Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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These papers provide a preamble for a larger collection of contributions on ultrashort pulse laser generation and ultrashort pulse laser phenomena. Papers on ultrashort pulse phenomena include works on few cycle pulses, high-power generation, propagation in various media, to various applications of current interest. Undoubtedly, Coherence and Ultrashort Pulse Emission offers a rich and practical perspective on this rapidly evolving field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-242-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4538-7",doi:"10.5772/543",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"coherence-and-ultrashort-pulse-laser-emission",numberOfPages:700,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"e1bd25a76712d1cb8792820acf2ff001",bookSignature:"F. J. 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He is the author and editor of several well-known books on tunable lasers including Dye Laser Principles (Academic, New York, 1990) and Tunable Laser Optics (Elsevier Academic, New York, 2003). His most recent edited work is Tunable Laser Applications, 2nd Edition (CRC, New York, 2009).\r\nDr. Duarte has made key experimental and theoretical contributions to the field of narrow-linewidth tunable laser oscillators. These include original oscillator architectures and the generalized multiple-prism grating dispersion theory. He has also pioneered the use of Dirac’s quantum notation in the description of generalized N-slit interference and classical optics phenomena. Currently, his research focuses on further developments of dispersive narrow-linewidth laser oscillators and very large N-slit laser interferometers.\r\nDr. Duarte’s contributions are cited in some 130 laser and optics books including several classics. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Research on multi-legged walking robots, which are created to mimic the structure of limbs and movement control in insects and arthropods, has been carried out for decades. Among many multi-legged robots, the hexapod robot is one of the most employed robots for a wide range of tasks [1, 2].
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Hexapod robots have many advantages over other kinds of multi-legged walking robots: they can easily get and keep their equilibrium while moving (they are statically stable); they have the ability to adapt to irregular surfaces of different nature; they have redundancy of legs (it allow them to continue their task even if they lose a limb); they are omnidirectional and are less affected by environmental conditions than robots with wheels [3, 4].
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Their advantages make them suitable for tasks requiring some degree of autonomy and high levels of reliability. Among the possible fields of application for hexapod robots, we have volcanic exploration, rescue procedures, detection of antipersonal landmines, undersea operations (marine floor), as well as sample collection, search for life, recognition missions in extraterrestrial exploration. The most of those tasks are hazardous and are usually accompanied by harsh environments, not compatible with human operation [5–7].
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\n
\n
2. Hexapod robot
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Success in designing a hexapod robot lies fundamentally in the structure of chosen legs. The main aspects of a hexapod robot’s displacement are ruled by physical limitations of their legs. It is of paramount importance to choose a leg whose design provides the maximum possible range of movements and that does not pose unnecessary constraints that can affect the movement of the robot [5, 6].
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\n
2.1. Direct kinematics of a hexapod robot
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Figure 1.
Model of the hexapod robot leg.
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In order to obtain the kinematics of the studied robot, it is necessary to use the Denavit-Hartenberg algorithm, applying it to a leg of the hexapod robot. This robot is formed by a symmetrical structure composed of six identical legs, having three degrees of freedom (DOF) of rotational type in each leg. Thanks to its symmetry, this analysis can be done in one single leg [4, 7], as shown in Figure 1.
\n
According to Figure 1, joint 1 is the point where the leg unites with the body of the robot (which is called "thorax"), link 1 is called "coxa," link 2 is called "femur," and link 3 is "tibia." Parameters obtained through the application of the Denavit-Hartenberg method are displayed in Table 1. Those parameters were obtained from the study of Olaru [7].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Link
\n
ai
\n
αi
\n
di
\n
θi
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1
\n
L1
\n
90°
\n
d1
\n
θ1
\n
\n
\n
2
\n
L2
\n
0°
\n
0
\n
θ2
\n
\n
\n
3
\n
L3
\n
180°
\n
0
\n
θ3
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Denavit-Hartenberg parameters.
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Those parameters originate the homogeneous transformation matrices that relate link i-1 with link i. It is possible to find the homogeneous transformation matrix for each link by means of equation (1), the which is presented in the study of Pullteap [4] and Olaru [7].
The matrix that relates the first link with the reference system defined in Figure 1 is shown in equation (2); the matrix that relates the second link with the first one is shown in equation (3); and finally, the matrix that relates the second link with the base of the robot’s leg is given by equation (4).
The total transformation is obtained by multiplying expressions (2)–(4), as pointed in equation (5), and the resulting expression represents the relationship between the system of coordinates of the robot’s base with the base of the leg (6)–(9) [4, 7].
\n
A30=A10⋅A21⋅A32E5
\n
x=cosθ1⋅L1+L2⋅cosθ2+L3⋅cosθ2−θ3E6
\n
y=senθ1⋅L1+L2⋅cosθ2+L3⋅cosθ2−θ3E7
\n
z=d1+L2⋅senθ2+L3⋅senθ2−θ3E8
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\n
\n
2.2. Inverse kinematics
\n\n
Inverse kinematics is the process of determination of the angles in terms of the coordinates for the leg’s desired position in the Cartesian system. Unlike the problem posed by direct kinematics, the procedure for getting the equations is strongly dependent on the robot\'s configuration, making it a complex procedure because it is very difficult to obtain systematically those equations, even plainly impossible. Inverse kinematics, in this case, is obtained through geometrical considerations based on the leg’s shape. Considering Figure 2, the obtained equations are shown in (8)–(11):
The problem of obtaining a robot’s dynamic model is one of the more complex aspects in the field of robotics, and it is necessary for achieving the following objectives: design and evaluation of robot’s dynamic control, sizing of actuators, evaluation of the robot’s mechanical structure, and motion simulation of the robot design [4].
\n
The dynamic model of the studied hexapod robot can be obtained through the application of Lagrange-Euler or Newton-Euler algorithms. Even if the Newton-Euler method is more efficient from the point of view of computer processing, we can also employ Lagrange-Euler method, because this robot has few DOF per leg. The obtained equations are shown in (12)–(14), and they also include masses of actuators—in this case, servo motors of mass M. Besides, the analysis is simplified by assuming that the masses of the first and the last link are identical [7].
I1\',I2\',I3\': moment of inertia associated to servo motors 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
\n
I1\'\',I2\'\',I3\'\': moment of inertia associated to links 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
\n
r2,r3,r4: radius of rotation of the mass center associated to links 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
\n
R3: radius of the rotation circle of servo motor 3.
\n
\n
\n
4. Hexapod robot model and simulations
\n
\n
4.1. Hexapod robot model
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Figure 3.
Top view of the hexapod robot.
\n
In order to carry out a modeling and further simulation of a hexapod robot, it is necessary to take into account the robot’s physical characteristics (mass, dimensions of thorax, measures of links, and the inertia matrix). In this case, we will employ the model developed in Ref. [9], which details the robot’s size, as well as the other parameters. However, some parameter modifications will be made, trying to get as close as possible to real conditions. Basically, we will employ the robot geometry shown in Figure 3 and 4.
\n
Figure 4.
Front view of the hexapod robot.
\n
To obtain the three-dimensional (3D) model of the hexapod robot, we will employ the VRML language, developing a robot model using simple geometrical figures [8]. This language allows to obtain a complex model, simply using a group of basic 3D bodies (cubes, spheres, cones, etc.). There are many alternatives to develop a 3D model using VRML language: one of them consists in programming it directly using its commands or employing a graphical editor that eases the design. In this last case, a script is developed containing the instructions that model the robot (Figure 5).
\n
Figure 5.
Perspective view of the three-dimensional model of the hexapod robot.
\n
To obtain mass (m) of each robot’s link, we take into account the geometrical considerations of the link and the kind of material that would be employed in the construction of this type of robot; for example, we consider (for simplicity’s sake) that the robot legs are composed of two cylinders with different radius (R) and height (H); the thorax (the central body of the hexapod robot) has a length (l), height (h), and width (w), and it is supposed that the robot is built in transparent acrylic, whose density (p) is 1190 kg/m3. We calculate the cylinder’s volume by means of equation (15), the robot’s thorax volume by means of equation (16), and the mass by means of formula (17). The robot’s inertia matrix is obtained using the expression (18) for the cylinder and equation (19) for the body.
