values of abundance, dominance, relative frequency and IVI of various plants species characterizing cocoa agroforestry systems in the 3 villages.
\r\n\t• Role of technological innovation and corporate risk management
\r\n\t• Challenges for corporate governance while launching corporate environmental management among emerging economies
\r\n\t• Demonstrating the relationship between environmental risk management and sustainable management
\r\n\t• Contemplating strategic corporate environmental responsibility under the influence of cultural barriers
\r\n\t• Risk management in different countries – the international management dimension
\r\n\t• Global Standardization vs local adaptation of corporate environmental risk management in multinational corporations.
\r\n\t• Is there a transnational approach to environmental risk management?
\r\n\t• Approaches towards Risk management strategies in the short-term and long-term.
The concept of REDD+ is always limited to emissions due to deforestation and the increase of carbon sink in land use systems. In order to contribute to the fight against climate change issues in Cameroon, we should develop suitable proposals which target the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) [1]. The particularity of these projects is to reduce the emission of CO2.
Agroforestry can be defined as a collective name for land use systems and technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboo, etc.) are deliberately used on the same land management units as agricultural crops [2]. Agroforestry can provide benefits as (i) linking poor households to markets for high-value fruits, (ii) balancing improved productivity with the sustainable management of natural resources, and (iii) maintaining or enhancing the supply of environmental services in agriculture and landscapes for water, soil health, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation [3, 4]. In our land use systems, there are non-timber forest products (NTFPs). They are considered with higher potentialities as medicinal and economic values which contribute to break the chain of poverty in rural areas [5, 6]. T. conophorum (Photograph 1) is a local vine from the Euphorbiaceae family which is also called African walnut, cashew nut, conophor seeds, or conophor nuts [7, 8, 9]. This species has several properties such as cholesterol-lowering and triglyceride-lowering properties which have been reported [10]. The nutritional properties of seeds have also been fully demonstrated [11, 12, 13].
Fruits of Tetracarpidium conophorum assessed in Rionong village.
During some inventories, it was estimated that tropical forests can store more than 200 t C/ha in trees [14]. Carbon management in agroforestry systems is a new global concern to mitigate the increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere in Congo Basin countries. Reforestation cover and finding low-cost methods to sequester carbon in land use systems are emerging tools. As trees grow and their biomass increases, they absorb carbon from the atmosphere and store in the plant tissues and roots. We need to contribute to the Reduction of Emissions derived from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+). Carbon stock sink varies following the type of trees, and it has been demonstrated that diameter at breast height (DBH) and height are important factors in carbon stock sink variation [15]. Several studies were carried out on the biomass and carbon stock assessment in all ecosystems all over the world [16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. These aspects have been partially studied, and there is only a limited amount of work which upholds the notion of the potential of diversity and associated species with Tetracarpidium conophorum in agroforestry systems which can contribute to mitigate effects of climate change and improve livelihood options of local farmers. At this time when natural ecosystems are disappearing at an alarming rate, it is clearly necessary today to outline the carbon sequestration potential of agroforestry systems, so that their compensatory role in the mitigation process of climate change be made known in Cameroon.
The study was carried out in the Mbam and Inoubou department in Cameroon (Figure 1) which appears to be a transitional area covered by forest and savannah. The main cultivation of species there is cocoa plantation. This area is located between 4′39 and 4′49 north and then 11′4 and 11′19 east. Altitude varies from 600 to 900 m [21]. We choose this site because it is located near Yaounde, which includes several markets around where the conophor nuts can be found. Secondly, it is classified among the main area in terms of productivity of T. conophorum fruit in Cameroon [13]. There are many vegetal formations that belong to Sterculiaceae (Pterygota macrocarpa, Sterculia tragacantha, Cola gigantea, Cola altissima, Cola cordifolia, Triplochiton scleroxylon, Mansonia altissima, etc.) and Ulmaceae (Celtis zenkeri, Celtis tessmannii) [22].
Localization of study site.
Floristic inventories were performed in cocoa-based agroforestry plantations where the liana (T. conophorum) is introduced for several purposes. Data were collected in nine sample plots of 2000 m2 in each sample village. Trees with a DBH > 5 cm were also assessed with the aim of evaluating the typology of cocoa agroforests associated with liana cultivation. In each plot, species were identified with the use of identification tool keys using various books [23, 24, 25] and various volumes of flora of Cameroon. Figure 2 illustrates the experimental design of inventories carried out in the various cocoa agroforestry sample plots where we record the presence of T. conophorum.
Experimental design of inventories carried out in cocoa based agroforests where T. conophorum is introduced.
AGB was performed using the methodology described by measuring carbon stock manual [26]. This method illustrated by Figure 3 consists in delimiting a main plot (2000 m2) where all trees with a dbh ≥ 30 cm have been recorded. Another subplot of 40 × 5 m was designed in order to assess trees (30 < dbh < 5 cm). In the subplot 40 × 5 m, other plots of 1 × 1 m were designed in order to collect litter and herbs of understory.
Details of sampling methods according to Hairiah et al. [26].
According to the following formula, we calculated structural parameters and determined the dominant species importance value index (IVI).
Frequency was estimated for each species with the formula F = (number of plot containing × species/total number of plot) × 100.
Abundance was estimated for each species using the formula A = (ni/N) × 100, where “ni” is the number of individuals of species i and “N” is the total of the flora.
The diversity was calculated using the Shannon index to compare the data of various sample sites in terms of diversity of plant species. ISH = −Σ pi log2 (pi), where “pi” is the frequency of species i (ni/N), “ni” is the number of individuals of species i, and “N” is the number of individuals of all species.
IVI = frequency + abundance + dominance [27].
Diversity parameters were also calculated according to the following formula:
Shannon index (H′) measures uncertainty about species belonging to a randomly selected individual in the sample. It is expressed according to the proportions of each species: The formula is H′ = −Σ = pi log2 (pi) with “pi” proportion of the species “i”.
Simpson index (D’) is a measure of dominance and expresses the probability that two individuals drawn at random from an infinite population belong to the same species. It is expressed from the “pi” frequencies of species where D’ = Σpi2. The value 0 of this index indicated a maximum diversity, while value 1 represents the minimum diversity.
