\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nVitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing has been produced and distributed through the support from Kappa Bioscience, Norway.\r\n',isbn:"978-953-51-3020-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3019-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4895-1",doi:"10.5772/61430",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",numberOfPages:338,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"b2f9f024939ddc4f5da2a8afa3fcd9c9",bookSignature:"Jan Oxholm Gordeladze",publishedDate:"March 22nd 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5169.jpg",numberOfDownloads:35434,numberOfWosCitations:31,numberOfCrossrefCitations:28,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:51,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:110,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 6th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 31st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 25th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 30th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 31st 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:'
\n \n\nVitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing has been produced and distributed through the support from Kappa Bioscience, Norway.\n\n
',editors:[{id:"36345",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:"Oxholm",surname:"Gordeladze",slug:"jan-gordeladze",fullName:"Jan Gordeladze",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/36345/images/3823_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Jan O. Gordeladze, Ph.D. (born 25th of April, 1950), holds a triple professor competence (Medical Biochemistry, Physiology, and Pharmacology), and is presently working as a Professor Emeritus at the Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Basic Medical Science, University of Oslo, Norway. He has previously been employed as the Medical Director of MSD, Norway, serving two years as a Fulbright scholar at the NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA. From 2006-2009 he was employed as Associate Professor at the University of Montpellier, France. He is a member of the Norwegian Stem Cell Center, and his research has over the past 7-10 years been devoted to differentiation of osteochondral cells from stem cells focusing on the impact of transcription factors and microRNA species constituting regulatory loop interactions with functional target genes. He has published more than 120 scientific articles, reviews/book chapters and presented more than 250 abstracts/posters/talks at conferences worldwide. Dr. Gordeladze has served as a Fulbright Scholar at The National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Washington DC during the years 1990-91.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"9",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"379",title:"Vitaminology",slug:"alimentology-vitaminology"}],chapters:[{id:"53889",title:"Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2",doi:"10.5772/66384",slug:"introductory-chapter-vitamin-k2",totalDownloads:1794,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jan Oxholm Gordeladze",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53889",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53889",authors:[{id:"36345",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Gordeladze",slug:"jan-gordeladze",fullName:"Jan Gordeladze"}],corrections:null},{id:"51057",title:"Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX",doi:"10.5772/63983",slug:"vitamin-k-sxr-and-ggcx",totalDownloads:1805,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vitamin K was discovered in 1929 as a substance essential for blood coagulation and had been clinically utilized before the precise mechanism of action became aware in 1970s. The function as a cofactor of γ-glutamyl carboxylase (GGCX) was the mechanism firstly discovered with the identification of several substrate proteins including blood coagulation factors and osteocalcin. Recently, we and others have shown that vitamin K has other modes of function, such as ligand of nuclear receptor SXR (steroid and xenobiotic receptor) and its murine ortholog PXR (pregnane X receptor) and modulator of protein kinase A (PKA) activity. Besides its importance in blood coagulation, involvement of vitamin K has been shown in two major aging-related diseases, osteoporosis and osteoarthritis. Based on clinical and epidemiological studies, vitamin K is shown to have protective roles for both of them. Interestingly, clinical studies concerning single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of GGCX and γ-carboxylated status of osteocalcin suggested relationship between GGCX activity and bone-protective effect, while recent findings from basic research indicated that vitamin K functions mediated by SXR/PXR as well as GGCX are important in the bone metabolism. We also suggested that cartilage-protective effect is mediated by SXR/PXR signaling by animal experiments using Pxr knockout mice.",signatures:"Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51057",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51057",authors:[{id:"184194",title:"Dr.",name:"Satoshi",surname:"Inoue",slug:"satoshi-inoue",fullName:"Satoshi Inoue"},{id:"189851",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotaro",surname:"Azuma",slug:"kotaro-azuma",fullName:"Kotaro Azuma"}],corrections:null},{id:"51024",title:"Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products",doi:"10.5772/63902",slug:"vitamin-k2-rich-food-products",totalDownloads:2078,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Naturally, vitamin K exists in two bioactive forms mainly phylloquinone (vitamin K1) and menaquinones (vitamin K2). Phylloquinone is mostly found in green leafy vegetables such as kale, spinach, broccoli, and vegetable oils. However, menaquinones abundantly occurs in fermented vegetable products as menaquinones‐7 (MK‐7) and in animal‐based products as menaquinone‐4 (MK‐4). Diverse concentrations of menaquinones are present in various dietary sources such as fermented pulses and milk‐based products, cheese, meat, and animal organs. Presently, MK‐7 and MK‐4 contribute about 24 and 7%, respectively, of the total vitamin K dietary intake in the population consuming fermented products regularly. However, about 10% of menaquinones are pooled in the liver out of total intake of vitamin K. Conclusively, fermented soybean products and fermented milk‐based products such as cheese and soured milk contain ample amount of MK‐7, whereas animal organs, meat, fish, and egg contain appreciable amount of MK‐4.",signatures:"Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51024",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51024",authors:[{id:"178785",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Yasin",slug:"muhammad-yasin",fullName:"Muhammad Yasin"},{id:"182656",title:"Prof.",name:"Masood Sadiq",surname:"Butt",slug:"masood-sadiq-butt",fullName:"Masood Sadiq Butt"},{id:"189674",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurang",surname:"Zeb",slug:"aurang-zeb",fullName:"Aurang Zeb"}],corrections:null},{id:"50921",title:"Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet",doi:"10.5772/63712",slug:"menaquinones-bacteria-and-foods-vitamin-k2-in-the-diet",totalDownloads:3301,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:21,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Vitamin K2 is a collection of isoprenologues that mostly originate from bacterial synthesis, also called menaquinones (MKs). Multiple bacterial species used as starter cultures for food fermentation are known to synthesize MK. Therefore, fermented food is the best source of vitamin K2. In the Western diet, dairy products are one of the best known and most commonly consumed group of fermented products.",signatures:"Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50921",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50921",authors:[{id:"184784",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",surname:"Walther",slug:"barbara-walther",fullName:"Barbara Walther"},{id:"188194",title:"Mrs.",name:"Magali",surname:"Chollet",slug:"magali-chollet",fullName:"Magali Chollet"}],corrections:null},{id:"54263",title:"The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism",doi:"10.5772/67152",slug:"the-impact-of-vitamin-k2-on-energy-metabolism",totalDownloads:1898,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Environmental and behavioral adaptations introduced during the last decades have synergistically enhanced man’s lifespan, but also paved the ground for disease states involving impairment of multiple organs, which are both modulating and depending on homeostatic calorie “accounting.”",signatures:"Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm\nGordeladze",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54263",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54263",authors:[{id:"184157",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mona",surname:"Møller",slug:"mona-moller",fullName:"Mona Møller"}],corrections:null},{id:"52078",title:"Vitamin K2 and Bone Health",doi:"10.5772/64876",slug:"vitamin-k2-and-bone-health",totalDownloads:2101,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During the last 20 years, the main clinical effects of vitamin K2 on bone homeostasis have been investigated in both indirect and direct vitamin K treatment regimens. This chapter is mainly based on randomized clinical trials (RCT) lasting for more than 1 year. As for vitamin K1 (phylloquinone, indirect treatment) and vitamin K2 (menaquinone MK‐4 and MK‐7 direct treatment), respectively, the clinical trials have consistently shown decreased fracture rate incidents, however, mainly in Asian populations. In 2013, a major breakthrough was observed by Knapen et al. in the Netherlands, where menaquinone MK‐7 supplementation of 180 μg/day for 3 years to healthy postmenopausal women significantly decreased the age‐related decline in BMC (bone mineral contents) and BMD (bone mineral density) at the lumbar spine and femoral neck, but not at the total hip, as compared to placebo. Thus, MK‐7 supplementation has shown a significant “double”‐positive action through (1) increased bone building and (2) decreased bone resorption. We look forward to seeing the clinical effects on low bone mass and osteoporosis as well as other bone diseases.",signatures:"Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52078",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52078",authors:[{id:"186115",title:"M.D.",name:"Niels