\n
VC=∭SdV=π⋅R2⋅HE15
\n
VP=∭SdV=h⋅w⋅lE16
\n
m=V⋅ρE17
\n
IC=112⋅MC⋅3R2+H200012⋅MC⋅R2000112⋅MC⋅3R2+H2E18
\n
IC=112⋅MC⋅3R2+H200012⋅MC⋅R2000112⋅MC⋅3R2+H2E19
\n
It is important to calculate those parameters, because they will be employed in the simulation section. In Simscape Multibody™, this information must be entered in each corresponding block. We must notice that the calculation of masses does not includes additional loads which, in real terms, represent the robot’s electronics, sensors, batteries, actuators, and cables, therefore simplifying the number of variables to be considered. The calculation of volumes and masses is shown in Table 2, and the corresponding inertia matrices for each link are obtained by means of expressions (20)–(22).
The center of mass for each link can be obtained making a simple analysis on each link. We can observe that they are symmetrical bodies, and their mass is homogeneous all over their structure, so the center of mass coincides with the geometric center of each element.
\n
\n
\n
4.2. Simulations
\n
When observing the complexity of obtained expressions, it becomes evident that the greater the number of DOF a robot has, the more difficult is to find the equations, more computer resources are consumed, and longer time and greater effort are spent trying to obtain them. As previously mentioned, an expression for the individual dynamics of a single leg of the hexapod robot is relatively easy to obtain, nevertheless the hexapod robot has six legs, that is a total of 18 DOF, therefore making the simulation more complex. That is why we employed a MATLAB tool called Simscape Multibody™, which has the advantage to perform simulations using blocks that represent links and joints (rotational or prismatic), as if the robot was being assembled. The advantage of this is that we do not need to obtain previously the dynamic model, because those blocks simulate it by configuring parameters on each block separately. Those parameters are inertia matrix, masses, center of mass, and geometry of the robot. In order to do that, we proceed as follows: we start by implementing a leg, and next, we convert it into a block, easing handling and replication for the robot’s simulation. Each leg has three associated PID control blocks, provided by MATLAB. Figure 6 shows the blocks composing the hexapod: the blocks representing the legs, the block of virtual reality, and the block for robot trajectory.
\n
Figure 6.
Model of the hexapod robot.
\n
Despite the fact that the hexapod robot is clearly modeled through a nonlinear system, a PID control was implemented in each DOF of the robot. We started by tuning one leg (it has three PID controllers) and then replicated those parameters in the rest of the legs. This procedure was possible because in this work we did not intend to design a controller that able to perform a precise control for this robot but rather a controller that responded in a quick and acceptable manner to input references. In order to implement the controller, we used the PID block available in Simulink, which eases the process of designing and tuning the controller.
\n
Trajectory planning is made through sinusoidal functions, according to the robot’s sequence for straight-line displacement, and the work space. We developed a block containing the positions that the hexapod robot must follow in time (see Figure 7). For displacements, we considered the joint that unites femur and tibia is fixed at 0° (it is not necessary that this link moves in rectilinear displacements), also considered that the joint uniting coxa and thorax will cover between −50° and 50°, and finally, that the joint uniting coxa and femur will vary from −30° to 30°. The displacement speed can be modified by manipulating the angular frequency (fixed at 1 (rad/s) in this case). The displacement sequence is detailed in Figure 8.
\n
Figure 7.
Trajectory planning block for each joint.
\n
For tuning the PID controllers, we do not use a conventional method, but we do this process by varying parameters in the following way (trial and error): we vary the proportional gain without intervening the rest of the gains, and when reaching an adequate value, we continue varying the integrative gain until the stationary state error becomes zero (or near to zero), and finally we modify the derivative gain until it reaches a proper value. The proportional action delivers power enough to arrive with speed to the setpoint, the integral action eliminates the stationary state error, and the derivative action responds to the error’s change speed and produces a significant correction before the magnitude of the error becomes too great. Due to the nonlinearity of the hexapod robot, the PID control is not suitable.
\n
Figure 8.
Simulation of the hexapod\'s walking sequence.
\n
The main file that contains the folders with the programming codes of the computational simulations presented in this chapter can be downloaded directly from: http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/56184-hexapod-robot
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions and future development
\n
Obtaining a dynamic model for a hexapod robot can be a laborious and complex task (especially when the robot has several DOF), which makes Simscape Multibody™ a powerful and easy-to-use tool for this purpose. We do not need to obtain an explicit dynamic model when using Simscape Multibody™ because such model is elaborated by means of blocks that represent links and joints, therefore consuming little time in the implementation of computer simulations. The development of a model in three dimensions and its further simulation help to visualize the design and possible problems that a real robot could confront (if the robot already exists or if it is going to be built).
\n
PID controllers are not the most suitable devices to perform position control for this kind of robots; however, it is necessary to remark that the aim of our work was not to design a controller that could allow precise control, but getting the robot to respond in a quick and acceptable manner to input references. Special emphasis has been put in obtaining a modular representation of the dynamic model of the studied robot because it will permit to design more sophisticated nonlinear controllers in future works, allowing a good dynamic behavior of the robot in front of environmental perturbations, an issue that will become evident through computer simulations of its displacement.
\n
In the near future, a robot of this kind will be designed and built, which will permit to implement algorithms for intelligent control, such as neural nets, fuzzy logic, and/or adaptive control. Additionally, not only the locomotion of the hexapod robot will be developed but also its artificial vision systems.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This work was supported by Proyectos Basales and the Vicerrectoría de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación of the Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Chile.