The methodology used in this study was described in the document [1, 28] in cocoa agroforestry systems. Biomass was estimated using allometric model. We used allometric model of Chave [29] to evaluate carbon stock sink sequestration by each tree species. The formula is AGB = Exp (−2.977 + LN (DBH2Hρ)) where “ρ” is the wood density and “DBH” is the diameter at breast height. We, respectively, use the density of all those trees which correspond to each plant species according to wood density database of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). The total carbon stock sink in the selected trees was estimated by summing the values at the level of timbers, herbs, and litters.
To determine ecosystem services derived from the use of species in agroforests, we used ratio CO2/C (44/12) molecular weight to convert carbon stocks (tC/ha) into tCO2/ha and, thus, the total CO2 sequestrated in the farmer’s agroforestry demonstration plot [1, 28]. The transaction price for conservation was estimated at 10 US$/tCO2; we used this ratio to estimate the ecological service value derived from the utilization of those land use systems [30].
The results revealed during our inventories that in different cocoa-based agroforests in the Mbam and Inoubou a total of 230 plant species were recorded belonging to 16 families. These species was distributed as follow: Mouko (86 individuals representing 36% of the total number of individuals), Rionong (53 individuals representing 22% of the total number of individuals), and Nyamsong 3 (99 individuals representing 42% of the total number of individuals). Figure 4 represents that among the plant species families inventoried in the cocoa-based agroforestry plantations, the six main dominant families are Sterculiaceae, Burseraceae, Moraceae, Anacardiaceae, Bombacaceae, and Araliaceae.
Numbers of family plants species inventoried in the sampled villages in the Mbam and Inoubou.
Inventoried cocoa-based agroforestry sampling plots allow to represent relative abundance, relative dominance, relative frequency, and importance value index of species which enable us to characterize farmer’s cocoa agroforestry systems in the Mbam and Inoubou as illustrated by Table 1. As part of the results, we obtain a Shannon index estimated at 0.62, 0.66, and 0.68, respectively, while Simpson index was 1.421, 1.409, and 0.349, respectively, for Mouko, Rionong, and Nyamsong 3.
Scientific names | RA | DR/Ha | RF | IVI |
---|---|---|---|---|
Albizia zygia | 4.80 | 4.80 | 8.33 | 17.94 |
Canarium schweinfurthii | 3.77 | 3.77 | 5.88 | 13.42 |
Ceiba pentandra | 2.32 | 2.32 | 3.63 | 8.28 |
Celtis tessmannii | 1.16 | 1.16 | 1.81 | 4.14 |
Citrus sp | 3.77 | 3.77 | 5.88 | 13.42 |
Cola acuminata | 1.92 | 1.92 | 3.33 | 7.17 |
Dacryodes edulis | 5.81 | 5.81 | 9.09 | 20.71 |
Erythrophleum suaveolens | 2.32 | 2.32 | 3.63 | 8.28 |
Ficus exasperata | 3.84 | 3.84 | 6.66 | 14.35 |
Gambeya lacourtiana | 2.32 | 2.32 | 3.63 | 8.28 |
Mangifera indica | 12.79 | 12.79 | 20,00 | 45.58 |
Milicia excelsa | 2.32 | 2.32 | 3.63 | 8.28 |
Persea americana | 3.84 | 3.84 | 6.66 | 14.35 |
values of abundance, dominance, relative frequency and IVI of various plants species characterizing cocoa agroforestry systems in the 3 villages.
Notes: RA, relative abundance; RD= relative dominance/hectare; RF, relative frequency; IVI, importance value index.
During our inventories, we recorded a total number of 230 plant species in sampling plots where T. conophorum was present. With these results, it appears that 53 fruiting species represent 23% of the total number of individuals, while 149 cocoa trees represent 65% of the total number of individuals. And the rest of 28 other trees such as medicinal plants, highly marketable trees represent 12% of the total number of individuals as detailed in Table 2. From that table, it can be concluded that Nyamsong 3 village has the highest fruit tree rate (40%) compared to Mouko (36%) and Rionong (24%). Floristic inventories reveal that Mangifera indica is the most important species according to the dominant species importance value index (IVI). Classes of diameters obtained allow us to appreciate the behavior of the vegetation and the most dominant species. But we record that trees with a diameter (9–24 cm) are highly represented in the sampled area. Producers deliberately introduced fruiting species (Dacryodes edulis, Persea americana, etc.) in order to diversify their cocoa agroforests where T. conophorum stems are also introduced. In addition, 69–84 cm class represents trees with higher diameters, and they are present in the three various villages. This class of trees is made up of species such as Mangifera indica and Dacryodes edulis which appears as to be fruiting species used by producers in order to support the heavy weight of the liana.
Villages | Mouko | Rionong | Nyamsong 3 | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fruits trees | 19 | 13 | 21 | 53 |
36% | 24% | 40% | ||
Cocoa trees | 55 | 34 | 60 | 149 |
37% | 23% | 40% | ||
Others trees | 4 | 6 | 18 | 28 |
14% | 22% | 64% | ||
Total | 78 | 53 | 99 | 230 |
Diversity of plants species in cocoa based agroforestry plantations in order to diversify farmer’s income.
Results indicated that cocoa agroforestry plantations found in selected villages during sampling permit to assess aboveground biomass through various plant species. A diversity of plants were found, and they can help to estimate the quantity of carbon sink that each tree can store to contribute to fight against the effects of climate change in Congo Basin countries especially in Cameroon. The total carbon sequestered by those sampling plots in recorded villages was estimated at 92.03, 55.18, and 46.83 tC/ha, respectively, at Mouko, Rionong, and Nyamsong 3.
Ecological services are those derived from the use and utilization of plant species in a land use system. From our results, those services can be estimated as follows. The total amount of CO2/ha per village plots was estimated at 337.46, 202.32, and 171.71 tCO2/ha, respectively, for Mouko, Rionong, and Nyamsong 3. These results could be a significant importance for targeting the reduction of effects of climate modifications in Cameroon. Then, the ecological services which should be paid according to 10 US$ per ton of carbon was evaluated at 3374.6 $, 2023.2 $, and 1717.1 $ to the owner of the farms in the Mbam and Inoubou department.