Erik",surname:"Frandsen",slug:"niels-erik-frandsen",fullName:"Niels Erik Frandsen"}],corrections:null},{id:"54291",title:"Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/66383",slug:"vitamin-k2-and-its-impact-on-tooth-epigenetics",totalDownloads:2175,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The impact of nutritional signals plays an important role in systemic-based «models» of dental caries. Present hypotheses now focus both on the oral environment and other organs, like the nervous system and brain. The tooth is subjected to shear forces, nourishing and cleansing, and its present “support system” (the hypothalamus/parotid axis) relays endocrine signaling to the parotid gland. Sugar consumption enhances hypothalamic oxidative stress (ROS), reversing dentinal fluid flow, thus creating an enhanced vulnerability to the oral bacterial flora. The acid, produced by the oral bacterial flora, then leads to erosion of the dentine, and an irreversible loss of dental enamel layers. This attack brings about inflammatory responses, yielding metalloproteinase-based “dissolution”. However, vitamin K2 (i.e. MK-4/MK-7) may come to the rescue with its antioxidant property, locally (mouth cavity) or systemically (via the brain), thus sustaining/preserving hormone-induced dentinal fluid flow (encompassing oxidative stress) and boosting/magnifying bodily inflammatory responses. However, sugars may also reduce the tooth’s natural defences through endocrine signaling, thus enhancing acid-supported enamel dentine erosion. Vitamin K2 sustains and improves the salivary buffering capacity via its impact on the secretion/flow of calcium and inorganic phosphates. Interestingly, primitive cultures’ diets (low-sugar and high-K2 diets) preserve dental health.",signatures:"Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen,\nHåvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54291",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54291",authors:[{id:"36345",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Gordeladze",slug:"jan-gordeladze",fullName:"Jan Gordeladze"}],corrections:null},{id:"51205",title:"Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K",doi:"10.5772/63891",slug:"anti-inflammatory-actions-of-vitamin-k",totalDownloads:2277,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Naphthoquinone compounds have received attention for their ability to regulate diseases from bacterial and parasite infections through to chronic human diseases. Inflammation is widely considered to be at the root of many chronic diseases. The reports of anti-inflammatory activity of naphthoquinones, including vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) and vitamin K2s (menaquinones), are of interest due to their very low toxicity. Most of the evidence for the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of vitamin K suggests a role in the inhibition of the cell signalling complex nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB).",signatures:"Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin\nSoper",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51205",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51205",authors:[{id:"184368",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Hodges",slug:"stephen-hodges",fullName:"Stephen Hodges"},{id:"184370",title:"Dr.",name:"Robin",surname:"Soper",slug:"robin-soper",fullName:"Robin Soper"},{id:"184371",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Pitsillides",slug:"andrew-pitsillides",fullName:"Andrew Pitsillides"}],corrections:null},{id:"50916",title:"Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health",doi:"10.5772/63413",slug:"vitamin-k2-implications-for-cardiovascular-health-in-the-context-of-plant-based-diets-with-applicati",totalDownloads:3677,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vitamin K was originally discovered as a blood coagulation factor. But observations regarding intakes in populations and health outcomes lead to a deeper understanding of the differences between vitamins K1 and K2. Studies of warfarin-treated rats and MGP -deficient mice led to understanding the central role of MGP in controlling calcification of arteries. A sensitive biomarker assay was then developed, based on a particular species of matrix γ–carboxylation protein OR matrix GLA protein (MGP). Warfarin therapy in people, especially those suffering from chronic kidney disease, was found to cause the highest level of this biomarker desphospho-uncarboxylated MGP (dp-ucMGP). Intervention studies with vitamin K2 brought down levels of dp-ucMGP and also led to relief of some disease endpoints. The process of varicose vein formation includes a role for vitamin K, implicating a lack of vitamin K in the development of varicoceles, which leads to benign prostate hyperplasia. It is likely that much good will be accomplished using vitamin K2 in interventions. Complex, multifaceted diseases will not be treated by single-nutrient solutions. The best interventions will be those which combine vitamin K2 treatment with a healthy diet rich in fruits and vegetables, combined with a healthy lifestyle.",signatures:"Michael S. Donaldson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50916",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50916",authors:[{id:"180516",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Donaldson",slug:"michael-donaldson",fullName:"Michael Donaldson"}],corrections:null},{id:"50958",title:"Menaquinone‐4 Enhances Steroidogenesis in Testis Derived Tumor Cells Via the Elevation of cAMP Level",doi:"10.5772/63982",slug:"menaquinone-4-enhances-steroidogenesis-in-testis-derived-tumor-cells-via-the-elevation-of-camp-level",totalDownloads:1586,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Naturally existing vitamin K consists of vitamins K1 and K2. Menaquinone‐4 (MK‐4), an analog of vitamin K2 and a product of vitamin K1 metabolism, can be detected in several organs, including the testis; however, the function of MK‐4 in these tissues has not been well characterized. Recent studies have suggested that vitamin K is involved in enhancing protein kinase A (PKA) activity in several cell types, thus regulating numerous PKA‐dependent biological processes. To highlight the effect of vitamin K, we focused on its role in the steroidogenic pathway. Experiments on vitamin K–deficient rats revealed a reduced expression of genes involved in the biosynthesis of cholesterol and steroid hormones in the testis. Moreover, compared with control animals, rats fed on MK‐4 diet presented significantly higher testosterone levels in the plasma and testis. These results suggest that vitamin K is involved in the steroidogenic pathway in the testis. Testosterone levels were found to increase in a dose‐dependent manner also in cell‐based experiments upon addition of MK‐4, but such an effect was not observed in vitamin K1 levels. Furthermore, the effect of MK‐4 on testosterone production was abolished by the specific PKA inhibitor H89, thus confirming the regulatory role of MK‐4 on PKA activation. Here, we describe how MK‐4 modulates PKA activation by enhancing intracellular 3′,5′‐cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels in testis‐derived I‐10 cells. The presented evidence supports the role of MK‐4 in cAMP/PKA signaling and steroidogenesis.",signatures:"Hsin‐Jung Ho, Hitoshi Shirakawa and Michio Komai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50958",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50958",authors:[{id:"180389",title:"Dr.",name:"Hitoshi",surname:"Shirakawa",slug:"hitoshi-shirakawa",fullName:"Hitoshi Shirakawa"},{id:"180489",title:"MSc.",name:"Hsin-Jung",surname:"Ho",slug:"hsin-jung-ho",fullName:"Hsin-Jung Ho"},{id:"180490",title:"Prof.",name:"Michio",surname:"Komai",slug:"michio-komai",fullName:"Michio Komai"}],corrections:null},{id:"54241",title:"Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk",doi:"10.5772/67153",slug:"vitamin-k2-facilitating-inter-organ-cross-talk",totalDownloads:1761,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter features how vitamin K2 is instrumental in bringing about inter-organ communication, thus facilitating (a) a synthesis/secretion of the endocrine, humoral factors from various organs and (b) physiological responses to the said factors by a multitude of organ systems of the body, thus creating a ‘lattice’ of reciprocal regulatory loops in order to ensure endocrine homeostasis.",signatures:"Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and\nMona Møller",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54241",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54241",authors:[{id:"36345",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Gordeladze",slug:"jan-gordeladze",fullName:"Jan Gordeladze"}],corrections:null},{id:"51126",title:"Vitamin K2 in Animal Health: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/63901",slug:"vitamin-k2-in-animal-health-an-overview",totalDownloads:1764,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The role of vitamin K in animal health has not received much attention. Vitamin K studies have, for the most part, addressed the use of animals in the investigation of vitamin K physiology and pathophysiology, often using the rodent as a model system. However, vitamin K performs the same role in animals as it does in man and there are areas, such as animal nutrition, where a better understanding of animal requirements in general, and with ageing, could benefit animal health and continued well‐being.",signatures:"Jayde O’Neil, Bethany Scarrott, Ragnhild Aven Svalheim, Jonathan\nElliott and Stephen J. Hodges",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51126",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51126",authors:[{id:"184368",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Hodges",slug:"stephen-hodges",fullName:"Stephen Hodges"},{id:"184369",title:"Ms.",name:"Jayde",surname:"O'Neil",slug:"jayde-o'neil",fullName:"Jayde O'Neil"},{id:"184748",title:"Ms.",name:"Bethany",surname:"Scarrott",slug:"bethany-scarrott",fullName:"Bethany Scarrott"},{id:"184749",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Elliott",slug:"jonathan-elliott",fullName:"Jonathan Elliott"},{id:"184750",title:"Ms.",name:"Ragnhild",surname:"Svalheim",slug:"ragnhild-svalheim",fullName:"Ragnhild Svalheim"}],corrections:null},{id:"50754",title:"Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites",doi:"10.5772/63511",slug:"medicinal-chemistry-of-vitamin-k-derivatives-and-metabolites",totalDownloads:1905,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vitamin