\n
\n',keywords:"Mobile Hexapod Robot, Robot control, Modeling, Simscape Multibody, Virtual reality",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/50860.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/50860.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50860",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50860",totalDownloads:3397,totalViews:1109,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:62,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 6th 2015",dateReviewed:"March 30th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 7th 2016",dateFinished:"May 31st 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this chapter, we present the design, simulation, and control of a hexapod robot using tools available in MATLAB software. In addition, we design and implement a dynamic model (using the Simscape Multibody™ toolbox) as well as a three-dimensional model of the robot, using Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML), that help to visualize the robot’s walking sequence. This three-dimensional model is interconnected with the Simscape Multibody™ blocks using MATLAB’s virtual reality blocks. Apart from this, and following specific requirements, we design and implement a Proportional–Integral–Derivative controller in order to obtain a pre-established displacement for the robot that, thanks to the developed computer simulations, proved to be satisfactory. Special emphasis is put in obtaining a modular representation of the dynamic model of the studied robot because it will permit to design more sophisticated nonlinear controllers in future works, allowing a good dynamic behavior of the robot in front of environmental perturbations, an issue that will become evident through computer simulations of its displacement.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/50860",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/50860",book:{id:"5141",slug:"applications-from-engineering-with-matlab-concepts"},signatures:"Claudio Urrea, Luis Valenzuela and John Kern",authors:[{id:"17976",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Urrea Oñate",fullName:"Claudio Urrea Oñate",slug:"claudio-urrea-onate",email:"claudio.urrea@usach.cl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/17976/images/3356_n.jpg",institution:{name:"University of Santiago Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"191004",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Kern",fullName:"John Kern",slug:"john-kern",email:"john.kern@usach.cl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Santiago Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"366503",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Valenzuela",fullName:"Luis Valenzuela",slug:"luis-valenzuela",email:"luis.valenzuela@uai.cl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Adolfo Ibáñez University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Hexapod robot",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Direct kinematics of a hexapod robot",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Inverse kinematics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Dynamics of the hexapod robot",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Hexapod robot model and simulations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1. Hexapod robot model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2. Simulations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusions and future development",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nMohiuddin A. A novel navigation algorithm for hexagonal hexapod robot. American Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences. 2010;3(2):320–327.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nBo J. Design and Configuration of a Hexapod Walking Robot. In: Third International Conference on Measuring Technology and Mechatronics Automation, IEEE Computer Society; 2011. pp. 863–866.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nDuan X. Tripod Gaits Planning and Kinematics Analysis of a Hexapod Robot. In: IEEE International Conference on Control and Automation; Christchurch, New Zealand. 2009. p. 1850–1855.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nPullteap S. Development of a hexapod robot controlling by fuzzy logic controller. International Journal of Artificial, Intelligence, and Mechatronics. 2013;1(6):141–146.\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nNonami K., Kumar R., Irawan A., and Razali M. Hydraulically Actuated Hexapod Robots. Kelly Bennett, In Design, Implementation and Control. Japan: Springer; 2014.\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nFedák V., Ďurovský F., and Üveges R. Analysis of Robotic System Motion in SimMechanics and MATLAB GUI Environment. In: MATLAB Applications for the Practical Engineer, Chapter 20; New York, USA., Kelly Bennett InTech; 2014. [Internet]. Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/matlab-applications-for-the-practical-engineer/analysis-of-robotic-system-motion-in-simmechanics-and-matlab-gui-environment [Accessed: March 14, 2016]\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nOlaru M. Hexapod robot. Mathematical support for modeling and control. In: System Theory, Control, and Computing (ICSTCC), 2011 15th International Conference on, 14–16 October, Sinaia. IEEE; 2011. p. 1–6.\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nBarai R. K., Saha P., and Mandal A. SMART-HexBot: a Simulation, Modeling, Analysis and Research Tool for Hexapod Robot in Virtual Reality and Simulin. In: AIR \'13 Proceedings of Conference on Advances in Robotics, July 4th–6th, Pune, India. New York, NY, USA: ACM; 2013.\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nMathWorks. MathWorks - MATLAB and Simulink for Technical Computing [Internet]. Available from: http://www.mathworks.com/?requestedDomain=www.mathworks.com [Accessed: January 12, 2016].\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Claudio Urrea",address:"claudio.urrea@usach.cl",affiliation:'
Grupo de Automática, Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica, Universidad de Santiago de Chile (USACH), Santiago, Chile
Grupo de Automática, Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica, Universidad de Santiago de Chile (USACH), Santiago, Chile
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1. An overview of microwave heating
Microwaves (MWs) are electromagnetic (EM) waves, which are synchronized perpendicularly oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light in a free space. MWs are characterized by the frequency (between 300 MHz and 300 GHz) and the wavelength (ranging from 1 m to 1 mm). According to the countries and regions, five frequencies (433, 896, 915, 2375, and 2450 MHz) are authorized for MW heating operations. The 2450 MHZ is the exclusive frequency for home appliances.
1.1 Mechanisms of microwave heating
The interaction of a wave with the material depends on its own characteristics (frequencies, wavelength) and the nature of the material, particularly its absolute permittivity ε*, a complex number that determines how the material stores the electrical energy of the EF and its dissipation into heat. The readers can consult more specialized references for detailed information [1]. We can define rapidly here the real permittivity, or dielectric constant, of a material which denotes the capacity of the material to store electrical energy and the effective loss factor which expresses the ability of the material to absorb energy of the wave and dissipate it into the heat by dielectric relaxation and ionic conduction. If a material contains free charges (ions) and polar molecules (e.g., water molecule) when this material is subjected to an EF, the ions will move at an accelerated rate according to their charge, which will cause collisions between them and, by the result, a conversion of the kinetic energy into heat (ohmic heating). In the same way, the polar molecules of this material, which was initially randomly oriented, will be oriented according to the polarity of the field. If the EF is an alternative, these molecules will rotate to remain aligned on it. This dipolar rotation will generate frictions between the molecules which will lead to an internal generation of heat (dielectric heating).
1.2 Penetration and absorption of a wave in a material
When an EM wave is directed toward a material, a part of the wave is reflected on the surface, while the other part penetrates it to be absorbed. The absorption of the wave during its crossing results in a decrease of the amplitude of the internal EF and so of its power. For small or thin materials, the accurate calculation of the internal electric field is recommended by using the Maxwell equations. Lambert’s law (exponential EF decayed) may be used for larger objects.
The penetration depth is defined as the penetration distance in the material for which the 63% of incident power of the incident wave has been absorbed. This depth depends on the dielectric properties of the material as well as the wavelength. The penetration depth at 915 MHz is larger than the penetration depth at 2450 MHz at the same conditions. More power will be absorbed when the loss factor is high [1].
1.3 About the heterogeneity of microwave heating
MW heating is inherently heterogeneous for several reasons:
For most cases, product size is very large compared to the penetration depth; thus, the energy of the EM wave will be completely absorbed before being able to reach the core or the bottom of the product. All the parts of the product not crossed by the EM wave will not undergo heating. Smaller products will heat faster than large ones, because MWs are able to penetrate the entire product. However, small products are also more sensitive to variations in EM fields that exist in the oven, particularly in a multimode cavity.
Dimensional resonance phenomena: sometimes, the wave is reflected against the lower edge of the product leading to interference phenomena. This results in producing cold spots (transmitted and reflected waves cancel each other) and/or hot spots (transmitted and reflected waves add up).
If the product is made of several components, the component with the highest dielectric constant tends to concentrate the energy, and its temperature will increase strongly compared to the other components which leads to selective overheating. The dependence of dielectric properties with the temperature often leads to increase the local temperature of the already hot points. As foods are generally low thermal conductivities, this phenomenon leads to local overheating (thermal runaway).
The shape of the product plays a major role in the heterogeneity of MW heating. The shape of the sample influences the penetration depth of the MWs and the location of the hot spots. In general, the presence of sharp edges and right angles leads to significant local overheating at these locations. Sundberg et al. [2, 3] found that the power density at the edge decreased with the increase of the opening angle; thus, oval or circular forms may in some cases reduce this problem. However, in these forms the MW power is concentrated in the center [4].
2. Microwave drying
2.1 Introduction
Drying is one of the most used methods for preserving food and preventing microbiological degradation. Food drying is also used for economic interests by lightening the product to minimize the transport costs (e.g., milk powder) or even for consumption aspects by creating new textures and/or products (e.g., prunes). This process aims to reduce the water activity (Aw) of the food product by removing some of its water. The amount of water to be removed to achieve the microbiological stability can be determined thanks to the sorption isotherm curve which shows the relationship between the water content and the water activity of a product. Generally, the water activity threshold from which there is no further development of pathogenic bacteria is 0.85–0.86 and 0.7 and 0.6 for yeasts and molds, respectively.
It is interesting to note that Aw does not only control the development of microorganisms, it also influences the rate of the chemical and biochemical reactions that take place within the food. The nonenzymatic browning (Maillard reaction) has a maximal activity for an Aw of 0.6–0.7, while the oxidation of lipids develops rather at very low and very high values of Aw. Thus, it is proper to adjust the final moisture of the product according to these considerations. The area generally targeted for good stability of the dried product is the range of Aw between 0.3 and 0.4. An important aspect must be emphasized here, namely, that drying has almost no lethal effect on the microorganisms present on the product due to insufficient product temperatures reached during drying. Proper packaging is therefore essential to avoid moisture recovery and keep the quality of the dehydrated product.
Industrial drying techniques are very varied depending on the nature of the product to dry (liquid, pasty, solid, or particulate) and of the desired final qualities. Most often, hot air (HA) convective drying is the main dehydration technique used in food industries. However, this method undergoes several problems such as poor end-product quality and low operation performance. Generally, in conventional drying method, two steps take place: a heat transfer from hot and dry surrounding medium to the product and then a mass (water and/or volatile compounds) transfer from the product to the surrounding atmosphere. In general, external heat and mass transfer can be easily controlled by a good monitoring of the drying air characteristics (velocity, temperature, relative humidity); thus, the internal transfer is the limiting step and the effective driving force for the drying operation. The drying rate decreases with time, and the removal of water becomes difficult. Therefore, conventional HA drying requires the application of severe conditions, particularly at the end of operation, which result in overheating and overdrying of the product surface. These reasons have greatly encouraged engineers to develop and propose new drying techniques such as MW drying. For example, MW drying was successfully applied to dry potatoes chips, pasta, and snacks [5]. Several studies of MW drying were resumed in the literature [6].