Several ecological services can be derived from the utilization of trees in cocoa-based agroforestry systems. By including trees in agricultural systems, agroforestry can increase the amount of carbon stored in lands devoted to agriculture. We can have several services notably: provision services (diverse products as food, timber, and welfare of the household), regulation services (climatic variation moderation, carbon stock assessment), and support services (biodiversity conservation, soil fertility). Agroforestry can also have an indirect effect on carbon sequestration when it helps decrease pressure on natural forests, which are the largest sink of terrestrial carbon. Another indirect avenue of carbon sequestration is through the use of agroforestry technologies for soil conservation, which could enhance carbon storage in trees and soils.
Floristic inventories revealed the presence of several multipurpose fruiting tree species associated with the cultivation of T. conophorum in the Mbam and Inoubou cocoa-based agroforestry plantations. Our floristic inventories reveal the presence of 230 plant species belonging to 16 botanic families. We equally assess an important number of fruiting species which are associated at the cultivation of African walnut. However, these data are different by the ones [31, 32]. The results from the previous authors assess a diversity of 116 and 206 species, respectively, in cocoa agroforestry systems in Cameroon. Our results are different from the previous authors because producers intensively introduce fruiting species in their plantations for several ecosystem services. Carbon stock, soil fertilization, and reconstitution are the services provided by cocoa agroforestry systems that local producers can benefit from the integration of local fruiting species. From our results, we can say that cocoa agroforestry plantations have an important diversity in terms of fruiting and associated species. Nevertheless, our findings revealed the presence of the most three important families such as Sterculiaceae, Burseraceae, and Moraceae which are different from the other results [32, 33, 34] in the same agroecological area and in the center region in cocoa agroforestry plantations. This observation can be justified by the choice of species which are introduced by the producer at the moment of selection.
Concerning plant species composition, diversity indices calculated revealed that cocoa-based agroforests are less diversified. We obtain a Shannon index of 0.62, 0.66, and 0.68, while the Simpson index as 1.421, 1.409, and 0.349, respectively, for Mouko, Rionong, and Nyamsong 3. These results are different by the ones [35, 36, 37] who obtained values such as 4.39 and 4.63 for Shannon index. The Simpson index reveals the way species are distributed or dispatched within the different sites/cocoa agroforest sample sites. And, the results indicated that these agroforests are quite little bit diversified.
According to inventories and frequency of associated species, we noted that Mangifera indica was the most used fruiting species in cocoa-based agroforestry plantations in association with T. conophorum in the Mbam and Inoubou. Fruiting species are added to cocoa plantations according to the needs and preferences of local producers and also his desire to diversify his home garden or cocoa farm for more productivity. Another reason for introducing species is to diversify the source of income in order to improve livelihood options. On the other hand, Mangifera indica tree species are specially used by local producers as tutors for the liana (Photograph 2) because when growing it has a big stem and needs to be supported by a big tree in order to grow well and provide shade for cocoa plantations.
One of the biggest stems of Tetracarpidium conophorum found in Rionong village in cocoa agroforests.
The high percentage of fruiting tree species and useful species in cocoa agroforests and their increased abundance in the more intensely used landscape in the world reflect the fact that farmers intentionally introduce useful tree species in their environment. In Cameroon, one household lives with less than 1US$ per day, and that is why the presence of fruiting species in cocoa agroforests helps farmers achieve their basic needs of food, health, energy, and housing. Results published [32, 38] demonstrated that trees with edible products were the main common tree species found in cocoa agroforests. All are considered as agroforestry tree products (AFTPs) because they are derived from agroforestry trees in the same piece of land. We can have Dacryodes edulis, Mangifera indica, Citrus spp., Theobroma cocoa, Allanblackia floribunda, etc.
For this work, the estimated percentage of carbon stock sink sequestrated per locality varies as 92.03, 55.18, and 46.83 tC/ha, respectively, to Mouko, Rionong, and Nyamsong 3. Those values represent less than one-fourths of the biomass estimated in some selected agroforestry systems around natural forest stands in the Dja biosphere reserve in the East province of Cameroon. We can say that density and number of species can greatly impact the quantity of carbon sink in some land uses systems (LUS). Diversification is an important tool which contributes to mitigate effects of climate change and climate modifications [39, 34]. Considering the fact that each plant/tree specie can store a specific quantity of carbon through leaves and roots, it is therefore recommended to plant more species in our LUS in order to gather more carbon. Our results obtained on the carbon sink potential are important like the others conducted in cocoa agroforestry systems around the world. Results obtained in our study are superior in Mouko village (92.03 tC/ha), while different from the results found in [40] where the authors revealed an amount of 68.12 tC/ha at Kédia and 76.99 tC/ha at Ediolomo. These results demonstrated that carbon stock sink in cocoa-based agroforestry plantations is higher when there is more fruiting species and other useful tree species for the local producer. It can be explained by the fact that carbon sink depends on several parameters such as the quality and quantity of species which are introduced for diversification or shade purposes. Following this, a study was conducted on carbon stocks [34], and it reveals a higher amount of carbon sink (197.5 tC/ha) in the cocoa agroforests of Bokito in the same geographical area with the sampled localities. This amount of carbon is higher because during the creation of cocoa farms and local producers/farmers introduce several species (fruiting species and medicinal, etc.) in order to provide many services in the farm and then conserve more land for land restoration and protection. The presence of several species in our LUS increases the total quantity of CO2, which appears to be very high, thus explaining an important ecological and ecosystem service provided by those cocoa agroforests to local farmers and land owners.
This study was carried out in order to assess plant diversity and carbon stock assessment by some selected cocoa-based agroforests in the Mbam and Inoubou department of Cameroon. Then, the interest in this work was to show that some tree species introduced in cocoa-based agroforests can store an important quantity of carbon which will contribute to fight, reduce climate change modifications, and diversify farmer’s income during the year in order to improve livelihood options. We also estimate ecological services which can be derived from the utilization of those land use systems depending on the trees which have been integrated or associated according to farmer’s preferences and needs. We have shown that percentage of fruiting species within the villages was very high, and this demonstrates that cocoa-based agroforestry plantations sometimes need associated trees in order to provide shade for cocoa development. Moreover, we can recommend that cocoa agroforestry systems can also play an important key role in biodiversity conservation. Also, different species were found to be more or less as reported by other studies using the same methodologies, and we can note that characterization allows us to demonstrate the various family species of trees associated with cocoa agroforestry systems in the Mbam and Inoubou department.