K acts as a cofactor for γ‐glutamyl carboxylase. Recently, various biological activities of vitamin K have been reported. Anti‐proliferative activities of vitamin K, especially in vitamin K3, are well known. In addition, various physiological and pharmacological functions of vitamin K2, such as transcription modulators as nuclear steroid and xenobiotic receptor (SXR) ligands and anti‐inflammatory effects, have been revealed in the past decade. Characterization of vitamin K metabolites is also important for clinical application of vitamin K and its derivatives. In this chapter, recent progress on the medicinal chemistry of vitamin K derivatives and metabolites is discussed.",signatures:"Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50754",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50754",authors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika"},{id:"180529",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",surname:"Fujii",slug:"shinya-fujii",fullName:"Shinya Fujii"}],corrections:null},{id:"50681",title:"From Protein Folding to Blood Coagulation: Menaquinone as a Metabolic Link between Bacteria and Mammals",doi:"10.5772/63342",slug:"from-protein-folding-to-blood-coagulation-menaquinone-as-a-metabolic-link-between-bacteria-and-mamma",totalDownloads:1916,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Menaquinones have long played a central role in bacterial metabolism due to their solubility in membranes and their ability to mediate electron transfer reactions between a large variety of enzymes. In addition to acting as important nodes in fermentation and respiration, menaquinones are critical to the formation of disulphide bonds in the periplasm. Their utility as molecular wires has also led to their incorporation into redox reactions in higher‐order organisms, where they participate in numerous physiological processes, including blood coagulation. Through studying the menaquinone‐dependent pathways in organisms across the phylogenetic spectrum, researchers have begun to uncover intriguing metabolic links and have identified novel compounds for modulating these vital pathways.",signatures:"Brian M. Meehan and Jonathan Beckwith",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50681",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50681",authors:[{id:"180269",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Meehan",slug:"brian-meehan",fullName:"Brian Meehan"},{id:"185054",title:"Prof.",name:"Jon",surname:"Beckwith",slug:"jon-beckwith",fullName:"Jon Beckwith"}],corrections:null},{id:"52618",title:"Vitamin K2 Biosynthesis: Drug Targets for New Antibacterials",doi:"10.5772/65487",slug:"vitamin-k2-biosynthesis-drug-targets-for-new-antibacterials",totalDownloads:2148,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In prokaryotes, vitamin K2 (menaquinone) transfers two electrons in a process of aerobic or anaerobic respiration. Respiration occurs in the cell membrane of prokaryotic cells. Electron donors transfer two electrons to menaquinone (MK). Menaquinone in turn transfers these electrons to an electron acceptor. Menaquinones are vital for the electron transport chain. In the spectrum of Gram‐positive bacteria and Mycobacterium spp., vitamin K2 serves as the only quinone molecule in their electron shuffling systems. Hence, the bacterial enzymes associated with biosynthesis of the menaquinone(s) serve as potential target molecules for the development of new antibacterial drugs. This chapter summarizes the effects of vitamin K2 in bacteria and describes in more detail the aspects of menaquinone in bacterial electron transport in general, while also featuring the discoveries of menaquinone biosynthesis inhibitors.",signatures:"Michio Kurosu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52618",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52618",authors:[{id:"33087",title:"Prof.",name:"Michio",surname:"Kurosu",slug:"michio-kurosu",fullName:"Michio Kurosu"}],corrections:null},{id:"50717",title:"Toxicological and Pharmacological Effects of VKOR Inhibitors",doi:"10.5772/63512",slug:"toxicological-and-pharmacological-effects-of-vkor-inhibitors",totalDownloads:1720,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vitamin K1 2,3-epoxide reductase (VKOR) inhibition is the main pharmacological effect of warfarin, an anticoagulant that is typically used in the prevention of thrombosis and thromboembolism. The repeated oral administration of sodium dehydroacetate (DHA-S), which has been used as a food additive, preservative, and antimicrobial agent, induced severe hemorrhage in multiple organs and prolonged blood coagulation factors with VKOR inhibition in rats. On the other hand, VKOR and the vitamin K–dependent growth arrest–specific gene 6 (Gas6)/Axl pathway play a key role in mesangial cell proliferation in glomerulonephritis (GN). We herein indicated the potential of the VKOR inhibitor, 3-acetyl-5-methyltetronic acid (AMT), to prevent the proliferation of glomerular mesangial cells and suppress the progression of GN. DHA-S-induced hemorrhage was caused by the depletion of blood VK, associated with any factors including VKOR inhibition. The novel VKOR inhibitor, AMT, reduced renal mesangial cell proliferation and may be a supportive treatment for GN.",signatures:"Yohei Miyamoto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50717",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50717",authors:[{id:"172105",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yohei",surname:"Miyamoto",slug:"yohei-miyamoto",fullName:"Yohei Miyamoto"}],corrections:null},{id:"50994",title:"Enhanced Intracellular Delivery and Improved Antitumor Efficacy of Menaquinone-4",doi:"10.5772/63343",slug:"enhanced-intracellular-delivery-and-improved-antitumor-efficacy-of-menaquinone-4",totalDownloads:1528,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major malignant tumor type that occurs globally. HCC incidence is increasing, especially in Asian countries. Despite many therapeutic approaches, the long-term prognosis of HCC remains poor because of frequent recurrence due to intrahepatic metastasis or multicentric carcinogenesis. Therefore, it is necessary to develop effective and safe chemopreventive agents to improve the prognosis of HCC. Menaquinone-4 (MK-4) has a suppressive effect on HCC, but cellular delivery is poor. We hypothesized that effective cellular delivery of menahydroquinone-4 (MKH), a fully reduced form of MK-4, would regulate HCC growth and metastasis. We developed a bioreductive activation-independent delivery system with the N,N-dimethylglycine ester of MKH (MKH-bis-DMG) to deliver MKH to HCC cells without any bioreductive processing of MK-4. MKH-bis-DMG inhibited the proliferation of both DCP-positive and DCP-negative HCC cell lines in a time- and dose-dependent manner via G1/S cell-cycle arrest. We assessed the effect of MKH-derivatives on HCC metastasis using a mouse model of spleen-liver metastasis. The mean tumor hepatic replacement area of MKH-bis-DMG treated mice was significantly less than that of untreated mice. In conclusion, MKH-bis-DMG may be beneficial as a chemopreventive agent for recurrent HCC.",signatures:"Kazuhisa Matsunaga, Munechika Enjoji, Yoshiharu Karube and Jiro\nTakata",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50994",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50994",authors:[{id:"179737",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuhisa",surname:"Matsunaga",slug:"kazuhisa-matsunaga",fullName:"Kazuhisa Matsunaga"},{id:"179741",title:"Prof.",name:"Munechika",surname:"Enjoji",slug:"munechika-enjoji",fullName:"Munechika Enjoji"},{id:"179742",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshiharu",surname:"Karube",slug:"yoshiharu-karube",fullName:"Yoshiharu Karube"},{id:"179744",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiro",surname:"Takata",slug:"jiro-takata",fullName:"Jiro Takata"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6039",title:"Adiposity",subtitle:"Omics and Molecular Understanding",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ef4705430dd255e9105eff55b3b21a8",slug:"adiposity-omics-and-molecular-understanding",bookSignature:"Jan Oxholm Gordeladze",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6039.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36345",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Gordeladze",slug:"jan-gordeladze",fullName:"Jan Gordeladze"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5483",title:"Adiposity",subtitle:"Epidemiology and Treatment Modalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f19b6a0755b8a29538e3b2043d4a854",slug:"adiposity-epidemiology-and-treatment-modalities",bookSignature:"Jan Oxholm Gordeladze",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5483.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36345",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Gordeladze",slug:"jan-gordeladze",fullName:"Jan Gordeladze"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5940",title:"Vitamin C",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e23e79359167bb9d4a53edd78c7b5038",slug:"vitamin-c",bookSignature:"Amal H. 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\r\n\tAt first sight, a subject of this book may appear as a rather specialized topic; however, wetting and wettability are fundamental to many important phenomena, including adhesion, penetration of liquids into capillary structures, granulation and agglomeration of fines and powders, interfacial chemical reactions, spreading and retention of liquid sprays on the surface, particle floatation, cleaning, printing and so on. Wetting is also an indispensable part of fluid rheology and fluid dynamics. Therefore, it is an influential theme with countless practical applications including biology, pharmacy, healthcare, agrochemistry, petrochemistry, minerals and metals, ceramics, polymers, coatings, fibers, adhesives, etc. Even though wetting and wettability have been studied since long ago, this remains a very booming research area that reveals new opportunities for discoveries and innovations related to the nanoscale, advanced materials, novel measurement, characterization techniques, and data processing.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book aims to offer a rare opportunity for researchers from various domains to share cutting-edge interdisciplinary knowledge, including both fundamentals and practical applications.