2.2 Microwave drying versus hot air drying
During MW drying of strong moisture content product, EM energy is supplied directly to the volume of the product, which causes a rapid increase of the product temperature and an instantaneous vaporization of water inside the product [7]. This phenomenon causes an increase in the internal pressure and drives the water to liquid state toward the product surface [8]. This forced outflow of water increases the drying rate and so reduces the operation time (up to five times less than HA air drying for many products). Likewise, the increase in internal pressure prevents food shrinkage and case hardening during drying, which have a positive impact on the texture of the MW dried product. Indeed, it promotes a greater porosity and increases the rehydration ability [9].
The action of conservation provided by the drying to foodstuffs is mainly due to the decrease of Aw which thus makes it possible to limit the development of microorganisms. However, an additional action is observed in the case of MW drying. In fact, the rapid rise in temperature for water-rich products seems to produce a thermal shock effect on thermosensitive microorganisms. Laguerre et al. [10] have shown, in a comparative study of drying of onions either by HA or by MWs, a reduction of the total microbial count ten times greater for MW drying (about one to two log reductions). This is a significant advantage of MW drying compared to hot air drying.
Although the selectivity of EF may cause heating heterogeneity, this selectivity is rather an advantage in the case of MW drying. The level of energy absorption is controlled by the wet parts, resulting in positive selective heating of the inner layers of the product still having a relatively high moisture content without affecting the relatively dry outer layers, thereby facilitating the outflow of water to the surface.
However, even if the MW drying is faster than that of HA method, the MW drying efficiency is limited because of the rapid saturation of the surrounded air due to its low temperature. For this reason, MWs are usually associated with HA flow to improve water transfer at the surface of the product. Another difference between MW and HA drying is the surface temperature. During HA drying, the surface temperature does not exceed the controlled surrounding air temperature, which may be low (30–40°C) during thermosensitive product drying (e.g., aromatic plants), whereas excessive surface temperature may occur during MW drying, especially along the corner or edges, resulting in product carbonization and production of off-flavors especially during the final stages of operation [6].
2.3 Controlled power microwave drying: innovative method to prevent runaway heating
In many works, a constant MW applied power is usually used throughout the drying period. This practice promotes the phenomena of thermal runaway (local overheating) at the end of drying. During MW drying performed at constant power, the applied specific power (power/product mass) increases exponentially as can be seen in Figure 1 for the drying of tomato as an example [11]. Thus, the product receives more and more energy over time while it needs less and less. Moreover, the thermal properties of the product (specific heat and thermal diffusivity) decrease at the same time as the moisture of the product; therefore, it becomes easier to heat the product while the heat accumulated in a zone can less easily diffuse to the whole product. All this, combined with the phenomenon of dimensional resonance, can lead to thermal runaway. This phenomenon can be observed in the case of drying onions [10, 12]. Figure 2 shows the evolution of hot spots up to charring on onion slices during MW drying. The fact that the black spots are very localized initially confirms the presence of dimensional resonance phenomena in this case.
Figure 1.
Evolution of the specific power (W/g) as a function of time (min) for different initial specific power values during drying of tomatoes [11].
Figure 2.
Evolution of hot spot during MW drying of onion slices [10].
To improve the quality of MW dried foods, the control of the applied power throughout the drying was studied in the literature. Li et al. [13] proposed the control of applied power according to the set product temperature, whereas Soysal et al. [14] adapted the applied power as a function of processing time. A very good quality product was obtained by Laguerre et al. [10, 15]. The authors controlled the power as a function of the product mass. This method was successfully tested for drying onions and tomatoes as presented in Table 1. A final product of fresh-like color, without any black spots, was obtained.
Table 1.
Effect of the adaptation of the power applied on the color of the dried product.
2.4 Combined microwave drying technologies
Despite its several advantages over the conventional methods, MW drying has some crucial problems as explained above. However, MW drying combined with other conventional heating methods enhances the drying efficiency as well as the dried product quality compared to MW drying alone. Applications of combined MW drying, principally, include MW-assisted hot air (HA) drying, MW vacuum drying, and MW freeze drying.
2.4.1 MW-assisted hot air drying
The application of MW energy (internal heating) associated with hot air flow (superficial heating) is a good method to overcome certain problems related to the use of these two methods separately. MW heating may be applied at the beginning of the drying process to heat the internal layers of the product rapidly. MW heating can be also applied at the second step of drying process, when the temperature profile is established, to force vapor out of the product which leads to create a porous structure. MW heating can also be applied at the end of drying process, where the mass transfer is reduced to improve the drying rate by removing the bound water [9]. For example, MW drying combined with HA drying at the last stage reduced the drying time by 64% as compared to convective air drying [16]. Saving drying time and improved quality were also reported, using this method, for other fruits such as blueberries [17], macadamia nuts [18], and green peas [19].
2.4.2 MW vacuum drying
In order to reduce the boiling point of water and to prevent the oxidation reactions, MW heating can be associated with a vacuum to maintain the quality (color and flavor) of the dried products. This method was successfully used to dry apple slices [20], pumpkin [21], and cranberries [22]. This method is better than MW air drying in terms of energy consumption, drying time, and quality of the dried products [6].
2.4.3 MW freeze drying
Lyophilization, also known as freeze drying, is a low-temperature dehydration process, which involves freezing the product at the first step and then removing the ice by sublimation under low-pressure conditions. It is used for dehydration of very heat-sensitive materials particularly in food and pharmaceutical industries. This method preserves the structure and minimizes the loss of valuable compounds. However, this technology is limited by its high cost. In MW freeze drying, MW heating can be applied concurrently during the sublimation to supply the heat under vacuum conditions. MW heating can also be applied separately after a traditional lyophilization step. MW freeze drying offers many advantages due to its low processing temperature and lack of oxygen in the processing environment [23, 24]. However, as the MW energy does not interact with frozen water, thermal runaway might take place which may result in poor product quality [6].
3. Microwave pasteurization and sterilization of foods
Pasteurization and sterilization are widely used to extend the shelf life of most foods. The main goals of pasteurization are to destroy vegetative pathogenic microorganisms and to deactivate some enzymes in foods. Pasteurization temperatures and treatment time vary, primarily, depending on the nature, the pH of the product, and the target microorganism. In most pasteurization processes, the food is heated up to 60–85°C for a time varying from a few seconds to an hour. Pasteurization requires refrigerated storage conditions (3–4°C) for a storage life of 2–6 weeks. Sterilization, which can be seen as further pasteurization, destroys bacterial spores [25]. In solid or semisolid products, the heat transfer takes place mainly by conduction from the surface to the center often considered as the “cold” point. This leads to apply more severe conditions to reach the target temperature at the cold point, which results in an overcooking of the surface and a degradation of the quality of products. Optimizing thermal treatments (i.e., maximizing inactivation of bacteria while minimizing nutrient degradation) is therefore an important issue. However, this is not an easy task and it is always a technical and scientific challenge. Thanks to the direct and volumetric interaction between MWs and food, MW heating has the advantage of overcoming the limitation imposed by slow thermal diffusion of conventional heating.
3.1 Microbial decontamination by microwave heating
Many studies demonstrated the effectiveness of using MW heating for pasteurization and sterilization of food [26, 27, 28]. Furthermore, different strains of microorganisms have been inactivated by MW heating, for example, Bacillus cereus, Campylobacter jejuni, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella [29, 30].
3.2 Thermal and athermal effects of microwave heating on microorganisms
The study of microbial destruction mechanisms during an MW heating has attracted a lot of interest [31, 32]. In particular, the possible existence of nonthermal (athermal) effects of microwaves is a subject of debate. Several theories have been proposed to explain how electromagnetic fields can inactivate microorganisms at sublethal temperature conditions. This effect would be due to the interaction between microwaves and certain cellular constituents. In contrast, many studies have refuted the lethal nonthermal effect of MWs. To distinguish between thermal and nonthermal effects, most studies are based on the experimental evaluation of conventional and MW inactivation under identical heating conditions.