The Congo Basin Grant Program (CBGP) has supported this research through a fellowship awarded to M. Patrick Bustrel Choungo through the Conservation Action Research Network (CARN). The authors of this paper will like to thank IDEA WILD Foundation for research materials support and also all farmers of the Department of Mbam and Inoubou who helped us to realize this study and allow us to work in their cocoa-based agroforests. We will finally give thanks to all the farmers who have accepted to answer our questionnaire sheets during this study and anonymous reviewers for their comments in order to improve the quality of the manuscript.
The hydrogel is one of the smart polymeric gels consisting of (physically or chemically) cross-linked polymer in water. Due to its hydrophobicity and biocompatibility properties, hydrogel has been an interesting biomaterial used commonly for biotechnological applications [1, 2, 3] and drug delivery systems [4, 5, 6]. The physically cross-linked hydrogels can be constructed by hydrogen bonds, crystallization, and ionic and protein interactions, whereas the chemically cross-linked hydrogels can be built by complex chemical reaction (aldehydes), high energy radiation, polymerization, and enzymes [1, 7, 8, 9]. There is a disadvantage for the hydrogels prepared by the chemically cross-linked agent and gamma irradiation, namely a toxic residue that might be harmful to biological tissue. Therefore, the physically cross-linked hydrogels are more preferable to be applied for biomedical purposes [8]. Basically, hydrogels are sensitive to some environmental variables, such as acidity level (pH), temperature, electromagnetic signal, light, pressure, and other stimuli, so that they can be applied based on the proper environmental condition [10, 11]. A review of a particular number of synthetic hydrogels for biomedical applications and tissue engineering has been discussed [4, 12, 13].
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is a biocompatible, water-soluble, and nontoxic synthetic polymer, which can be prepared to be a flexible material called PVA hydrogel. A physically cross-linked PVA hydrogel can be achieved by freezing-thawing (F-T) cyclic process [14, 15]. The networking gel structure, crystallinity, stability, and viscoelastic properties of the PVA hydrogels have been investigated [16, 17, 18, 19]. The properties of PVA hydrogels prepared by F-T process depend on the molecular weight and concentration of the aqueous PVA solution, temperature, time duration, and number of F-T cycle processes [20]. For instance, Li and coworkers have successfully produced a reversible gel using poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide) (PNIPA) and polyacrylamide (PAM), which can be controlled by external stimuli such as temperature [21].
It has been found that cross-linking density and crystallinity of PVA hydrogel influence the overall mechanical properties of a hydrogel. Gupta et al. [22] had studied the effect of PVA concentration on both modulus elasticity and tensile strength of PVA hydrogel. They found that both mechanical properties increased with increasing PVA concentration up to 16% due to a higher degree of crystallinity and developing hydrogen bond interaction in the PVA hydrogel. In contrast, it has also been shown that higher crystallinity of the hydrogel (obtained by increasing PVA concentration) may cause the increase of optical contact angle, indicating the decrease of water affinity [23]. This is one parameter that should be concerned for producing a stable PVA hydrogel. Moreover, it is revealed that the number of cyclic processes in the F-T method affects the degree of cross-linking density. A higher number of repeated cycle results in the decrease in the amount of not incorporated PVA in the networking structure of hydrogel meaning that the polymer chains of PVA are dispersed and unrelated each other [24].
In the tissue engineering, a transparent PVA hydrogel has been successfully developed as soft tissue substitution due to the similar microstructure and mechanical properties to that of the biological cells and organs [25]. PVA-based composite gels have been also intensively studied for wound healing, tissue replacement, and magnetic-controlled drug delivery devices [26, 27, 28]. Liu et al. [29] have demonstrated PVA hydrogel produced by the F-T process as one of the potential materials for an artificial blood vessel. Furthermore, the F-T process can be used widely for preparing and storing cell-laden hydrogels with adjustable mechanical properties [30].
One important key for organ replication in tissue engineering is a complete knowledge of microscopic, physical, and chemical properties based on the desired organ. Recent development of hydrogel technologies for mimicking natural tissue has been briefly reviewed [31]. It is crucial for constructing a tissue from hydrogel without causing significant cell damage. Investigation on a transparent PVA hydrogel as tissue-equivalent material in the surgical application has been conducted [32]. They have found that PVA hydrogels could be applied for a suitable substitution for soft tissue accuracy and surgical purposes. Forte et al. [33] have successfully developed a composite hydrogel (PVA hydrogel) to mimic brain tissue. They tried to vary the PVA concentration in order to tune the mechanical response of brain tissue within a wide range of stress/strain and testing conditions. In the brain tissue replica, it is important to study accurately the brain shift phenomenon between the abnormal and the normal one.
The magnetic hydrogel, or so-called ferrogel, is one of the “smart” polymeric composite gels containing micro- or nano-sized magnetic particles as filler in its polymeric matrix. There are some magnetite hydrogels (ferrogels) that have been successfully developed recently, namely PVA-Fe3O4-based hydrogel [34], Fe3O4-polyacrylamide (PAM) hydrogels [35], and Fe3O4-polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) hydrogels [36]. They have found that those magnetic nanocomposites forming magnetic hydrogels have superparamagnetic behavior due to the presence of dispersed magnetic nanoparticles in the polymeric matrix. The properties of superparamagnetic of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles itself have been investigated intensively [37]. A simulation study of deformation, elasticity, and magnetic response of magnetic nanoparticles cross-linked in a gel (polymeric matrix) has been conducted [38]. They have found that the degree of networking chains plays an important role in determining the stiffness and magnetosensitivity of the magnetic hydrogels. The sensitivity of magnetic response in the external magnetic field depends strongly on the volume fraction of both magnetic nanoparticles and polymeric base matrix influencing the interacting energy in the ferrogel [28]. They found an optimum magnetosensitivity with Fe3O4 and PVA concentration in the range of 17–34% and 10–12.5%, respectively.
