prof.",name:"Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Koraichi Ibnsouda",fullName:"Saad Koraichi Ibnsouda",slug:"saad-koraichi-ibnsouda"},{id:"135703",title:"Prof.",name:"Latrache",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",fullName:"Latrache Hassan",slug:"latrache-hassan"},{id:"135704",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamadi",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",fullName:"Hamadi Fatima",slug:"hamadi-fatima"}]},{id:"30961",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy Study of Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Nanocomposites",slug:"scanning-electron-microscopy-study-of-fiber-reinforced-polymeric-nanocomposites",signatures:"Mohammad Kamal Hossain",authors:[{id:"104713",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",fullName:"Mohammad Hossain",slug:"mohammad-hossain"}]},{id:"30962",title:"Preparation and Characterization of Dielectric Thin Films by RF Magnetron-Sputtering with (Ba0.3Sr0.7)(Zn1/3Nb2/3)O3 Ceramic Target",slug:"preparation-and-characterization-of-dielectric-thin-films-by-rf-magnetron-sputtering-with-ba0-3sr0-7",signatures:"Feng Shi",authors:[{id:"24821",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Shi",fullName:"Feng Shi",slug:"feng-shi"}]},{id:"30963",title:"Microstructural and Mineralogical Characterization of Clay Stabilized Using Calcium-Based Stabilizers",slug:"microstructural-and-mineralogical-characterization-of-clay-stabilized-using-calcium-based-stabilizer",signatures:"Pranshoo Solanki and Musharraf Zaman",authors:[{id:"20942",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranshoo",middleName:null,surname:"Solanki",fullName:"Pranshoo Solanki",slug:"pranshoo-solanki"},{id:"20945",title:"Prof.",name:"Musharraf",middleName:null,surname:"Zaman",fullName:"Musharraf Zaman",slug:"musharraf-zaman"}]},{id:"30964",title:"The Use of ESEM in Geobiology",slug:"the-use-of-esem-in-geobiology",signatures:"Magnus Ivarsson and Sara Holmström",authors:[{id:"109413",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Ivarsson",fullName:"Magnus Ivarsson",slug:"magnus-ivarsson"},{id:"135734",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Holmström",fullName:"Sara Holmström",slug:"sara-holmstrom"}]},{id:"30965",title:"How Log Interpreter Uses SEM Data for Clay Volume Calculation",slug:"how-log-interpreter-uses-sem-data-to-estimate-a-reservoir-clay-volume-",signatures:"Mohammadhossein Mohammadlou and Mai Britt Mørk",authors:[{id:"103154",title:"PhD.",name:"Mohammadhossein",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadlou",fullName:"Mohammadhossein Mohammadlou",slug:"mohammadhossein-mohammadlou"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"68137",title:"The Potential of Insect Farming to Increase Food Security",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88106",slug:"the-potential-of-insect-farming-to-increase-food-security",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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Entomophagy is prevalent in many regions, and ~1500–2000 species of insects and other invertebrates are consumed by 3000 ethnic groups across 113 countries in Asia, Australia and Central and South America [1]. Africa, where more than 500 species are consumed daily, is a hotspot of edible insect biodiversity [2, 3]. In Thailand, entomophagy has spread to the south from the north-east as people migrate towards city centres. It has become so popular that >150 species are sold in the markets of Bangkok [4]. The most common edible insects are moths, cicadas, beetles, mealworms, flies, grasshoppers and ants [5]. Although human insectivory is an ancient practice and 80% of the world’s population consumes insects, it is relatively uncommon in contemporary Western culture. In many regions that have traditionally eaten insects, the practice is declining due to globalisation, and their consumption has decreased over the last decade as agriculture and living standards change, and the availability of wild-caught insects has decreased [6, 7, 8].
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This chapter reviews and provides an accessible synthesis of the literature surrounding the potential of insects to alleviate food security while promoting food sovereignty and integrating social acceptability. These are immediate and current problems of food security and nutrition that must be solved to meet the Sustainable Development Goals [3, 9].