Fujikawa et al. [33] showed no difference between inactivation treatments for E. coli (suspended in PB phosphate buffer) in a conventional water bath and in a MW oven. Welt et al. [34] have developed a device to evaluate the possible nonthermal effects of microwaves. They compared the inactivation of Clostridium sporogenes spores in a model medium (a phosphate buffer) under a same time-temperature condition for conventional and MW treatment. The results demonstrate the absence of a nonthermal effect.
On the other hand, several studies demonstrated that the microwaves have a more important bactericidal effect [35, 36]. Sato et al. [37] found that the inactivation of E. coli K12 exposed to MW radiation was higher than that obtained in a water bath at the same temperature (45, 47, and 50°C).
Some authors support the thesis of improved bactericidal effect of microwaves. Kozempel et al. [38] developed an experimental device for detecting a possible nonthermal effect of microwaves on microorganisms at low temperature. The process combines instantaneous energy input to the food system by microwaves with rapid removal of thermal energy. The system used is a double-tube heat exchanger installed inside a continuous MW tunnel. The outer tube is microwaveable, while the inner tube is stainless steel and was used to cool the system instantly to keep the temperature at 45°C. The nonthermal effect of MW radiation has not been observed for yeast, Pediococcus sp., Escherichia coli, Listeria innocua, or Enterobacter aerogenes, in various liquids. However, the author has reported that MWs can improve or amplify the thermal effect in lethal conditions [38]. In the same context, Ramaswamy et al. [39] found that the inactivation of S. cerevisiae inoculated in apple juice treated with steam, hot water, or MW was not significantly different at sublethal temperature (<40°C). However, they found that MW radiations enhanced inactivation for same lethal temperature conditions (55–65°C).
Numerous studies on the interactions between MWs and certain cellular constituents, such as DNA, the cell membrane, enzymes, and proteins, have been carried out. Kakita et al. [40] studied the survival of bacteriophage PL-1, which is specific for Lactobacillus casei, under MW irradiation. More viral DNA fragmentation was found for MW heating over conventional heating. Shamis et al. [41] studied the effects of MW radiation on the membrane of the E. coli cell under sublethal temperature conditions (<40°C). Compared to conventional treatment, a different cellular morphology was observed (the cells are contracted and dehydrated). Nevertheless, this effect seems to be temporary; 10 min after the end of the exposure, the morphology of the cell seemed to return to the initial state of untreated controls. In this experiment, cell viability test revealed that the MW treatment was not bactericidal, since 88% of the cells were recovered. Similarly, Woo et al. [42] reported that MW radiation of Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis resulted in an increase in the amounts of nucleotides and protein released from cells. This leak was strongly correlated to MW power. The authors observed, by scanning electron microscopy, a significant damage on the surface of MW-treated E. coli cells; however, there was no significant change observed for B. subtilis cells. Likewise, Shin and Pyun [43] showed that MW treatment (at 50°C) causes irreversible damage to the membrane of Lactobacillus plantarum, associated with increase of the permeability. Also, observations by electron microscopy showed a change in cellular morphology on Candida albicans treated with MW [44].
To prove the existence of nonthermal effect of microwaves on microorganisms, exactly the same thermal history must be reproduced for MW and conventional treatments. Most of studies previously cited applied temperature measurement techniques inappropriate to MW heating, where the temperature was monitored at a single point of the sample. In addition, it is also important to eliminate the heating heterogeneity inherent in MW processing. Consequently, microorganisms are subjected to uneven heating as a result of the presence of cold and hot spots within the same sample. In summary, so far, the existence of nonthermal effect of MWs on microorganisms has not been proven; even if this effect exists, it has no significant consequence on the MW heating of foods.
3.3 Advantages and limitations of microwave microbial decontamination
In fact, it is difficult to compare the efficiency of MW over conventional heating process because of the inherent differences of heating principle between the two technologies [45].
In the case of conventional heating, a slow heat exchange occurs between the heating medium and the product. The heat diffusion inside the product depends on its physical properties (specific heat, thermal conductivity, porosity, etc.). However, it is well known that foods are bad thermal conductors, heat diffusion toward the cold spot is usually slow, and MW heating is generally faster than conventional heating. The heat is generated directly within the food. This direct volumetric heating significantly reduces the processing time resulting in greater retention of nutrients, sensitive vitamins, and aromatic constituents. Microwave-processed foods may also have better texture, taste, and appearance than products processed by conventional methods. For example, a two times faster MW pasteurization treatment of pickled asparagus at 915 MHz was published [46]. This advantage reduced significantly the thermal degradation of asparagus compared to a conventional treatment in a water bath. Similarly, an acceptable MW pasteurization of foie gras was reported with a time saving of 50% and better organoleptic qualities compared to a traditional method [47]. Moreover, MW pasteurization of packaged products is possible for different packaging materials (plastic, paper, and glass) [48, 49]. Furthermore, this technology can be combined with other technologies such as infrared heating for surface cooking, for example [50].
Despite the numerous advantages of MW decontamination technology, heating heterogeneity is a serious problem that leads to incomplete inactivation of microorganisms. Several studies have reported the survival of pathogens such as Salmonella spp. [51] and L. monocytogenes [52], in foods heated in MW ovens.
Goksoy et al. [53, 54] studied the effect of short-time MW exposures on Escherichia coli K12 and Campylobacter jejuni inoculated on chicken meat. A temperature variation of 20°C was measured between different parts of the sample. The auteurs reported that the samples subjected to MWs showed signs of partial cooking areas. There was no evidence that short-time exposure (up to 30 s) to MWs had any bactericidal effect on microorganisms. Apostolou et al. [55] confirmed these results. MW heating of chicken portions did not eliminate E. coli O157: H7. A significant variation of temperature (from 66.7 to 92°C) was also observed.
On the other hand, the heterogeneous heating causes a severe deterioration of food quality. Local overheating often results in irremediable changes of color where the temperature is highest [56]. These phenomena are mainly observed at the corners and the edges of the product due to wave reflection.
Another difficulty concerning MW decontamination is the problem of cold spot localization. During a typical thermal process, the cold point is well defined and located often at the center of the product. During MW pasteurization, one point temperature monitoring within the product is not sufficient to ensure food safety [57]. For example, Schnepf and Barbeau [58] studied the inactivation of inoculated Salmonella in poultry. Their results showed that measuring the internal temperature during MW treatment does not reflect the surface inactivation, where the temperature was lower. To locate the cold spot, the chemical marker method developed by Kim and Taub [59] was successfully used [60, 61, 62]. Combined with experimental investigations, numerical simulations are highly recommended to find the cold spot and to achieve an accurate study to develop a reliable MW decontamination process [57, 63, 64].
3.4 Minimizing the heterogeneity of microwave heating
Before accepting MW technology as a reliable method for pasteurization and/or sterilization of food, it is important to ensure uniform heating during treatment. Several studies have been conducted to improve the quality and safety of MW-treated products, and various solutions have been proposed.
Fung and Cunningham [65] reported that MW heating in combination with conventional heating results in more uniform heating of food and better inactivation of bacteria. Datta et al. [66] found that MW heating in combination with infrared heating or air jets decreases the nonuniformity of temperature distribution. In the same field, Maktabi et al. [67] investigated the synergistic killing effect of laser, MW, and UV radiation on E. coli and on some other spoilage and pathogenic bacteria. It was found that the overall reduction in viable counts was significantly higher than the sum of the reduction values for the individual treatments. The order of the treatment processes had also a significant influence on microbial destruction. A successive process by laser, MW, and then UV was the most effective. Similarly, Lau and Tang [46] studied the heating uniformity and textural quality of pickled asparagus pasteurized by MW in comparison with the conventional hot-water pasteurization method. Two successive heating steps, first in water bath and then in 915 MHz MW oven, were successfully applied. Moreover, covering the top one-third of the product glass bottle with aluminum foil eliminated the overheating at the edges. MW pasteurization also reduced the cook value for pickled asparagus and reduced textural degradation.