Ferrogel is a new type of polymeric matrix composites, in which they are physically (or chemically) cross-linked polymer network containing dispersed magnetic particles. Zrínyi et al. [39] have synthesized ferrogel as a new promising material for magnetic-responsive applications. Ramanujan and Lao [40] and Reséndiz-Hernández et al. [41] have developed composite gels based on PVA and magnetite (Fe3O4) particles by conventional F-T process. Moreover, Hernández et al. [19] have reported the viscoelastic properties of PVA hydrogel and ferrogel prepared by F-T cyclic process. It has been revealed that the reinforcement effect from the magnetic particles, as well as the mechanical properties, of the PVA-Fe3O4 ferrogels depends on the size, possible agglomeration, and concentration (volume fraction) of the magnetic particles [42]. It has been noted that the concentration of Fe3O4 nanoparticles affects the thermal stability of the ferrogels [43]. As for the mechanical properties of the PVA-Fe3O4 ferrogels, it has been shown that the deflection and elongation parameters are dependent on the Fe3O4 concentration and external magnetic field strength [40] and the deformation is independent on the shape of ferrogels [44]. Experimentally, the magnetodeformation of the ferrogels with highly concentrated particles (approximately above 30%) is due to the effect of short range order and magnetic interaction among the particles [45, 46]. Furthermore, the structural and magnetic behavior of ferrogels has been intensively studied with the dispersed magnetic particle having average size less than 10 nm [47, 48].
Sunaryono et al. have shown that the hydrogels owing the threshold PVA concentration of 23% in water content have the best mechanical properties [49]. Moreover, the lower Fe3O4 concentration has been found to be responsible for a weak magnetic response due to the increase of particle free volume and the decrease of interaction energy between magnetic nanoparticles and the cross-linked PVA hydrogel [48]. However, Sunaryono et al. [48, 49] stated a crucial problem is related to the durability of the PVA hydrogels and ferrogels prepared by F-T cyclic process.
In this chapter, at first, we provide a study of PVA hydrogel application in tissue engineering. Then, it is continued by investigation of the durability of ferrogels prepared by F-T cyclic process. Finally, the structural and magnetic properties of ferrogels are discussed briefly.
The PVA polymeric powder (Mw = 60,000 g/mol, Merck Schuchardt OHG, Germany) with a degree of hydrolysis ≥98% was used for PVA solution. PVA hydrogels were fabricated by F-T cyclic process. First, the PVA polymer was dissolved in distilled water with a variation of weight compositions, namely 7.5, 10, 12.5, and 15 wt%. The solution was mixed and heated at 70–90°C to improve the solubility of the PVA polymer in water, as suggested in the previous papers [48, 50, 51]. Once the mixture was perfectly dissolved, indicated by a physical change from liquid to paste, it was then loaded into a cylindrical plastic mold followed by F-T process. The solution was cooled and kept at the frozen state at –10°C for 3 h. The process was continued by thawing at room temperature for 1 h. This F-T process was repeated to obtain PVA hydrogel samples up to five cycles. The PVA hydrogel samples were also prepared by varying the composition ratio of PVA and water as mentioned earlier.
The 1.5-T scanner (Signa Horizon; GE Medical Systems, Milwaukee, WI, USA) was used for the study of diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DW-MRI). Apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) value was obtained from MRI with diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) method following Stejskal-Tanner sequence. The ADC value was calculated by Functool software (GE Medical Systems) for each sample. The characterization steps were similar to the previous reports [50, 51].
The consistency measurement was conducted using a penetrometer (Precision 73,515, Petroleum Analyzer Co., San Antonio, TX, USA) using a pressure sensor. The penetrometer was set under gravity force for 5 s, and the depth of penetration was measured in tenths of millimeters. The depth of penetration depended on the kinetic energy applied to the penetrometer and the sample resistance. The resistance data were collected to obtain the consistency value describing the required mechanical force to decelerate from its initial velocity to zero velocity.
Fe3O4 nanoparticles were prepared by coprecipitation method employing natural iron sand as a raw material. The preparation was the same as explained in the former papers [48, 52]. First, iron sand was extracted by permanent magnet several times to obtain microsized Fe3O4 powders. HCl and NH4OH were used as dissolving and precipitating agents, respectively. Fe3O4 nanoparticles produced by the coprecipitation method were based on the following chemical reaction [52, 53].
Both reactions were maintained at room temperature. A complete reaction was indicated by the color change of the solution and the formation of black precipitation. Finally, the precipitated powders were rinsed several times using distilled water and then dried at 100°C for 1 h for ferrogel fabrication.
Ferrogel was fabricated by distributing the prepared Fe3O4 nanoparticles in the PVA hydrogel paste solution, and then, they were stirred to obtain a uniform gel. Furthermore, the mixture gel was placed into a cylindrical mold to perform the similar F-T cyclic process as in the PVA hydrogels fabrication. The ferrogel samples were prepared by varying the concentration of PVA and Fe3O4 nanoparticles, as well as the number of F-T cycles.
Basic characterizations using X-ray diffractometer (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were conducted to analyze the crystal structure and particle morphology of Fe3O4 nanoparticles and ferrogels, respectively. Vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) and superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) measurements were taken to investigate the magnetic properties of the PVA ferrogels. Particle size and the distribution of Fe3O4 nanoparticles in the PVA hydrogels were analyzed using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) instrument as in the reported paper [48].
The ferrogels were exposed to the external magnetic field of an electromagnet apparatus, which is able to generate a magnetic field up to 460 mT. The response of the ferrogel was measured by the extent of deflection and elongation. The top end of a ferrogel sample was fixed, whereas the lower end was free to deflect and elongate during the application of the external magnetic field. Variation in the magnetic field was obtained by changing the electric current of the electromagnetic apparatus. The Young’s modulus was measured using a universal mechanical tester.