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In 1985, he received a Ph.D. degree from the Dnipropetrovsk Metallurgical Institute (known since 1999 as the National Metallurgical Academy of Ukraine and since 2021 as the Ukrainian State University of Science and Technology). In 1998, he received the title of professor with the Ironmaking Chair. During 1999–2002, he was the dean of the Metallurgical Faculty. During 2002-2021, he was the vice-rector for Research and Education. Since 2022 he is a professor of the Ironmaking & Steelmaking Department. His research deals mainly with the properties of iron ore materials, physicochemical processes of ironmaking, recycling methods, sustainability analysis, etc. He is the author of over 180 research papers, 7 books, and 7 patents. He is the honorary professor at the Inner Mongolia University of Science and Technology, China, and a visiting professor at the University of Tokyo (2013). He is a laureate of the State Prize of Ukraine in Science and Technology (2010) and a fellow of the Erasmus+ Jean Monnet Programme for the EU climate and energy policy studies (since 2015).",institutionString:"Ukrainian State University of Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453624",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Scerbe",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453624/images/20399_n.jpg",email:"martina.s@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2132",title:"Sintering",subtitle:"Methods and Products",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4374d54a1172051ff65e9f3aebee8f3",slug:"sintering-methods-and-products",bookSignature:"Volodymyr Shatokha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2132.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111000",title:"Dr.",name:"Volodymyr",surname:"Shatokha",slug:"volodymyr-shatokha",fullName:"Volodymyr Shatokha"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6335",title:"Iron Ores and Iron Oxide Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"26195f784577133f2972d538cef6f8c9",slug:"iron-ores-and-iron-oxide-materials",bookSignature:"Volodymyr Shatokha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6335.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111000",title:"Dr.",name:"Volodymyr",surname:"Shatokha",slug:"volodymyr-shatokha",fullName:"Volodymyr Shatokha"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9991",title:"Iron Ores",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f1b2c288312233e1be62cd01c7e74fec",slug:"iron-ores",bookSignature:"Volodymyr Shatokha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9991.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111000",title:"Dr.",name:"Volodymyr",surname:"Shatokha",slug:"volodymyr-shatokha",fullName:"Volodymyr Shatokha"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6320",title:"Advances in Glass Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d0a32a0cf9806bccd04101a8b6e1b95",slug:"advances-in-glass-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Vincenzo M. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
For more than a century, oil is well known as a good primary energy source competing coal, natural gas, nuclear energy and renewables in various regions and fields of the energy sector. According to the last statistical reports, oil is dominant fuel in America and Africa, whereas natural gas dominates in Europe and Eurasia and coal in the Asia Pacific. The use of oil and gas in the Middle East reach 98% of total energy consumption in this region.
\n
Oil is the world’s leading fuel (accounting for 32.9% of global energy consumption) with the 10-year average rate of growth of 1.9%. However, the rate of growth recorded in 2015 (1.0%) is slightly lower and similar to the rate recorded in 2014 (+1.1%) (\nFigure 1\n) [1].
\n
Figure 1.
Primary world energy consumption, million tonnes of oil equivalent [1].
\n
Oil, originated from ancient fossilized organic materials, is considered as nonrenewable primary energy source with limited amounts. There are two indicators used to represent remaining oil reserves—proved oil reserves and reserves-to-production ratio. Proved oil reserves is amount of oil that geological information indicates with reasonable certainty can be recovered to the future under existing economic and operating conditions, whereas reserves-to-production ratio represents the length of time that those remaining reserves would last if production were to continue at the previous year’s rate [1].
\n
Constant growth of proved oil reserves from 1126.2 thousand million barrels in 1995 until 1697.6 thousand million barrels in 2015 is presented in \nFigure 2\n. Nearly half of proven oil reserves are located in the Middle East.
\n
Figure 2.
Distribution of proved oil reserves: 1995, 2005 and 2015, percentage [1].
\n
According to the last statistical overview, oil reserves increased by 24% over the past decade and meet 50.7 years of global production. On a regional basis, South and Central American reserves have the highest oil reserves-to-production ratios—117 years and Asia Pacific have the lowest reserves-to-production ratios—14.05 years.
\n
In various regions all over the world, oil is found in the geological structures that form oil reservoirs. According to the depth of the oil reservoir, they are classified as follows: shallow, 30–800 m; medium, 800–2000 m; deep, 2000–5000 m and over deep, more than 5000 m. This classification is constantly changing as advances in drilling equipment with opportunity to achieve greater depth. However, irrespective of the depth of the oil reservoir, the main principle of oil extraction stays the same and is based on the life cycle of the oil field (\nFigure 3\n).
\n
Figure 3.
Life cycle of the oil and gas field.
\n
There are five stages of oil and gas fields’ life cycle: exploration, appraisal, development, production and abandonment.
\n
\nExploration is a method used for searching potentially viable oil and gas sources through geological surveys and drilling exploration wells to identify areas of potential interest. During the drilling process, general information and samples are collected to know about the rocks, fluids to find out how much oil and gas may be available at the explored area and what is the depth of the oil and gas window.
\n
After successful drilling exploration wells, the appraisal stage of the lifecycle starts. The main purpose of this phase is to improve the field description through further data acquisition and to reduce the uncertainty or possibility of losses about the size, shape and marketability of the oil and gas reservoir.
\n
The development stage occurs after successful appraisal and before production. The main activities are formation of a conceptual development plan (in order to develop the oil and gas field, to prepare design for the production wells, to decide what surface and subsurface facilities are required and to describe operating and maintenance principles) and construction of the facilities and production units.
\n
The production phase starts with the first oil flow in the wellhead. Oil and gas fields have a lifespan ranging from 15 to 30 years (from first oil to abandonment) and may be extended up to 50 years or more for the largest deposits. After extraction, oil and gas transported for processing and distribution.
\n
When the oil and gas production is no longer cost-effective, wells are plugged and abandoned, production facilities are removed and this is the last stage of oil and gas fields’ life cycle.
\n
Thereinafter, we will be focusing on the third step of the life cycle of the oil field—development of the well.
\n
\n
\n
2. Rotary drilling rig components
\n
During the first phase of the development of the well, a rotary drilling rig is installed to bore a hole in the ground and reach the oil reservoir. The main rotary drilling rig components are derrick or mast, power and prime movers, hoisting equipment, rotating component, circulating system, tubular and tubular handling equipment and bit.
\n
\nDerrick is mainly used offshore and is a large load-bearing vertical structure, usually of bolted construction and pyramidal in shape, for the equipment used to lower and raise the drill string into and out of the wellbore. The height of the derrick does not affect its load-bearing capacity, but it shows the maximum length of the drill pipe section. The standard derrick has square-shaped rig floor with four legs standing at the corners of the substructure. It provides work space for the necessary equipment on the rig floor.
\n
\nMast is mainly used with onshore rigs and is a portable derrick that can be raised as unit but for the transporting can be divided into two or more sections. It is usually rectangular or trapezoidal in shape.
\n
\nPower and prime movers. The power generated by the power system is used for five main operations such as rotating, hosting, drilling fluid circulation, rig lighting and hydraulic systems. It is important to note that the most of the generated power is consumed by the hoisting and drilling fluid circulation systems. Internal combustion engine (mostly diesel) connected to electric generators or turbine is the source of power on the rig. Some rotary rigs can use electricity directly from power lines.
\n
\nHoisting component is used to perform all lifting activities on the rig and helps in lowering or raising equipment into or out of the well. It consists of drawworks, crown block, traveling block, deadline anchor, supply reel and drilling line (\nFigure 4\n).
\nDrawworks is the main operating component of the hoisting system and is used to transmit power from prime movers to the hoisting drum that lifts drill string, casing or tubing string out of and to lower it back into the borehole. They consist of a large diameter steel spool, brakes, a power source and assorted auxiliary devices. The primary function of the drawworks is to reel out and reel in the drill line, a large diameter wire rope, in a controlled manner. The speeds for hoisting the drill string could be changes by driller via integrated gear system.
\nCrown block is fixed assembly of sheaves (single or double) with a wire rope drilling line running between it and is located at the top of the derrick or mast and over which the drilling line is threaded. It is used to change the direction of pull from the drawworks to the traveling block.