On the other hand, the presence of an absorbent medium around the product can reduce the overheating of edges and corners. For example, some authors reported that immersion of the sample in hot water [48] or the use of a steam flow into the oven cavity [68] may be used to ensure a safer and better quality end product. Microwave-circulated water combination (MCWC) heating system demonstrated a relatively uniform heat distribution within packaged food products. Guan et al. [48] reported that microbial destruction by a pilot-scale MCWC heating system matched with designed degrees of sterilization (F0 value) for a conventional treatment.
Koskiniemi et al. [69] improved the heating uniformity of packaged acidified vegetables using a continuous 915 MHz MW system with a two-stage rotation device to rotate the products 180° during treatment. This method increased also the average temperature at the cold point to meet the industrial standard for in-pack pasteurization of acidified vegetables.
Pulsed MW heating technique was also successfully tested. In this method, pulsed application of energy—i.e., turning the magnetron power “on” and “off” intermittently—leads to thermal energy equalization via conduction from hot to cold region during the power-off periods. This results in more uniform temperature distribution within the sample than during continuous application of energy [70, 71]. Sato et al. [37] reported also an enhanced killing rate of Escherichia coli K12 by using pulsed waves compared to continuous treatment.
3.5 Modeling and optimization of microwave heating
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is widely used as an established approach for understanding and then optimizing food processing based on the solution to partial differential equations of mass, momentum, and energy transport. MW heating is a multiphysics phenomenon that requires electromagnetic propagation equations (i.e., Maxwell’s equation) to be combined simultaneously with the heat transfer equation to predict the MW power absorption as well as the temperature distribution inside the product [72]. Modeling of MW heating is widely studied in the literature. Interested readers can consult specialized references for more details [73].
In order to design and optimize a reliable MW pasteurization and/or sterilization process, heating model needs to be coupled with kinetic models correlating microbial decontamination. The resulting global model has to mimic the spatial temperature distribution as well as the microbial inactivation at every point within the sample. Few coupled numerical studies of bacterial inactivation by MW heating are reported in the literature. Recently, Masood et al. [64] published an excellent review about emerging technologies modeling to ensure microbial safety of foods.
The classical concept of decimal reduction time and thermal resistance constant (D and z values) was also used to characterize the microbial inactivation by MW heating. Cañumir et al. [74] determined D-values at constant power levels and proposed a z-value in watt to represent the resistance of a target germ during MW heating. Laguerre et al. [75] proposed new specific power destruction parameters, Dp- and zp-values, to qualify MW heating. The decimal reduction time (Dp value) is the treatment time required to reduce microbial population by 90% at a constant applied specific power expressed in W/mL or in W/g. The zp value is the change of specific power necessary to cause a tenfold change in the Dp values of microorganism under specified conditions. This concept has been successfully tested for sterilization of infant food in a lab-scale MW pilot. The optimal condition for MW sterilization of infant food was also determined.
Because of the heterogeneity of MW heating, microbial inactivation kinetics need to be coupled with nonlinear heat transfer model to calculate the temporospatial survival of bacteria [63]. Mallikarjunan et al. [76] developed a mathematical model that includes mass heat transfer to microbial inactivation kinetics. The variation of the dielectric properties with respect to the temperature is taken into account in the simulation process. A good agreement with experimental data was obtained. Hamoud-Agha et al. [57, 63] used COMSOL Multiphysics to investigate the inactivation of E. coli K12 suspended in a gel medium, comparing MW processing with conventional thermal treatment in a water bath. The authors coupled the thermal nonlinear microbiological inactivation model of Geeraerd et al. [77] with heat transfer and Maxwell’s equations integrated into a finite element model under dynamic heating conditions. The results revealed uneven temperature distribution during MW heating which led to a lower inactivation efficiency than water bath treatment. Simulation results were in good agreement with experimental data. The modeling approach to estimate efficiency of microbial inactivation was reliable despite the thermal heterogeneity inherent in the MW treatment. Application of holding time at lethal temperatures (55 and 57°C) did not help to homogenize the temperature distribution within the sample [57, 63].
However, because of digital resources required and time consumption, the use of physical models as presented before could be delicate for real industrial applications in the food industry. On the other hand, another approach based on experimental designs (EDs) and response surface methodology (RSM) can be relatively easy, fast to implement, and quite useful [78]. Nevertheless, RSM has some limitations [8]: (1) it uses a priori models (quadratic model whatever the studied response); (2) the number of tests to be reset can increase very quickly with the number of factors in the plan; (3) the factors must be completely independent; and (4) uncontrolled factors cannot be taken into account.
Another method proposed by Lesty et al. [79], based on iconographic correlations (CORICO), makes it possible to circumvent these difficulties [8]. After analysis of the experimental plan data, CORICO proposes regression models whose regressors are logical interactions (AND, Exclusive OR, IF, etc.) between factors. In addition, CORICO tolerates linked factors and allows the consideration of uncontrolled factors. Furthermore, it needs few numbers of essays comparatively to classical EDs, (17 essays for a 9-factor CORICO designs against 533 for a 9-factor Doehlert design), which allows to minimize costs. This method has recently been used in the agri-food sector for the optimization of the drying process of different food products (tomato, microalgae, apple) [11, 80, 81] as well as for MW cooking processes (beef burgundy, fish) [82, 83].
4. Conclusions
Conventional heat treatments for food preservation are generally characterized by poor end-product quality. Furthermore, these methods are not optimized for solid foods because of slow heat transfer from the surface to the cold point, often at the center of the product. Enhanced organoleptic and nutritional food properties combined with food safety is the aim of modern food processing technologies. Microwave (MW) heating has the advantages to overcome the limitation of slow thermal diffusion imposed by conventional heating. This technology knows a growing industrial demand thanks to its flexible and rapid heating performance. MW heating is successfully used for food drying and decontamination. However, this process is still relatively poorly controlled because of complex interactions between foods and MWs. Furthermore, the heating heterogeneity is the major drawback of this technology. Several methods were, nevertheless, proposed in the literature to improve the heating homogeneity. In general, coupling MW heating with other heating methods largely improved the microbiological safety, the drying efficiency, and the quality of various food products. Physical modeling and simulation are important tools to understand and to optimize MW heating processes. The application of these models is limited in industrial scale; however, experimental design-based approaches could be promising methods. Even so, developing a reliable industrial MW heating process is still a challenge.