PVA hydrogels fabricated through a number of F-T cycle processes have the ability to mimic a complex structure of human body. In a normal condition, water can be diffused into organic tissue during body’s metabolism. However, the diffusion of water can be disturbed if water molecules are passing through an abnormal tissue due to swelling of the tissue, for example in tumor tissue. Moreover, about two-thirds of the human body consist of water, in which water molecules have hydrogen atoms that allow for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) observation. Diffusion-weighted MRI (DW-MRI) is a device with high sensitivity in detecting “Brownian motions.” The diffusion of water molecules caused by heat energy associated with the temperature of the human body can be used for analyzing a variety of brain diseases including brain tumors [54]. Additionally, diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) is a technique that can be used to measure diffusion of water molecules in biological tissue such as white matter in the brain. In the MRI observation, the value of apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) is used widely for describing the diffusion coefficient of the material.
In order to investigate the diffusion properties and the consistencies of the fabricated PVA hydrogels applied for tissue replica, several PVA hydrogel samples have been produced by variation number of F-T cycles and PVA concentrations. ADC values of the PVA hydrogels were obtained by performing the DW-MRI measurement. Sari et al. [51] have shown the ADC values versus PVA concentration for PVA hydrogels with the F-T process of three to five cycles. It has been found that the increase of PVA concentration from 7.5 to 15 wt% decreases the ADC values corresponding to the diffusion coefficient of all PVA hydrogels.
The enlargement of the tumor cells causes a reduction in the volume of extracellular space, increases the intracellular viscosity, and then inhibits the movement of water molecules described by the decrease of ADC value. Moreover, for PVA hydrogel fabricated by cryogelation process, the decrease of ADC value is described by swelling indicated by the significant increase of crystallization of hydrogel with increasing the number of F-T cycles. ADC value helps to distinguish a tumor tissue from a nontumor tissue. However, the abnormal tissue of brain tumor has a variety of classifications depending on the location and type of tumor tissue. Therefore, in the application of DW-MRI, it is necessary to find the most aggressive area at first to identify the highest cellularity and the most restrictive for the movement of water molecules. The use of higher b-value is to obtain a brighter contrast and has the impact on the easiness of diffusion imaging. The higher b-value can produce images on the high value of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Otherwise, at 1.5 T or lower, a low b-value may produce a poor image quality and lower value of SNR [55].
Figure 1 displays the ADC values of the PVA hydrogels measured from DW-MRI with b = 1000 and 3000 s/mm2 as a function of F-T cycles and different PVA concentration. It has been found that the greater the concentration and number of cycles, the lower the diffusion coefficient of the PVA hydrogels. The crystallization, the degree of the physically cross-linked network, and the stiffness of hydrogel increase with the increase of the F-T cycle [15, 56]. The increase of crystallization indicates that the diffusion of water may be inhibited, so that the value of diffusion coefficient, described by ADC value, decreases. This is general diffusion behavior of a hydrogel, in which the diffusivity of a hydrogel decreases as cross-linking density increases and as the volume fraction of water within the hydrogel decreases [57]. It has also been indicated that the linearity of the ADC value as a function of F-T cycles at b = 3000 s/mm2 is better than that at b = 1000 s/mm2. This result is in a good agreement with the former result [55].
ADC value of PVA hydrogels on the DW-MRI at b-value of 1000 s/mm2 (closed symbols) and 3000 s/mm2 (opened symbols) as a function of the number of F-T cycles and PVA concentration.
Figure 2 shows the consistency measurement as a function of F-T cycles and different PVA concentration. The data show that the higher PVA concentration and a number of F-T cycles cause the lower consistency and ADC value [50]. These results are consistent with the former paper [58]. The Pearson correlation method was used to correlate the data and are presented in Table 1. It is shown that the average value of ADC at b = 3000 s/mm2 is good and slightly smaller than that at b = 1000 s/mm2. The data have a good correlation (correlation number of 0.92—0.99), so that it can assess the abnormal tissue consistency [51].
Consistency measurement using digital penetrometer as a function of the number of F-T cycles and PVA concentration.
PVA hydrogels with different F-T cycle at constant PVA concentration of 10 wt% | Data (s/mm2) | |
---|---|---|
b = 1000 | b = 3000 | |
Two cycles | 0.96 | 0.77 |
Three cycles | 0.96 | 0.99 |
Four cycles | 0.99 | 0.96 |
Five cycles | 0.96 | 0.97 |
PVA hydrogels with different PVA concentration at constant F-T cycle for three times | Data (s/mm2) | |
b = 1000 | b = 3000 | |
7.5 wt% | 0.98 | 0.93 |
10 wt% | 0.99 | 0.99 |
12.5 wt% | 0.94 | 0.99 |
15 wt% | 0.92 | 0.98 |
The Pearson correlation result for both data of PVA hydrogels with different F-T cycle and PVA concentration.
Generally, ADC values of the human brain for both normal and abnormal cases are different significantly. In the DW-MRI analysis, ADC value in the normal human brain is about 0.75 mm2/s and the higher b-value results in the lower ADC value. A tissue having low ADC value eliminates signals faster than that on the tissue having higher ADC value, and therefore, the contrast should increase. Sari et al. [51] have analyzed some cases for human brain tumor from the DW-MRI images at b-value of 1000 and 3000 s/mm2. They also found that the tissue having low ADC value indicates lower consistency or harder than the tissue having high ADC value. The ADC measurement using b = 1000 s/mm2 can distinguish the harder tissue with the normal one and provides a clearer image, although the ratio of normal and abnormal tissue is not as high as the use of b = 3000 s/mm2. A better value of correlation with the physical parameters gives a suggestion that the use of DW-MRI 1.5 T with b = 1000 s/mm2 provides a better image and the use of penetrometer is necessary for additional information for determining surgery. Otherwise, the use of DW-MRI 1.5 T with b-value higher than 1000 s/mm2 is more preferred to examine the swelling that occurs around the area of the abnormal tissue because it provides more contrast image.
In order to study the stability and durability of ferrogel, a number of ferrogel samples have been fabricated with a variation of PVA and water ratio, the concentration of Fe3O4 nanoparticles, and a number of F-T cycles. The stability was investigated by observing the increase of the required external magnetic field to elongate and deflect the ferrogels until a certain length and distance over a particular time. The observations were conducted from the first day since the ferrogels fabricated until the fifth day. The ferrogels can be called relatively stable if the change of required magnetic field is considerably small over the time to get the same deformation condition.