\nTraveling block and hook combination is used to safely and efficiently raise or lower tools and equipment in the well. It is the set of sheaves or pulleys through which the drill line (wire rope) is threaded or reeved, is opposite the crown block and enabling heavy loads to be lifted out of or lowered into the wellbore. Hook is located beneath the traveling block and is used to pick up and secure the swivel and Kelly.
\nDeadline anchor is usually bolted on to the substructure and is the equipment that holds down the deadline part of the wire rope. It provides weight measurements and secure deadlines.
\nSupply reel is a spool that stores the unused portion of the drill line.
\nDrill line is the wire rope used to support the drilling tools. It is threaded or reeved through the traveling block and crown block to facilitate the lowering and lifting of the drill string into and out of the borehole. Drill line then clamped to the rig floor by the deadline anchor.
\n\n
Figure 4.
Hoisting equipment of the drilling rig.
\n
\nRotating component is the equipment responsible for rotating the drill string. It consists of the swivel, Kelly spinner, Kelly or top drive, Kelly bushing, master bushing and rotary table (\nFigure 5\n).
\nSwivel is a mechanical device that is hung from the hook of the traveling block to support the weight of the drill string and allows it to rotate freely. It provides connection for the rotary hose as well as passageway for the flow of drilling fluid into the drill stem.
\nKelly spinner is a pneumatically controlled device mounted below the swivel to spin the Kelly to make up tool joints when making connections.
\nKelly is the heavy steel square or hexagonal member that is suspended from the swivel through the rotary table and connected to the topmost joint of drill pipe to turn the drill stem as the rotary table turns. It has a hole drilled through the middle that permits fluid to be circulated into the drill stem and up the annulus or vice versa. The Kelly goes through the Kelly bushing, which is driven by the rotary table.
\nTop drive is a hydraulically powered device on the drilling rig and is located at the swivel place. It allows the drill stem to spin and facilitate the process of drilling a borehole. Top drive means a power swivel, which directly turns the drill string without need for a Kelly and rotary table.
\nKelly bushing is a device that fits into a part of rotary table called master bushing, transmits torque to the Kelly and simultaneously permits vertical movement of the Kelly to make hole. The Kelly bushing as Kelly is square or hexagonal and has an inside profile matching the Kelly’s outside profile with slightly larger dimensions so that the Kelly can freely move up and down inside.
\nMaster bushing is a tool that fits into the rotary table of a drilling rig to accommodate the slips and drive the Kelly bushing so that the rotating motion of the rotary table can be transmitted to the Kelly.
\nRotary table is section of the drill floor used to turn the drill stem. It has a beveled gear arrangement to create the rotational motion and opening into which bushings are fitted to drive and support the drilling assembly.
\n\n
Figure 5.
Rotating equipment of the drilling rig.
\n
\nCirculating component is the rig equipment responsible for the movement of drilling fluid within the well as well as solids removal incurred by the drilling fluid (\nFigure 6\n). Normally, the circulation would start from the mud pits or tanks that are located besides the rig. Powerful pumps force the drilling through the surface high-pressure connections to a set of valves called pump manifold, located at the derrick floor. Then, the fluid goes up the rig within a pipe called standpipe to approximately 1/3 of the height of the mast. From there, the drilling fluid flows through a flexible high-pressure rotary hose to the top of the drill string. The flexible hose allows the fluid to flow continuously as the drill string moves up and down during normal drilling operations. The fluid enters in the drill string through a special piece of equipment called swivel located at the top of the Kelly. The swivel permits rotating the drill string while the fluid is pumped through the drill string. In wellbore, the drilling fluid then floes down the rotating string and jets out through the nozzles in the drill bit at the bottom of the hole. Drilling fluid carrying the drilled cuttings and flows out the center of the drill bit and is forced back up the outside of the drill pipe between the drill string and walls of the well (annular) onto the surface of the ground where it is cleaned and circulated back to the well. The cleaning process starts from the shale shaker, which is basically a vibrating screen. This will remove the larger particles, while allowing the residue to pass into settling tanks. The finer material can be removed using other solids removal equipments such as desander and desilter. If the mud contains gas from the formation, it will be passed through a degasser that separates the gas from the liquid mud. Having passed through all the mud processing equipment, the mud is returned to the mud pits or tanks for recycling.
\n
Figure 6.
Circulation system of the drilling rig.
\n
The principal components of the drilling fluid circulation system are as follows:
\nMud pump is a large, high-pressure and high-volume pump used to circulate the drilling fluid down the drill pipe and out of the annulus on an oil rig. It could be double acting duplex (2 cylinder) pump, which has four pumping actions per pump cycle or single acting triplex (3 cylinder) with three pumping actions per pump cycle whose pistons or plungers travel in replaceable liners and are driven by a crankshaft actuated by an engine or motor.
\nPump manifold is an arrangement of piping and valves that receives drilling fluid from mud pumps and transmits the drilling fluid to the succeeding circulating component. It is designed to control, distribute and monitor drilling fluid flow.
\nStand pipe is the vertical rigid pipe rising along the side of the derrick or mast, which joins mud pump manifold to the rotary hose.
\nDrill string is the mechanical assemblage connecting the rotary drive on the surface to the drilling bit on bottom of the wellbore.
\nMud return line or flow line is the large diameter metal pipe and is the passageway of the drilling fluid as it comes out of the well.
\nShale shaker is the primary solids-removing device with one or more vibrating screens, which is used to remove cuttings from the circulating fluid for reuse. Screens vibrate while the mud flows on top of it. The liquid phase with solids which are smaller than the wire mesh pass through the screen as well as larger solids are retained on the screen and eventually fall to the special container and can be disposed in an environmentally friendly manner.
\nDesander is a centrifugal device for removing sand-size particles from the drilling fluid to prevent abrasion of the pumps. There are no moving parts of a desander, and the removal of particles is done by gravity and pressure. As the drilling fluid flows around and gradually down the inside of the cone shape, particles are separated from the liquid by centrifugal forces.
\nDesilter is also a centrifugal device for removing free particles of silt from the drilling fluid. Comparing with desander, its design incorporates a greater number of smaller cones, which allow removing smaller diameter particles than a desander does.
\nDegasser is device designed to remove air, methane, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon dioxide (CO2) and other gases from drilling fluids and allow it to be reused continuously. It helps to reduce the risk of explosions and other dangers during the drilling process.
\nMud pit is an excavated earthen-walled pit and is used only to store used or waste drilling fluid and cuttings.
\nMud tank is an open-top steel container with possibility to observe the consistency of drilling fluid and monitor it level in the tanks. It is used as a reserve store for the drilling fluid.
\n\n
\nTubular and tubular handling equipment. Tubular consists of the following equipments:
\nDrill pipe is the longest section of the drill string and is heavy hot-rolled, pierced and seamlessly tubing. It connects the surface equipment with the bottom hole assembly and the bit is used to rotate the bit and for drilling fluid circulation.
\nDrill collar is thick-walled, heavy and large diameter steel tube placed between the drill pipe and the bit in the drill stem to provide weight on a bit. It can be cylindrical or spiral shape and is threaded at both ends (male and female) to allow multiple drill collars to be joined above the bit assembly.
\nHeavy weight drill pipe is thick-walled tube and is used as transition pipe between drill collar and drill pipe. In high-angled and horizontal wellbore, it is used in lieu of drill collars.
\nSubs are short component of the drill string, threaded piece of pipe used to adapt parts of the drilling string that cannot otherwise be screwed together because of difference in thread size or design.
\n\n
Tubular handling equipment is made of the following equipments:
\nElevator clamps that grip a stand of casing, tubing, drill pipe or drill collars so that the stand or joint can be lifted and lowered into the wellbore opening of the rotary table. The elevators are connected to the traveling block by means of bails, which are solid steel bars with eyes at both sides. Elevator could be side door, center latch or single joint types.
\nElevator links is device designed to support the elevators and attach them to the hook.
\nSlips are a wedge-shaped piece of metal with teeth or other gripping elements that supports and transmits the weight of the drill string to the rotary table and are used to hold the pipe in place as well as to prevent pipe from slipping down into borehole. Different types of slips are used during oil well drilling such as drill pipe, drill collar or casing slips.
\nSafety clamp is a mechanical device used on tubulars above the slips and is used to keep parts of the tool string from falling down the wellbore if other safety measures fail.
\nTongs are large wrenches used to make or break out tubular. It must be used in opposing pairs—make up or breakout tongs to make or break connection.
\nDrill pipe spinner is a pneumatically operated device usually suspended on the rig floor used to make fast connections and spin off of drill pipe.
\nIron roughneck is a pneumatically operated machine that replaces the functions performed by the Kelly spinner, drill pipe spinner and tongs and is used to connect and disconnect tubular.