\n',keywords:"microwave heating, microwave modeling, drying, pasteurization, sterilization, microbial decontamination, food safety, food quality",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65345.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65345.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65345",totalDownloads:1396,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:4,dateSubmitted:"July 18th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 14th 2018",datePrePublished:"January 25th 2019",datePublished:"February 26th 2020",dateFinished:"January 24th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Since food is generally of low thermal conductivity, heating by conventional methods remains relatively slow. Thanks to its volumetric and rapid heating, microwave (MW) technology is successfully used in many applications of food processing. In this chapter, fundamental principles of MW heating are briefly presented. MW drying and MW microbial decontamination are extensively reviewed as innovative methods for food preservation. However, the complex interactions between microwaves and materials to be heated are not yet sufficiently controlled. Moreover, MW heating heterogeneity and thermal runaway are the main drawbacks of this technology. Several methods have been proposed and investigated in the literature to overcome these problems in order to assure the microbiological safety and quality of food products.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65345",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65345",signatures:"Jean-Claude Laguerre and Mohamad Mazen Hamoud-Agha",book:{id:"8544",type:"book",title:"Food Preservation and Waste Exploitation",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Food Preservation and Waste Exploitation",slug:"food-preservation-and-waste-exploitation",publishedDate:"February 26th 2020",bookSignature:"Sonia A. Socaci, Anca C. F?rca?, Thierry Aussenac and Jean-Claude Laguerre",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8544.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-426-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-425-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-084-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"191241",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sonia A.",middleName:null,surname:"Socaci",slug:"sonia-a.-socaci",fullName:"Sonia A. Socaci"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. An overview of microwave heating",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Mechanisms of microwave heating",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Penetration and absorption of a wave in a material",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 About the heterogeneity of microwave heating",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"2. Microwave drying",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.1 Introduction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2 Microwave drying versus hot air drying",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.3 Controlled power microwave drying: innovative method to prevent runaway heating",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.4 Combined microwave drying technologies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.4.1 MW-assisted hot air drying",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.4.2 MW vacuum drying",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.4.3 MW freeze drying",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Microwave pasteurization and sterilization of foods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.1 Microbial decontamination by microwave heating",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.2 Thermal and athermal effects of microwave heating on microorganisms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.3 Advantages and limitations of microwave microbial decontamination",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.4 Minimizing the heterogeneity of microwave heating",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"3.5 Modeling and optimization of microwave heating",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Datta AK, Anantheswaran RC. The Handbook of Microwave Technology for Food Applications. 1st ed. New York: Marcel Dekker; 2001. Epub ahead of print 2001. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004'},{id:"B2",body:'Sundberg M, Kildal P, Ohlsson T. Moment method analysis of a microwave tunnel oven. Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy. 1998;33:36-47'},{id:"B3",body:'Sundberg R, Risman PO, Kildal P-S, et al. Analysis and design of industrial microwave ovens using the finite difference time domain method. Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy. 1996;31:142-157'},{id:"B4",body:'Zhang Z, Su T, Zhang S. Shape effect on the temperature field during microwave heating process. Journal of Food Quality. 2018;2018:1-24'},{id:"B5",body:'Schiffmann RF. Microwave processes for the food industry. In: Datta AK, Anantheswaran RC, editors. Handbook of Microwave Technology for Food Applications. New York: Marcel Dekker; 2001. pp. 115-166'},{id:"B6",body:'Chandrasekaran S, Ramanathan S, Basak T. Microwave food processing—A review. Food Research International. 2013;52:243-261'},{id:"B7",body:'Onwude D, Hashim N, Chen G. Recent advances of novel thermal combined hot air drying of agricultural crops. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2016;57:132-145'},{id:"B8",body:'Morais RMSCSC, Morais AMMBMB, Dammak I, et al. Functional dehydrated foods for health preservation. Journal of Food Quality. 2018;2018:1-29'},{id:"B9",body:'Zhang M, Tang J, Mujumdar AS, et al. Trends in microwave-related drying of fruits and vegetables. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2006;17:524-534'},{id:"B10",body:'Laguerre J-C, Abhayawick L, Beaumont-Lang L. Tailoring the onion crop for the 21st century. The Development of High Quality Fresh and Processed Onions—Annual Progress Report 3rd Year; Beauvais. 1999'},{id:"B11",body:'Koné KY. Amélioration de la qualité de la tomate séchée par microondes assistés par air chaud avec pilotage de la puissance spécifique. [Thesis]. Paris: AgroParisTech; 2011'},{id:"B12",body:'Abhayawick L, Laguerre J-C, Duquenoy A. Runaway heating of onions during microwave drying. In: Kerkhof PJAM, Coumans WJ, Mooiwer GD, editors. 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Montreal; 2014'},{id:"B81",body:'Laguerre J-C, Ratovoarisoa LG, Vivant A-C, et al. An iconographic correlation method for optimizing a combined microwave/hot air drying of apple Malus domestica sp. Journal of Food Processing & Technology. 2017;8:7110'},{id:"B82",body:'Jouquand C, Tessier FJ, Bernard J, et al. Optimization of microwave cooking of beef burgundy in terms of nutritional and organoleptic properties. LWT—Food Science and Technology. 2015;60:271-276'},{id:"B83",body:'Laguerre J-C, Douiri-Bedoui I, Chireux C, et al. The iconographic correlation (CORICO) method, a new approach for the optimization of microwave cooking processes: Application for cooking fish. In: EFFOST Annual Meeting. 2013'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jean-Claude Laguerre",address:"jean-claude.laguerre@unilasalle.fr",affiliation:'
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SBV belongs to the family Bunyaviridae and is transmitted by biting midges. This new virus was identified for the first time in the blood samples of cows in the city of Schmallenberg in NorthRhine-Westphalia in November 2011. Since then the virus spread to several European countries. Here we describe the origin and emergence, as well as the transmission and the differential diagnosis of this virus, now known to be a serious threat to Veterinary Public Health.",signatures:"Fernando Esteves, João Rodrigo Mesquita, Cármen Nóbrega, Carla\nSantos, António Monteiro, Rita Cruz, Helena Vala and Ana Cláudia\nCoelho",authors:[{id:"79219",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cláudia",surname:"Coelho",fullName:"Ana Cláudia Coelho",slug:"ana-claudia-coelho",email:"accoelho@utad.pt"},{id:"162507",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Esteves",fullName:"Fernando Esteves",slug:"fernando-esteves",email:"festeves@esav.ipv.pt"},{id:"182923",title:"Prof.",name:"João",surname:"Mesquita",fullName:"João Mesquita",slug:"joao-mesquita",email:"jmesquita@esav.ipv.pt"},{id:"190312",title:"Prof.",name:"Cármen",surname:"Nóbrega",fullName:"Cármen Nóbrega",slug:"carmen-nobrega",email:"cnobrega@esav.ipv.pt"},{id:"190313",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla",surname:"Santos",fullName:"Carla Santos",slug:"carla-santos",email:"casarede@esav.ipv.pt"},{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",surname:"Monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",email:"amonteiro@esav.ipv.pt"},{id:"190315",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",surname:"Cruz",fullName:"Rita Cruz",slug:"rita-cruz",email:"rcpaiva@esav.ipv.pt"},{id:"190316",title:"Prof.",name:"Helena",surname:"Vala",fullName:"Helena Vala",slug:"helena-vala",email:"hvala@esav.ipv.pt"}],book:{id:"5287",title:"Epidemiology of Communicable and Non-Communicable Diseases",slug:"epidemiology-of-communicable-and-non-communicable-diseases-attributes-of-lifestyle-and-nature-on-humankind",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"181862",title:"Dr.",name:"Farouk",surname:"Laabassi",slug:"farouk-laabassi",fullName:"Farouk Laabassi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181862/images/13838_n.jpg",biography:"Laabassi Farouk has been working as an Associate Professor in Equine Virology at the University of Batna-1, Algeria.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Batna",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"182164",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michał",surname:"Polguj",slug:"michal-polguj",fullName:"Michał Polguj",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Lodz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"182479",title:"Prof.",name:"Daynia",surname:"Ballot",slug:"daynia-ballot",fullName:"Daynia Ballot",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"182835",title:"M.D.",name:"Tekin",surname:"Guney",slug:"tekin-guney",fullName:"Tekin Guney",position:"M.D",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"183200",title:"Prof.",name:"Ludomir",surname:"Stefańczyk",slug:"ludomir-stefanczyk",fullName:"Ludomir Stefańczyk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"183201",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirosław",surname:"Topol",slug:"miroslaw-topol",fullName:"Mirosław Topol",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"183317",title:"Dr.",name:"Hachung",surname:"Yoon",slug:"hachung-yoon",fullName:"Hachung Yoon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"183364",title:"Dr.",name:"Aysun",surname:"Senturk Yikilmaz",slug:"aysun-senturk-yikilmaz",fullName:"Aysun Senturk Yikilmaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"183366",title:"Prof.",name:"Imdat",surname:"Dilek",slug:"imdat-dilek",fullName:"Imdat Dilek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"188062",title:"Prof.",name:"Tobias",surname:"Chirwa",slug:"tobias-chirwa",fullName:"Tobias Chirwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