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2. Food insecurity
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Food insecurity is created when food is unavailable, unaffordable, unevenly distributed or unsafe to eat. Inefficiencies in the current food production system generate inconsistencies between the demand and supply of food resources, which is exacerbated by the diminution of pastures and increasing demand for food. Thirty percent of land is already used for agriculture, but 70% of this is used for macro-livestock production, an industry which consumes 77 million tonnes of plant protein only to produce 58 million tonnes of animal protein per year. This animal protein is not evenly distributed across the globe, as the average person in a ‘developed’ country consumes 40 g more protein a day than the average person in a ‘developing’ country [10]. The demand for affordable and sustainable protein is high, while animal protein is becoming more expensive and less accessible in some regions, especially in Africa [11].
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To ensure food access and to alleviate poverty, there is a particular need for investment into Africa’s agricultural potential as this continent will soon account for 50% of the world’s population growth. Currently, Africa has 25% of all undernourished people worldwide, and the income gap between rural and urban areas drives rapid urbanisation; this is decreasing the agricultural workforce [12, 13]. With substantial food insecurity and rising food prices, one in six people dies from malnutrition and hunger, and more than 1 billion people are undernourished, triggering 1/3 of the child disease burden [10, 14]. Effects are worse in the populations that already have high rates of malnutrition, such as Zambia, where chronic undernutrition is 45% and causes 52% of deaths in the population under the age of 5. Over 800 million people are thought to have a food energy deficit average of >80 kcal/day/person [3, 15].
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The prospect of global food shortage grows as the world’s population is estimated to increase to 9 billion by 2050. The conventional meat production system will not be able to respond sufficiently to the increase in demand. Per capita, meat consumption is expected to increase by 9% in high-income countries by 2030, and the increase in world crop prices will increase the price of meat by 18–21% [16]. Systems with a low carbon footprint must be promoted according to the economic and cultural restraints of the region by modifying animal feed from soy meal to locally sourced feed [17]. Any expansion of agricultural land must be mitigated to reduce losses in natural ecosystems. Therefore, our increasing population will need to be fed from the same area of land available now [18].
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Climate change is also a growing threat to global food security as this is reducing the area of land available to agriculture [10], and future cereal yields are predicted to decrease, especially in low-latitude areas. The poorest countries will suffer the worst consequences of climate change, which will increase both malnutrition and poverty. To prevent future undernutrition and to decrease current levels, food access and socioeconomic conditions must improve globally [14]. With this climate change-driven prediction of reduced agricultural yields in most countries given current crop practices and varieties, it is therefore necessary to increase the diversity and sustainability of crop supply so that food insecurity is not exacerbated [15].
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3. Nutritional potential of edible insects
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In general, insects have a higher quality of nutrition than macro-livestock in terms of protein, lipids, carbohydrates and vitamins [10]. Insects have high crude protein levels of 40–75%, contain all essential amino acids, are rich in fatty acids and have a high proportion of dietary fibre, and it has been further suggested that there are health benefits from eating chitin through enhancement of gut flora and antibiotic properties, though it is not known how insect fibre specifically affects human health [19].
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In a study of the calorific value of 94 insect species, 50% were higher than soybeans, 87% higher than maize, 63% higher than beef and 70% higher than fish [10]. The composition of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in mealworms is comparable to that of fish, and other insects with ideal fatty acid ratios are house crickets, short-tailed crickets, Bombay locusts and scarab beetles [20]. Some insect species have micronutrients not found in some conventional animal proteins, such as riboflavin in termites and high concentrations of thiamine in silk moth larvae (224.7% daily human requirement) and palm weevils (201.3%) compared to chicken (5.4%). Mealworms have a higher content of protein (all essential amino acids), calcium, vitamin C, thiamine, vitamin A and riboflavin per kg than beef. Although the nutritional content of many insects is well-described in the literature, there is a variation depending on diet, sex, life stage, origin and environmental factors, and the realised nutritional content also depends on preparation and cooking [21, 22, 23].
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Insect consumption has the potential to reduce hunger on a global scale as they are nutrient dense as well as calorie dense. A calorie deficit of 1500 kcal/day could be addressed by rearing 1 kg/day of crickets in 10 m2 while also providing the recommended daily amount of lysine, methionine, cysteine, tryptophan, zinc and vitamin B12. Not only do insects provide calories and nutrients, but they are also cost-effective, easily grown and can be environmentally sustainable when incorporated into a circular production system using organic side streams.