\n\n
\nDrill bits are cutting tools used to create cylindrical holes. Bits are located at the bottom of the drill string and are suited for particular conditions, such as formation, which is to be drilled. There are three different types of bit designs, such as:
Roller cone bits with milled tooth or tungsten carbide insert (TCI) could have 2–6 cone-shaped steel devices that are free to turn as the bit rotates.
Fixed cutter bits could be drill bit or core bit. The first one could be polycrystalline diamond compact bit (PDC-bit), surface set diamond bit and impregnated diamond bit. It consists of bit bodies and cutting elements integrated with the bit bodies and do not have moving parts.
Hybrid bits combine both rolling cutter and fixed cutter elements.
\n\n
If the drill bit needs to be changed, the whole string of pipe must be raised to the surface.
\n
\n
\n
3. Classification of the drilling fluids\n
\n
Modern drilling fluids (muds) are complex heterogeneous fluids (water based, oil based) and are complex mixtures of more than 200 minerals and chemicals. It is used in a drilling operation and circulates from the surface, down the drill string, through the bit and back to the surface via the annulus. The original use of the drilling fluids was to remove cuttings continuously. Progress in drilling engineering demanded more sophistication from the drilling mud. In order to enhance the usage of drilling fluids, numerous additives were introduced and a simple fluid became a complicated mixture of liquids, solids and chemicals. As the drilling fluids evolved, their design changed to have common characteristic features that aid in safe, economic and satisfactory completion of a well. In addition, drilling fluids are also now required to perform following functions:
Clean the rock formation beneath the bit for rock cuttings.
Remove cutting from the well.
Control formation pressures while drilling and maintain wellbore stability.
Suspend and release cuttings.
Seal permeable formations to prevent excessive mud loss.
Minimize reservoir damage by using reservoir drill-in fluid.
Cool, lubricate and clean the bit and drilling assembly.
Transmit hydraulic energy to downhole assembly.
Ensure adequate formation evaluation.
Control corrosion.
Facilitate downhole measurement (measurement while drilling, logging while drilling).
Facilitate cementing and completion.
Minimize impact on the environment.
\n\n
However, excessive use of oil-based drilling fluids may harm the environment and it is important to develop more environmentally friendly drilling fluids. In this respect, water-based drilling fluids are more acceptable. As well known, bentonite is widely applied in the water-based drilling fluids, which could enhance the clean properties and form a thin filter with low permeability. The functions of bentonite are to make the fluids more viscous and reduce the loss of fluids.
\n
There are four types of drilling fluids (\nFigure 7\n):
\nWater-based drilling fluid (WBM) is the mud in which water is continuous phase. The water could be fresh, brackish or seawater. The most basic WBM system begins with water, then clays and other chemical and is incorporated into the water to create a homogenous blend. The clay (called “shale” in its rock form or bentonite) is frequently referred to in the oilfield as “gel.” Many other chemicals (e.g. potassium formate, KHCO2) are added to a WBM system to achieve various effects, including velocity control, shale stability, enhance drilling rate of penetration, cooling and lubricating of equipment [2, 3, 4].
\n\n
Figure 7.
Classification of the drilling fluids.
\n
Advantages
Low cost
High rate of penetration
Good cuttings removal
Good geoscientific investigations
The pressure in the cutting area increases with increasing hydrostatic pressure of drilling fluid.
\nOil-based drilling fluid has best technical properties such as stability, lubricity and temperature stability. Oil-based mud can be a mud where the base fluid is a petroleum product such as diesel fuel or mineral low toxic oil. The authorities do not permit the discharge of oil-based drilling fluid and cuttings drilled with oil-based drilling fluids because of their special nature of being a mixture of two immiscible liquids (oil and water). In that case special treatment and testing are required. The terms oil-based mud and inverted or invert-emulsion mud used to distinguish among the different types of oil-based drilling fluids. Traditionally, an oil-based mud is a fluid with 0–5% by volume of water, whereas an invert-emulsion mud contains more than 5% by volume of water.
\n\n
Advantages
Excellent lubricating properties (reduce drilling torque and drag)
Good temperature stability
Favorable to borehole stability
High rate of penetration
Will not hydrate clays
Long bit life
Low reservoir damage
Low drilling fluid loss
Salt not dissolved
Corrosion resistance
Can be reused.
\n\n
Disadvantages
High initial cost
Electric log difficulty
Viscosity varies with temperature
Environmental issue
Difficult to keep the rig clean while drilling
Difficult to identify gas kick
Messy working environment
Fire hazards.
\nSynthetic drilling fluids are based on ether, ester or olefin. They have technical properties that are similar to oil-based drilling fluids and are most often used on offshore rigs or in environmentally sensitive areas, because it has the properties of an oil-based mud, but the toxicity of the fluid fumes is much less than an oil-based fluid. This is often used on offshore rigs.
\n\n
Advantages
Favorable to borehole stability
High rate of penetration
Good wellbore stability
Good control of drilling fluid properties
Good cutting transport efficiency and removal
Good filtration properties.
\n\n
Disadvantages
Complex system with high solid content
Geoscientific investigations difficulty.
\nPneumatic drilling fluids—Fluids, which are based on air/gas, mist, aerated fluid or foam. Air drilling is used primarily in hard rock areas and in special cases to prevent formation damage while drilling into production zones or to circumvent severe lost-circulation problems. Air drilling includes dry air drilling, mist or foam drilling and aerated mud drilling. In dry air drilling, dry air/gas is injected into the standpipe at a volume and rate sufficient to achieve the annular velocities needed to clean the hole of cuttings. Mist drilling is used when water or oil sands are encountered that produce more fluid than can be dried up using dry air drilling. A mixture of foaming agent and water injected into the air stream, producing foam that separates the cuttings and helps remove fluid from the borehole. In aerated mud drilling, both mud and air pumped into the standpipe at the same time. Aerated mud is used when it is impossible to drill with air alone because of water sands and/or lost-circulation situations.
\n\n
Advantages
High rate of penetration
Low reservoir damage
Good bit performance
Low drilling fluid loss
Low water consumption
Low air quality requirements for foam drilling
Low hydrostatic pressure
Good cleaning of the borehole.
\n\n
Disadvantages
There are restrictions on the possible lithological structures
Drilling could be limited by the length of the horizontal section of the well
Possibility of fire
Possible additional costs to rent equipment
Gas costs
Gas and foam utilization issues
Aerated fluids require specialized equipment for the injections
Aerated fluids and foam have potential corrosion problems and the need to use additional inhibitor
The quality of the foam changes in exchange pressure
The foam is a complicated system and may require computer modeling of foam movement in the borehole.
\n\n
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3.1. Mud ingredients
\n
Various materials may be added at the surface to change or modify the characteristics of the mud:
\nWeighting materials (usually barite) are added to increase the density of the mud, which helps to control subsurface pressures and build the filter cake. Salts are sometimes added to protect downhole formations or to protect the mud against future contamination, as well as to increase density. Dispersants or deflocculants may be added to thin the mud, which helps to reduce surge, swab and circulating pressure problems.
\nViscosifying materials (clays, polymers and emulsified liquids) are added to thicken the mud and increase its hole cleaning ability. [6]
\nFiltration control materials. Clays, polymers, starches, dispersants and asphaltic materials may be added to reduce filtration of the mud through the borehole wall. This reduces formation damage, differential sticking and problems in log interpretation.
\npH control and lubricating materials. Mud additives may include lubricants, corrosion inhibitors, chemicals that tie up calcium ions and flocculants to aid in the removal of cuttings at the surface. Caustic soda is often added to increase the pH of the mud, which improves the performance of dispersants and reduces corrosion.
\nOther additives. Preservatives, bactericides, emulsifiers and temperature extenders may all be added to make other additives work better.
\n\n
Most of these additives have distinct properties that help in countering specific challenges encountered during the drilling process as well as in accomplishing the drilling work with efficiency and precision [7]. However, to select the proper fluid, it is necessary to calculate the cost of the fluid, understand the environmental impact of using the fluid and to know the impact of the fluid on production from the pay zone.
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4. Drilling mud losses and its prevention
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The complex drilling fluids represent 15–18% of the total cost of petroleum well drilling. Lost circulation is major problem in the drilling operations and is defined as the loss of drilling fluid through the pores or fissures in the rock formations to be drilled, sometimes referred to as “thief zones.” It occurs when hydrostatic pressure of fluid column in the wellbore is higher than the formation pressure and is defined as the loss of drilling fluid into the formation. Lost circulation influences directly effect the non-productive time, a drilling operation that includes the cost of time and all services that support the drilling operation. It is usually accompanied by wellbore stability problems, which can result in stuck pipe and even the loss of the well [8, 9, 10].