Table 2 shows ferrogel samples with a variation of PVA and water ratio together with their elasticity moduli. It can be seen from the elasticity properties that the stiffness of ferrogel depends on the PVA concentration in water. Higher PVA concentration causes the increase of stiffness. The stability of ferrogels is shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 demonstrates the time dependence of the required external magnetic field to elongate ferrogel up to 1 mm. It indicates that ferrogel becomes stiffer with the passage of time due to the decrease of water content. The ferrogel with PVA and water ratio of 23:100 (PA.23) shows a relatively small change of the required magnetic field up to five days indicating a relative stability compared to the others. This stability relates to the optimum portion of water inclusion binding in the PVA hydrogel.
No. | Ratio of PVA and water | Fe3O4 (wt%) | Number of F-T cycles | Sample code | Modulus elasticity (Pa) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 13:100 | 10 | 4 | PA.13 | 67.18 |
2 | 18:100 | 10 | 4 | PA.18 | 69.96 |
3 | 23:100 | 10 | 4 | PA.23 | 61.23 |
4 | 28:100 | 10 | 4 | PA.28 | 119.10 |
5 | 33:100 | 10 | 4 | PA.33 | 221.20 |
Ferrogel samples prepared with different PVA and water ratio, together with the modulus elasticity.
Required magnetic field to elongate ferrogel up to 1 mm as a function of time for ferrogels with different PVA and water ratio.
Figure 4 presents magnetic field dependence of ferrogel deflection with different PVA and water ratio. Figure 4 displays interesting hysteresis loop in which the deflection increases with increasing magnetic field and returns to its original length through a different path, thereby decreasing the magnetic field. These noncontinuous deflection behaviors have also been observed by Zrínyi et al. [59] and modeled by Snyder et al. [60]. The hysteresis loops tend to shift day by day, indicating a rigid gel character due to the decrease of water content.
Hysteresis curves of the deflection behavior of ferrogels with PVA and water ratio: (a) 13:100, (b) 18:100, (c) 23:100, (d) 28:100, and (e) 33:100.
Ferrogels with different concentration of Fe3O4 nanoparticles and the modulus elasticity are presented in Table 3. It appears that there is no significant change in the modulus of elasticity with the increase of Fe3O4 concentration from 5 to 12.5 wt%. This result is consistent with the former report [40], in which the obtained elastic modulus was in the range of 0.17–0.75 MPa for a magnetoactive elastomer. Figure 5 shows the stability characteristic of the ferrogels with various Fe3O4 concentrations associated with Table 3. It implies that the increase of nano-sized Fe3O4 concentration tends to decrease the required magnetic field to elongate ferrogel up to the same length for each day, indicating the decrease of water content and stiffer ferrogels. Ferrogel with Fe3O4 concentration of 10 wt% (FP.10) appears to be moderately stable compared to the others. For the ferrogels with Fe3O4 concentration less than 10 wt%, the trapped magnetic particles in the PVA chain were less and therefore the distribution was inhomogeneous, creating more spaces which were filled with water. According to the structural model of hydrogel described by Goiti et al. [43], the trapped, free and linked water molecules attached to the PVA chain may cause a soft ferrogel and dry quickly due to rapid evaporation of the water. On the other hand, for ferrogels with Fe3O4 concentration more than 10 wt%, there might be a space filled by Fe3O4 nanoparticles so that the water is suppressed. The Fe3O4 nanoparticles could directly coincide with the polymer chain. For the ferrogel with Fe3O4 concentration of 10 wt%, it is expected to have a proportional amount of solids and liquid, resulting in a good cross-linked hydrogel and then the trapped water can maintain flexibility of the gel.
No | Ratio of PVA and water | Fe3O4 (wt%) | Number of F-T cycles | Sample code | Modulus elasticity (Pa) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 23:100 | 5 | 4 | FE.5 | 60.54 |
2 | 23:100 | 7.5 | 4 | FE.7 | 60.94 |
3 | 23:100 | 10 | 4 | FE.10 | 61.23 |
4 | 23:100 | 12.5 | 4 | FE.12 | 61.59 |
Ferrogel samples prepared with different Fe3O4 concentrations, together with the modulus elasticity.
Required magnetic field to elongate ferrogel up to 1 mm as a function of time for ferrogels with different Fe3O4 concentrations.
Figure 6 shows magnetic field dependence of ferrogel deflection with different concentration of Fe3O4 nanoparticles. The hysteresis behavior of the deflection curves depends on the concentration of Fe3O4 nanoparticles and the elasticity of ferrogel itself. It should be noted that the hysteresis behavior observed in ferrogel is not consequences from the magnetic particles [59]. It appears that ferrogels with Fe3O4 concentrations of 10 and 12.5 wt% have no significant change in the hysteresis loops up to the fifth day. The change and the distortion of hysteresis shape are influenced by magnetostatic and magnetostriction mechanisms in the ferrogel [61]. Sample geometry may also be one parameter for determining the mechanical behaviors (elongation, deflection, etc.) of the ferrogel in the external magnetic field [60].
Hysteresis curves of the deflection behavior of ferrogels with Fe3O4 concentration of: (a) 5 wt%, (b) 7 wt%, (c) 10 wt%, and (d) 12 wt%.
The modulus elasticity of ferrogels with a different number of F-T cycles was also investigated as shown in Table 4. In general, the greater the number of F-T cycles, the more rigid ferrogels will be obtained due to the evaporation of water. Figure 7 shows the durability of ferrogels produced by 4, 8, and 12 times F-T cycles. It is also clear that ferrogel produced by four times F-T cycles has better stability as indicated by relatively small changes of the external magnetic field required to elongate ferrogel up to the same length until the fifth day. The stability of the ferrogels can also be studied by observing the hysteresis loop of elongation as shown in Figure 8. Ferrogels fabricated by more than four cycles are generally unstable, implying that there is a reduction of water in the ferrogels during F-T cycle processes. This result is consistent with the previous papers [34, 49]. Through the F-T cycles, crystallites will be formed and act as the cross-linking points in the polymer matrix. The amount and size of these crystallites depend on the number of F-T cycles, as well as composition and concentration of the initial solution [15].