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4. The rise of insect farming
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Until the end of the twentieth century, the most common way to collect insects worldwide was by wild harvest (circa 90%), and the tradition of collecting and eating insects from the wild is seen in many cultures. Though seasonality limits consistent availability, traditional regulation patterns can mitigate this and maintain locally sustainable sources [24, 25]. Wild catch is declining in many areas with many factors contributing to this including land conversion, overexploitation and urbanisation [7]. With insects acknowledged to be key to the delivery of many ecosystem services, their conservation in natural ecosystems is now paramount [26, 27]. In response, the farming of edible insects is now rising from being only a minor component of the market and should be promoted to improve quality and supply as well as to limit the environmental impacts of wild harvesting [11, 28].
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No matter the scale of insect farming, the economic benefits boost food security in terms of availability and accessibility and at the same time improve dietary quality and contribute to both gender equity and livelihoods. At the community scale, more than 20,000 small farmers in Thailand profitably produce crickets; in Laos, the majority of insect vendors are illiterate females who may earn c$5/day; in Uganda and Kenya, the Flying Food Project supports expansion of small-scale farms into local and greater value chain markets [20, 29, 30]. By integrating mini-livestock farming into current agricultural systems, the access to edible insects could be improved and simultaneously provide co-benefits such as female employment and a high-grade compost contribution to the enhancement of soil fertility [28]. Harvesting insects as a by-product of another industry also has substantial potential but needs more widespread implementation and cultural assimilation. For example, domesticated silkworms for the textile industry can be eaten in the pupa stage, and palm weevils reared on felled palm trees could be moved into more formal production [15]. Insect farming is now moving into western markets and developing technologically refined production systems. The French company Ynsect has raised $175 M for expansion, and the USA edible insect market is predicted to increase by 43% in the coming 5 years [31, 32]. There are different costs and benefits at all scales (Figure 1), though all may have an important place in future food security.
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Figure 1.
Trade-offs in the scale of production needed to maximise food sovereignty relative to the technology and initial funding needed. X axis: 0 = none needed, 1 = high setup costs needed. Y axis: 0 = no food sovereignty, 1 = complete food sovereignty.
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5. The environmental advantage of insect farming
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In general, insects have a lower consumption of energy and resources than conventional animal livestock. Insects are poikilothermic, so they expend less energy, are more efficient in transforming phytomass into zoomass and have higher fecundity and growth rates and a higher rate of matter assimilation. On average, an insect only needs 2 g of food per gramme of weight gained, whereas a cow needs 8 g of food. Not only is the efficiency of insect production higher because of the feed conversion ratio (Table 1) but also because the edible portion of insects is higher as crickets can be eaten whole, but we only eat 40% of a cow, 58% of a chicken and 55% of a pig [8, 10, 33].
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Cricket
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Poultry
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Pork
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Beef
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Feed conversion ratio (kg feed: kg live weight)
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1.7
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2.5
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5
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10
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Edible portion (%)
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80
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55
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55
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40
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Feed (kg: kg edible weight)
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2.1
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4.5
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9.1
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25
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Table 1.
Efficiencies of production of conventional meat and crickets [17].
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Edible insects are an environmentally attractive alternative to conventional livestock because they require less feed and water; they produce lower levels of greenhouse gases and can be raised in small spaces. Worldwide, livestock contributes to 18% of greenhouse gas emissions, which, in light of global warming and climate change, favours the less resource-intensive insect production which emits fewer greenhouse gases by a factor of 100 [3, 28].
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Insects can be a renewable food source in the future as many edible species can consume agricultural and food waste or culinary by-products, but there remain important research gaps in understanding the effects of variable feedstocks as most case studies use high-grade feed [10, 15, 28]. Such organic side streams could be used to reduce the environmental impact of insect farming while simultaneously creating a novel, circular waste-processing income. Throughout the world, 1/3 of all food is wasted, and household food waste is 70% of the post-farm total. If food waste was its own country, it would be the third largest emitter of greenhouse gases after the USA and China [30]. Food waste is expected to increase in the future with a continually growing and increasingly urbanised global population adopting ‘modern’ lifestyles.