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The fluid loss of circulation is most commonly responsible for 10–20% of the total cost of a productive or an exploration well. Well bore costs, in turn, represent 35–50% of the total capital costs of a geothermal typical project; therefore, about 3.5–10% of the total costs can be attributed to the loss of circulation [11].
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4.1. Physical simulator of flow in the formation
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The physical simulator of flow in the formation (SFF) device allows determining the mud loss to the formation. It consists of a fluid storage tank with mixer, well-simulated pipe with formation packing system, pump, temperature and pressure-measuring device and so on.
\n
An experimental procedure was developed with the purpose of studying effects of additives and loss circulation material on mud loss to the formation. The mud sample that was prepared and mixed in the separate storage tank transferred into the stand’s storage tank (1) (\nFigure 8\n). Formation packing system was filled with the formation that was tested against the drilling mud. Then, the formation packing system connected to the well-simulated pipe (5). The hollow cable from the pump (3) is connected to the compressor to make the pump run at desired pressure. After the pump has been turned on, the drilling mud started to circulate from the storage tank through the well-simulated pipe. The process runs for 30 minutes and when it is finished it is possible to measure the fluid penetration rate.
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Figure 8.
Kinematic scheme of the physical simulator of flow in the formation: 1—fluid storage tank with mixer; 2—heater; 3—pump; 4—valve; 5—well-simulated pipe with formation packing system; 6—pressure measuring device; 7—temperature measuring device and 8—pressure regulator.
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The visualization of the physical simulator of flow in the formation is shown in \nFigure 9\n.
\n
Figure 9.
Visualization of physical simulator of flow in the formation.
\n
Combating loss by the proper use of reinforcement materials of wells, well strengthening and loss circulation materials is fundamental for a successful drilling [12, 13, 14]. In \nFigure 10\n, simulation results (Flow 3D) show the influence of the loss circulation materials on the drilling process. In case of the water drilling, the drilling fluid losses are significant, whereas in case of the loss circulation materials, rate of penetration considerably decreases.
\n
Figure 10.
Comparison of the fluid loss and rate of the penetration by pure water and the water-based fluid drilling: a—water; b—drilling fluid.
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Industries use coke, attapulgite, nutshells, mica flakes, cellulose nanoparticles and other materials to mitigate the loss of circulation [15]. The use of such materials increases the cost of drilling, but by using the materials such as cotton, sawdust and used oil would employ the same purpose in most cost-effective and eco-friendly way.
\n
Various materials such as cotton waste, used oil, saw dust etc. are commonly employed as fluids loss control agent. The evaluation of the rate of penetration of various mud samples to the formation proposes an effective way to minimize the mud loss by forming a static filter cake on the walls by changing the components of the water-based drilling fluid.
\n
It is important to evaluate the amount of drilling fluid loss to the formation and to overcome it by forming a static filter cake on the borehole walls by changing the components of the water-based drilling fluid [16, 17].
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\n
\n
4.2. Preparation of mud samples and properties of the formation
\n
Formation porosity directly affects the mud loss, if the pore size of the formation is high, it means that the formation pore size do have much space to retain any fluid or small particle which passes through it [18]. During the experiment, the density of the formation was 1.606 g·cm−3. The pH of the formation was 8.73 and is alkaline, so it will not play a vital on altering any significant property of the drilling mud. Humidity does not play a major role in mud loss, but it has to be measured to determine the filtration property of the sand. Humidity of formation was 4.26%.
\n
Base mud sample, containing only water and bentonite clay, was prepared by adding 720 g of bentonite to 12 liters of water to obtain a bentonite mass fraction of 5.66% and a bentonite-to-water ratio of 6% (\nFigure 11\n).
\n
Figure 11.
Prepared mud sample.
\n
The bentonite-to-water ratio was maintained constant for all subsequent mud samples used in this research.
\n
All mud samples were prepared at ambient conditions (at 17°C or 62.6°F). Respectively, their density and rheological properties were measured. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was used to adjust the pH of mud samples to ensure that each sample has same pH value of 10.85. Potassium chloride (KCl) was used as a clayish rock swelling inhibitor because the loam formation used during the research has clay content and was constant for all mud samples. Sodium carbonate (NaOH) was used to regulate the calcium concentration in the drilling mud.
\n
Mud samples with varying additive concentrations and loss circulation materials such as saw dust, waste cotton and used oil were prepared as it is shown in \nTable 1\n.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Mud samples
\n
Mass of water
\n
Mass of bentonite
\n
Mass of Na2CO3\n
\n
Mass of NaOH
\n
Mass of saw dust
\n
Mass of waste cotton
\n
Mass of used oil
\n
\n
\n
Kg
\n
g
\n
g
\n
g
\n
g
\n
g
\n
g
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Bentonite
\n
B1
\n
12
\n
720
\n
60
\n
14.4
\n
0
\n
0
\n
0
\n
\n
\n
Sawdust
\n
S1
\n
68
\n
17.2
\n
232
\n
0
\n
0
\n
\n
\n
S2
\n
70.5
\n
19
\n
397
\n
0
\n
0
\n
\n
\n
S3
\n
74.2
\n
20.5
\n
522
\n
0
\n
0
\n
\n
\n
Cotton
\n
C1
\n
61
\n
17.8
\n
0
\n
25
\n
0
\n
\n
\n
C2
\n
63.2
\n
18.05
\n
0
\n
50
\n
0
\n
\n
\n
C3
\n
66.6
\n
18.60
\n
0
\n
75
\n
0
\n
\n
\n
Used oil
\n
O1
\n
60
\n
23.4
\n
0
\n
0
\n
135
\n
\n
\n
O2
\n
63.7
\n
24.2
\n
0
\n
0
\n
269
\n
\n
\n
O3
\n
66.6
\n
24.8
\n
0
\n
0
\n
404
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
The composition of water-based mud samples.
\n
The water-based mud samples presented in \nTable 1\n are named according to the loss circulation materials added to it. For instance, the mud sample with sawdust is named from S1 to S3 according to the weight of the material present in it. The sawdust was added from 232 to 522 g in three mud samples and cotton is added from 25 to 75 g in C1–C3. The used oil was added in milliliter and their relative weight of oil was calculated and presented in g. The used oil was added from 135 to 404 g to O1 to O3 mud samples.
\n
In this experiment, rheological properties of drilling mud additives were studied (\nTable 2\n). Mud samples with a varying concentration of additives were prepared; their properties were studied and compared.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Mud samples
\n
Mud density
\n
Plastic viscosity
\n
Yield point
\n
10-sec gel strength
\n
\n
\n
lb/gal
\n
cP
\n
lb/100 ft2\n
\n
lb/100 ft2\n
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Bentonite
\n
B1
\n
9.260
\n
18
\n
18
\n
4
\n
\n
\n
Sawdust
\n
S1
\n
9.290
\n
23
\n
25
\n
6
\n
\n
\n
S2
\n
9.290
\n
24
\n
28
\n
7
\n
\n
\n
S3
\n
9.296
\n
26
\n
31
\n
9
\n
\n
\n
Cotton
\n
C1
\n
10.26
\n
29
\n
33
\n
16
\n
\n
\n
C2
\n
10.43
\n
35
\n
35
\n
24
\n
\n
\n
C3
\n
10.68
\n
37
\n
43
\n
31
\n
\n
\n
Used oil
\n
O1
\n
9.280
\n
20
\n
21
\n
5
\n
\n
\n
O2
\n
9.280
\n
21
\n
24
\n
6
\n
\n
\n
O3
\n
9.296
\n
22
\n
26
\n
8
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Variation of the muds’ rheological properties by using additives.
\n
The mud density comparison of all three mud indicated that a cotton-based mud will give a higher mud density than the other two (10.26–10.68 lb/gal). This is because of the higher specific gravity of cotton as it greater than of saw dust and oil. In addition to its use as loss circulation materials, cotton-based mud can also act as weighting agent. To prevent the flow of formation fluids into the hole, the drilling mud must exert a greater pressure than that of the fluids in the porous rocks that are penetrated by the bit. In that case, the cotton-based mud with slightly high density can act as an effective loss circulation materials.