No | Ratio of PVA and water | Fe3O4 (wt%) | Number of F-T cycles | Sample code | Modulus elasticity (Pa) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 23:100 | 10 | 4 | FT.4 | 61.23 |
2 | 23:100 | 10 | 8 | FT.8 | 535.2 |
3 | 23:100 | 10 | 12 | FT.12 | 267.0 |
Ferrogel samples prepared with a different number of F-T cycles, together with the modulus elasticity.
Required magnetic field to elongate ferrogel up to 1 mm as a function of time for ferrogels with a different number of F-T cycles.
Hysteresis curves of the deflection behavior of ferrogels with the number of F-T cycles for: (a) 4, (b) 8, and (c) 12 times.
In addition to the substantial biomedical and biomechanical applications of PVA hydrogels and ferrogels, respectively, a basic study of structural and dynamical properties of ferrogel has to be investigated in detail. Structural studies using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) measurement of PVA hydrogel and ferrogel have been reported by Puspitasari et al. [62] and Sunaryono et al. [48], respectively. Puspitasari et al. have confirmed that the crystallization of PVA hydrogel has a radius of approximately 2.9–3.3 nm and an average distance between polymer crystallites of 15–17.5 nm [62]. This result is consistent with the recent paper [48]. Moreover, Sunaryono et al. have illustrated the size distribution of Fe3O4 nanoparticles in the PVA hydrogel obtained by F-T cyclic process [48]. They have found that there are so-called primary particles (approximately 3 nm) and secondary particles as well as the clusters of magnetic nanoparticles in ferrogel observed by the synchrotron radiation (SAXS technique) with global fitting analysis data. The cluster size of the Fe3O4 in the ferrogel system was observed to be significantly reduced with decreasing concentration of the magnetic nanoparticles.
Ferrogel has potential application for an artificial muscle or a soft actuator due to the combined properties of good elasticity and flexibility from PVA hydrogel and specific magnetic behavior from the magnetic particles. Ramanujan et al. [40] have proposed two possible approaches of an artificial finger synthesized from PVA hydrogel and microsized iron oxide. First, they found that the deflection of ferrogel can be controlled by adjusting the concentration of magnetic particles. The second one is by coating manipulation of ferrogel. They demonstrated a finger-like motion based on instantaneous elongation and defection under external magnetic field.
As mentioned previously, in order to apply the ferrogel as an artificial tissue, one should understand the behavior of magnetoelastic properties. Based on numerous references [40, 48], the magnetoelasticity of ferrogel basically depends on the particle size and concentration of the magnetic particles in the polymeric matrix. Due to the particle size effect, the magnetization of microsized Fe3O4 particles in the ferrogel is generally higher than that of the nano-sized one. This may affect the threshold value of the magnetic field which is the minimum magnetic field required to start a large and instantaneous elongation or deflection of ferrogel. Figure 9 shows the dependence of Fe3O4 concentration on the threshold magnetic field for both elongation and deflection of ferrogels with micro- and nano-sized Fe3O4 particles. It is found that the threshold magnetic field tends to decrease with increasing concentration of Fe3O4 particles. This result is consistent with the former report [40]. This result implies that the ferrogels are more sensitive to the external magnetic field with the increase of Fe3O4 concentration. Figure 9 reflects the magnetic response for both variation of ferrogels, in which the ferrogel with microsized Fe3O4 particles has smaller threshold value than the ferrogel with nano-sized Fe3O4 particles as a consequence of the higher magnetization.
The threshold of magnetic field versus micro- and nano-sized Fe3O4 fillers for ferrogels during (a) elongation and (b) deflection. The solid lines are for the eye guidance.
Figure 10 displays the Fe3O4 concentration dependence of elongation and deflection behaviors for both ferrogels with micro- and nano-sized Fe3O4 particles as fillers. It indicates that ferrogel with microsized filler is more sensitive to deform ferrogel under external magnetic field. This result can be explained by the lower threshold value of the magnetic field as illustrated in Figure 9. Figure 11 shows the magnetoelastic hysteresis loops for ferrogels with different concentration of microsized Fe3O4 particles from 2.5 to 15%. The hysteresis loops are found to be narrower and smaller with decreasing magnetic filler concentration. This is attributed to the different magnetic response of ferrogel to be deformed and returned to its original length and position. This behavior is also associated with a magnetic remnant of the ferrogels. A higher magnetic concentration leads to a higher ferrogel ability to deform even under a low external magnetic field. Moreover, a wider hysteresis loop for ferrogel with microsized filler was observed, indicating a stronger magnetic saturation. This is in a good agreement with the previous paper [27] that the ferrogel with large particle size has the best magnetosensitive effect, so it can be applied for drug release system.
(a) Elongation and (b) deflection of ferrogels under 329 mT versus the concentration of micro- and nano-sized Fe3O4 particles as fillers. The solid lines are for the eye guidance.
Hysteresis loops of the deflection versus electric current (proportional to the magnetic field) for ferrogels with different concentrations of Fe3O4 microparticles: 2.5 wt%, 7.5 wt%, and 15 wt%.
PVA hydrogel and ferrogels with Fe3O4 micro- and nano-sized particles as fillers have been successfully prepared by freezing-thawing (F-T) cyclic method. We can conclude the chapter as the following:
In the biomedical application, a study of hydrogen (water molecules) diffusion behavior in the PVA hydrogel by analyzing the ADC value can be used as a parameter of brain tumor grading. The b-value of 1000 s/mm2 and higher providing a better image quality and contrast is recommended for brain tumor grading.
The time dependence of the elongation and deflection curves as a function of PVA concentration, particle concentration, and a number of F-T cycles can be used to determine the durability and performance of the ferrogel under certain external magnetic fields. It has been suggested that ferrogel with PVA and water ratio of 23:100 and four times F-T cycles, respectively, has the best elastic properties. Ferrogel fabricated by a F-T cyclic process has the best magnetoelastic response when it has a relatively large magnetic particle size as the filler with a concentration of 10–15 wt% in the PVA hydrogel.
This chapter is based on research funded by several schemes of research grants, provided by LPPM ITS, DP2M—Ministry of National Education, and DRPM—Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education, Republic of Indonesia, 2006−2016.
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El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. 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