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It is challenging and wasteful to commercialise traditional composting of multiple waste streams on a large scale, but waste can be fed directly to insects to convert low-value biomass into higher-value insect mass. By valorising waste as feed, it may mitigate the impact of the food industry. Some fly (Diptera) species are known to be able to convert agricultural manure into body mass and reduce the waste dry matter by 58%. For food waste the conversion is as high as 95% leaving the remainder as a high-grade soil improver [30, 33].
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6. Acceptability of eating insects as animal protein
\n
The feasibility of promoting edible insect farming as sustainable protein depends on social acceptance, as the benefits cannot be realised if people do not choose to eat insects. The understanding of current perceptions, which often depend on class, location, gender and age, is essential to any market development. In some locations, newly urbanised citizens view insects as pests or as poor person’s food [7]. Although in this particular case, acceptance does depend on the insect itself, as there is an inferiority complex associated with wild harvesting of insects. In the Western world, insects are largely unfamiliar and mostly viewed as holiday novelty or ‘yuk’; thus, awareness of local taboos, cultural preferences and the population’s exposure to insects as food are crucial for the successful promotion of insect farming for food [3, 15, 34].
\n
In many urban and developed populations, a central issue is food neophobia, but after taking the first step in trying an insect, continued exposure correlates with increased acceptance. Processed insect products such as cookies, snack bars or powders further normalise the protein source [34, 35]. Conventional meat has a special status in society, both culturally and structurally in meals, so a sustainable culinary culture must be promoted in order to associate insect protein with pleasurable food [17].
\n
There are also risk considerations with the dissemination of novel foods and novel production pathways. Possible effects of prolonged insect consumption are nutrient malabsorption, growth alteration, allergy risk and contamination, and more research is needed into the digestion and absorption of insects in the human body [36]. Intensive insect farming runs risks of microbial infestation, parasites and pesticides. Preventative approaches, such as probiotics, transgenerational immune priming or heat treatment, and measured responses such as those advocated by Integrated Crop Management (ICM) will develop with the industry [20, 37]. There are other limitations in the lack of protocols in storage and decontamination, and although international regulation is underway, these ancient foods are currently classified the EU as novel foods [38].
\n
\n
\n
7. Conclusion
\n
The issue of food security is multi-faceted, and each country’s solution will be different. Tackling food security requires responses that are both innovative and culturally appropriate. Farming insect livestock has the potential to alleviate food insecurity while promoting food sovereignty, especially if it is integrated with social acceptability in mind. Engagement of all stakeholders on the production and consumption sides and continued support for and from them will be vital for the success of its implementation. Commercial farming is growing across Europe and the North American continent, though a question yet to be answered at a wider scale is how edible insect farming can be increased and deployed in a way that benefits all parties, including especially the most vulnerable. We have overviewed the field and hope that this synthesis of much important work along with the exemplar production model of Figure 2 can provide encouragement and compact information to those seeking to evaluate the future of farmed insect production.
\n
Figure 2.
Idealised schematic of the inputs and outputs of a sustainable production model for insect farming.
\n
There is currently too little research available on the integration of insect farming with existing agricultural systems, and future solutions require the coordination of international, national and legal frameworks. With this in place, the future food revolution will be more able to directly benefit the poor and be environmentally sustainable [39].
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors wish to thank Harry McDade who contributed to the discussions on this topic. Thanks also go to the many who have written so passionately on this topic and to the inspiring Arnold van Huis; may these efforts eventually bear fruit, or larvae. Particular thoughts go to Dr. Marianne Schockley of the University of Georgia, Athens, GA, who advocated so ably and enthusiastically for Entomophagy in the USA.