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As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+5,700 OA books published
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
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Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:14,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"56013",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69660",title:"Vitamin C: An Antioxidant Agent",slug:"vitamin-c-an-antioxidant-agent",totalDownloads:7808,totalCrossrefCites:26,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:"Vitamin C or ascorbic acid (AsA) is a naturally occurring organic compound with antioxidant properties, found in both animals and plants. It functions as a redox buffer which can reduce, and thereby neutralize, reactive oxygen species. It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"56440",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70162",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6423,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"50921",doi:"10.5772/63712",title:"Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet",slug:"menaquinones-bacteria-and-foods-vitamin-k2-in-the-diet",totalDownloads:3315,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Vitamin K2 is a collection of isoprenologues that mostly originate from bacterial synthesis, also called menaquinones (MKs). Multiple bacterial species used as starter cultures for food fermentation are known to synthesize MK. Therefore, fermented food is the best source of vitamin K2. In the Western diet, dairy products are one of the best known and most commonly consumed group of fermented products.",book:{id:"5169",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",title:"Vitamin K2",fullTitle:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing"},signatures:"Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet",authors:[{id:"184784",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Walther",slug:"barbara-walther",fullName:"Barbara Walther"},{id:"188194",title:"Mrs.",name:"Magali",middleName:null,surname:"Chollet",slug:"magali-chollet",fullName:"Magali Chollet"}]},{id:"66098",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84445",title:"Golden Rice: To Combat Vitamin A Deficiency for Public Health",slug:"golden-rice-to-combat-vitamin-a-deficiency-for-public-health",totalDownloads:3377,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) has been recognised as a significant public health problem continuously for more than 30 years, despite current interventions. The problem is particularly severe in populations where rice is the staple food and diversity of diet is limited, as white rice contains no micronutrients. Golden Rice is a public-sector product designed as an additional intervention for VAD. There will be no charge for the nutritional trait, which has been donated by its inventors for use in public-sector rice varieties to assist the resource poor, and no limitations on what small farmers can do with the crop—saving and replanting seed, selling seed and selling grain are all possible. Because Golden Rice had to be created by introducing two new genes—one from maize and the other from a very commonly ingested soil bacterium—it has taken a long time to get from the laboratory to the field. Now it has been formally registered as safe as food, feed, or in processed form by four industrialised counties, and applications are pending in developing countries. The data are summarised here, and criticisms addressed, for a public health professional audience: is it needed, will it work, is it safe and is it economic? Adoption of Golden Rice, the next step after in-country registration, requires strategic and tactical cooperation across professions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and government departments often not used to working together. Public health professionals need to play a prominent role.",book:{id:"7978",slug:"vitamin-a",title:"Vitamin A",fullTitle:"Vitamin A"},signatures:"Adrian Dubock",authors:[{id:"273220",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Dubock",slug:"adrian-dubock",fullName:"Adrian Dubock"}]},{id:"62836",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79350",title:"The Role of Thiamine in Plants and Current Perspectives in Crop Improvement",slug:"the-role-of-thiamine-in-plants-and-current-perspectives-in-crop-improvement",totalDownloads:1564,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Current research is focusing on selecting potential genes that can alleviate stress and produce disease-tolerant crop variety. The novel paradigm is to investigate the potential of thiamine as a crop protection molecule in plants. Thiamine or vitamin B1 is important for primary metabolism for all living organisms. The active form, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), is a cofactor for the enzymes involved in the synthesis of amino acids, tricarboxylic acid cycle and pentose phosphate pathway. Recently, thiamine is shown to have a role in the processes underlying protection of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. The aim of this chapter is to review the role of thiamine in plant growth and disease protection and also to highlight that TPP and its intermediates are involved in management of stress. The perspectives on its potential for manipulating the biosynthesis pathway in crop improvement will also be discussed.",book:{id:"6709",slug:"b-group-vitamins-current-uses-and-perspectives",title:"B Group Vitamins",fullTitle:"B Group Vitamins - Current Uses and Perspectives"},signatures:"Atiqah Subki, Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin and Zetty Norhana\nBalia Yusof",authors:[{id:"240031",title:"Dr.",name:"Zetty-Norhana Balia",middleName:null,surname:"Yusof",slug:"zetty-norhana-balia-yusof",fullName:"Zetty-Norhana Balia Yusof"},{id:"261167",title:"Mr.",name:"Aisamuddin Ardi",middleName:null,surname:"Zainal Abidin",slug:"aisamuddin-ardi-zainal-abidin",fullName:"Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin"},{id:"261169",title:"Ms.",name:"Atiqah",middleName:null,surname:"Subki",slug:"atiqah-subki",fullName:"Atiqah Subki"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56440",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6423,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"56013",title:"Vitamin C: An Antioxidant Agent",slug:"vitamin-c-an-antioxidant-agent",totalDownloads:7808,totalCrossrefCites:26,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:"Vitamin C or ascorbic acid (AsA) is a naturally occurring organic compound with antioxidant properties, found in both animals and plants. It functions as a redox buffer which can reduce, and thereby neutralize, reactive oxygen species. It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"69402",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency and Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency-and-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:1600,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Vitamin D (VD) is a molecule that can be synthesized directly in the humans’ body or enter the organism with food in the form of inactive precursors. To exert its biological action, VD undergoes two-stage hydroxylation (at the 25th and 1st position) catalyzed by cytochromes P450, the presence of which has already been shown in almost all tissues of the human body. The product of hydroxylation is hormone-active form of vitamin D–1,25(OH)2D. 1,25(OH)2D binds to specific vitamin D receptor (VDR) and regulates the expression of genes involved in bone remodeling (classical function) and genes that control immune response, hormone secretion, cell proliferation, and differentiation (nonclassical functions). VD deficiency is prevalent around the globe and may be one of the key factors for diabetes development. The direct association between vitamin D deficiency and type 1 (T1D) and type 2 (T2D) diabetes has been proven. Detection of VDR in pancreas and adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, and immune cells allowed implying the antidiabetic role of vitamin D by enhancing insulin synthesis and exocytosis, increasing the expression of the insulin receptor, and modulating immune cells’ functions. This chapter summarizes data about relationship between VD insufficiency/deficiency and development of T1D and T2D, and their complications.",book:{id:"7038",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency",fullTitle:"Vitamin D Deficiency"},signatures:"Ihor Shymanskyi, Olha Lisakovska, Anna Mazanova and Mykola Veliky",authors:null},{id:"76108",title:"Vitamin D Metabolism",slug:"vitamin-d-metabolism",totalDownloads:493,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Vitamin D plays an important role in bone metabolism. Vitamin D is a group of biologically inactive, fat-soluble prohormones that exist in two major forms: ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) produced by plants in response to ultraviolet irradiation and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) derived from animal tissues or 7-dehydrocholesterol in human skin by the action of ultraviolet rays present in sunlight. Vitamin D, which is biologically inactive, needs two-step hydroxylation for activation. All of these steps are of crucial for Vitamin D to show its effect properly. In this section, we will present vitamin D synthesis and its action steps in detail.",book:{id:"10631",slug:"vitamin-d",title:"Vitamin D",fullTitle:"Vitamin D"},signatures:"Sezer Acar and Behzat Özkan",authors:[{id:"29878",title:"Dr.",name:"Behzat",middleName:null,surname:"Özkan",slug:"behzat-ozkan",fullName:"Behzat Özkan"},{id:"348287",title:"Dr.",name:"Sezer",middleName:null,surname:"Acar",slug:"sezer-acar",fullName:"Sezer Acar"}]},{id:"50754",title:"Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites",slug:"medicinal-chemistry-of-vitamin-k-derivatives-and-metabolites",totalDownloads:1915,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Vitamin K acts as a cofactor for γ‐glutamyl carboxylase. Recently, various biological activities of vitamin K have been reported. Anti‐proliferative activities of vitamin K, especially in vitamin K3, are well known. In addition, various physiological and pharmacological functions of vitamin K2, such as transcription modulators as nuclear steroid and xenobiotic receptor (SXR) ligands and anti‐inflammatory effects, have been revealed in the past decade. Characterization of vitamin K metabolites is also important for clinical application of vitamin K and its derivatives. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. 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Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. 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Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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