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
\n
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Food insecurity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Nutritional potential of edible insects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The rise of insect farming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. The environmental advantage of insect farming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Acceptability of eating insects as animal protein",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'MacEvilly C. Bugs in the system. Nutrition Bulletin. 2000;25(4):267-268'},{id:"B2",body:'Kelemu S, Niassy S, Torto B, Fiaboe K, Affognon H, Tonnang H, et al. African edible insects for food and feed: Inventory, diversity, commonalities and contribution to food security. 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Safety of novel protein sources (insects, microalgae, seaweed, duckweed, and rapeseed) and legislative aspects for their application in food and feed production. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2013;12:662-678'},{id:"B18",body:'Oonincx DGAB, de Boer IJM. Environmental impact of the production of mealworms as a protein source for humans: A life cycle assessment. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:12'},{id:"B19",body:'Ozimek L, Sauer WC, Kozikowski V, Ryan JK, Jørgensen H, Jelen P. Nutritive value of protein extracted from honey bees. Journal of Food Science. 1985;50(5):1327-1329'},{id:"B20",body:'Barennes H, Phimmasane M, Rajaonarivo C. Insect consumption to address undernutrition, a national survey on the prevalence of insect consumption among adults and vendors in Laos. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(8)'},{id:"B21",body:'Payne CLR, Scarborough P, Rayner M, Nonaka K. Are edible insects more or less “healthy” than commonly consumed meats? A comparison using two nutrient profiling models developed to combat over- and undernutrition. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2016;70(3):285-291'},{id:"B22",body:'van Huis A, Oonincx DGAB. The environmental sustainability of insects as food and feed: A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 2017;35(7):1-14'},{id:"B23",body:'Banjo A, Lawal O, Sononga E. The nutritional value of fourteen species of edible insects in southwestern Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2006;5:298-301'},{id:"B24",body:'Illgner P, Nel E. The geography of edible insects in sub-Saharan Africa: A study of the mopane caterpillar. The Geographical Journal. 2000;166(4):336-351'},{id:"B25",body:'Mbata KJ, Chidumayo EN, Lwatula CM. Traditional regulation of edible caterpillar exploitation in the Kopa area of Mpika district in northern Zambia. Journal of Insect Conservation. 2002;6(115)'},{id:"B26",body:'Losey JE, Vaughn M. The economic value of ecological services provided by insects. Bioscience. 2006;56(4):311'},{id:"B27",body:'Sánchez-Bayo F, Wyckhuys KAG. Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers. Biological Conservation. 2019;232:8-27'},{id:"B28",body:'Nadeau L, Nadeau I, Franklin F, Dunkel F. The potential for entomophagy to address undernutrition. Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 2015;54(3):200-208'},{id:"B29",body:'Halloran A, Vantomme P, Hanboonsong Y, Ekesi S. Regulating edible insects: The challenge of addressing food security, nature conservation, and the erosion of traditional food culture. Food Security. 2015;7(3):739-746'},{id:"B30",body:'Entomics. Entomics [Internet]. Available from: www.entomics.com'},{id:"B31",body:'Ynsect [Internet]. 2019. Available from: http://www.ynsect.com/en/'},{id:"B32",body:'Ahuja K, Deb S. Edible insects: Market size by product, by application, industry analysis report, regional outlook, application potential, price trends, competitive market share and forecast, 2018-2024. Delaware, USA: Global Market Insights; 2018'},{id:"B33",body:'van Huis A, Klunder JVIH, Merten E, Halloran A, Vantomme P. Edible Insects. Future Prospects for Food and Feed Security. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2013'},{id:"B34",body:'Collins CM, Vaskou P, Kountouris Y. Insect food products in the Western world: Assessing the potential of a new ‘green’ market. Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 2019. IN PRESS'},{id:"B35",body:'Hartmann C, Siegrist M. Becoming an insectivore: Results of an experiment. Food Quality and Preference. 2016;51:118-122'},{id:"B36",body:'Testa M, Stillo M, Maffei G, Andriolo V, Gardois P, Zotti CM. Ugly but tasty: A systematic review of possible human and animal health risks related to entomophagy. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2017'},{id:"B37",body:'Grau T, Vilcinskas A, Joop G. Sustainable farming of the mealworm Tenebrio molitor for the production of food and feed. Zeitschrift fur Naturforschung: Section C Journal of Biosciences. 2017;72(9):337-349'},{id:"B38",body:'Finke MD, Rojo S, Roos N, van Huis A, Yen AL. The European food safety authority scientific opinion on a risk profile related to production and consumption of insects as food and feed. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed. 2015;1(4):245-247'},{id:"B39",body:'Conway G, Wilson K. One Billion Hungry. 1st Editio ed. Ithaca, N.Y.: Comstock Publ. Assoc; 2012'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Flora Dickie",address:null,affiliation:'
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