\n
\nPlastic viscosity (PV). The experiment results show that the mud samples with sawdust and cotton have high viscosity ranging from 23 to 26 cP in the case of saw dust and 29 to 37 cP in the case of cotton. This is due to the fact that the mud with considerable suspended particle will always have high plastic viscosity as well as the force existing between the particles and the force between the particles and the liquid. So, this result indicates that the mud samples with cotton and sawdust have much high solid content as 75 g in cotton and 522 g in sawdust and always depend upon the concentration of mud solids.
\n
\nYield point (YP) is used to evaluate the ability of mud to lift cuttings out of the annulus. When the yield point is higher, the mud loss inside the fracture is less. The shear stress required to initiate the flow of mud also increases as the yield point increases. Over time, this yield point helps in preventing the mud from flowing further into the fracture, which leads eventually to it becoming plugged [19]. A higher YP implies that drilling fluid has ability to carry cuttings better than a fluid of similar density but lower YP. From the above result, compare the mud samples S3 and O3, in both mud samples, the density is quite the same, it is 9.296 lb/gal, whereas the YP of S3 is 5% greater than O3. In this case, the S3 mud sample will work better in carrying cuttings than O3. The bentonite (B1) sample is taken as a reference sample.
\n
\n10-sec gel strength results. The gel strength is one of the important drilling fluid properties because it demonstrates the ability of the drilling mud to suspend drill solid and weighting material when circulation is ceased. The results were achieved based on standard API procedure. It is investigated that the mud sample with cotton as a loss circulation materials has gel strength twice higher than the other two. It means that it will work well in the case of suspending drill cutting when the circulation is halt for 1 to 2 days.
\n
The rate of penetration of all mud samples is represented in \nFigure 12\n.
\n
Figure 12.
Rate of penetration of all mud samples in formation.
\n
\n\nFigure 12\n consolidates all the result obtained from the experimental work. In the case of sawdust mud sample, the weight percentage of sawdust added were ranging from 1 to 3%, and in the case of used oil, it is 1, 1.5, 2%, but in the case of cotton, it is just 0.2, 0.4, 0.6% because the cotton make the mud more viscous and heavily dense, which makes it hard for the pump to deliver the same pump rate as it was done with sawdust and used oil mud samples. From \nFigure 12\n, it is evident that the mud samples with additives can be used as loss circulation material during oil well drilling.
\n
In this work, it is evident that the prepared and tested mud samples work well with the unconsolidated coarse-grained formation in terms of mud loss.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions
\n
The concentration of loss circulation material is vital to control the rheological properties of drilling mud. Significant changes in mud density, plastic viscosity, yield point and gel strength were noted to correspond to changes in the concentration of mud loss circulation material.
\n
Waster-based mud with cotton as loss circulation material gave a remarkably higher value of density, yield point, gel strength and plastic viscosity when used at lesser concentration than sawdust and used oil. Moreover, water-based mud samples with cotton having the least penetration rate. The lack of loss circulation material could result in significant mud loss.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"petroleum extraction, oil well drilling, drilling fluid, drilling mud loss, filter cake",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/56676.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/56676.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56676",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56676",totalDownloads:1844,totalViews:554,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:6,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:75,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 5th 2016",dateReviewed:"July 11th 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"February 7th 2018",dateFinished:"August 4th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this chapter, the information about rotary drilling rig components, their purpose and principles of operation is presented through the in-depth analysis of hoisting, rotating and circulating equipment. Detailed classification of drilling fluids and its content is followed by the thorough investigation of the phenomenon of drilling fluid losses. The effects of drilling mud additives and loss circulation materials on rheology and the rate of penetration of drilling mud are supported by the studies of comparing the rate of penetration of drilling mud with various loss circulation materials. Finally, the fluid capability to form filter cake on the borehole walls is presented through the physical simulation of flow.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/56676",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/56676",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering"},signatures:"Tatjana Paulauskiene",authors:[{id:"173567",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Paulauskiene",fullName:"Tatjana Paulauskiene",slug:"tatjana-paulauskiene",email:"tatjana.paulauskiene@ku.lt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173567/images/6829_n.jpg",institution:{name:"Klaipėda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Rotary drilling rig components",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Classification of the drilling fluids\n",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Mud ingredients",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Drilling mud losses and its prevention",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.1. Physical simulator of flow in the formation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.2. Preparation of mud samples and properties of the formation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nBP. Statistical Review of World Energy 2016 [Internet]. June 2016.Available from: http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/energy-economics/statistical-review-2016/bp-statistical-review-of-world-energy-2016-full-report.pdf [Accessed: September 2016]\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nKhodja M et al. Shale problems and water-based drilling fluid optimisation in the Hassi Messaoud Algerian oil field. Applied Clay Science. 2010;49(4):383-393. DOI: 10.1016/j.clay.2010.06.008\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nKhodja M et al. Products and Services; from R&D to Final Solutions. Drilling Fluid Technology: Performances and Environmental considerations. Intech, Croatia; 2010. 434 p. DOI: 10.5772/55742\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nJain R, Mahto V, Sharma VP. Evaluation of polyacrylamide-grafted-polyethylene glycol/silica nanocomposite as potential additive in water based drilling mud for reactive shale formation. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering. 2015;26:526-537. DOI: 10.1016/j.jngse.2015.06.051\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nMahto V et al. Development of non-damaging and inhibitive water based oil well drilling fluids. Petroleum Science and Technology. 2013;31(7):721-726. DOI: 10.1080/ 10916466.20 10.531353\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nAy A, Gucuyener IH, Kok MV. An experimental study of silicate—polymer gel systems to seal shallow water flow and lost circulation zones in top hole drilling. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering. 2014;122:690-699. DOI: 10.1016/j.petrol.2014.09.011\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nYang X et al. A biomimetic drilling fluid for wellbore strengthening. Petroleum Exploration and Development. 2013;40(4):531-536. DOI: 10.1016/S1876-3804(13)60069-5\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nAkhtarmanesh S, Shahrabi MJA, Atashnezhad A. Improvement of wellbore stability in shale using nanoparticles. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering. 2013;112:290-295. DOI: 10.1016/j.petrol.2013.11.017\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nLiang C et al. Wellbore stability model for shale gas reservoir considering the coupling of multi-weakness planes and porous flow. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering. 2014;21:364-378. DOI: 10.1016/j.jngse.2014.08.025\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nKang Y et al. Constructing a tough shield around the wellbore: Theory and method for lost-circulation control. Petroleum Exploration and Development. 2014;41(4):520-527. DOI: 10.1016/S1876-3804(14)60061-6\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nCalçada LA et al. Evaluation of suspension flow and particulate materials for control of fluid losses in drilling operation. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering. 2015;131:1-10. DOI: 10.1016/j.petrol.2015.04.007\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nSafi B et al. Physico-chemical and rheological characterization of water-based mud in the presence of polymers. Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology. 2016;6(2):185-190. DOI: 10.1007/s13202-015-0182-x\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nAbduo MI et al. Comparative study of using water-based mud containing multiwall carbon nanotubes versus oil-based mud in HPHT fields. Egyptian Journal of Petroleum. 2016;25(4):459-464. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpe.2015.10.008\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nSamavati R et al. Rheological and fluid loss properties of water based drilling mud containing HCl-modified fufu as a fluid loss control agent. International Journal of Chemical Engineering and Applications. 2014;5(6):446-450. DOI: 10.7763/IJCEA.2014.V5.426\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nSong K et al. Water-based bentonite drilling fluids modified by novel biopolymer for minimizing fluid loss and formation damage. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 2016;507:58-66. DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2016.07.092\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nRugang Y et al. Effect of water-based drilling fluid components on filter cake structure. Powder Technology. 2014;262:51-61. DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2014.04.060\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nCaenn R, Darley HCH, Gray GR. Composition and Properties of Drilling and Completion Fluids. 6th ed. Gulf professional publishing, United States; 2011. 720 p. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-383858-2.00026-3\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nZhiyong H et al. Establishment and application of drilling sealing model in the spherical grouting mode based on the loosing-circle theory. International Journal of Mining Science and Technology. 2012;22(6):895-898. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmst.2012.12.004\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nAbdo J, Haneef MD. Clay nanoparticles modified drilling fluids for drilling of deep hydrocarbon wells. Applied Clay Science. 2013;86:76-82. DOI: 10.1016/j.clay.2013.10.017\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Tatjana Paulauskiene",address:"tatjana.paulauskiene@ku.lt",affiliation:'
Klaipeda University, Klaipeda, Lithuania
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"5811",type:"book",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",publishedDate:"February 7th 2018",bookSignature:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5811.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-953-51-3810-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3809-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-3981-2",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:71,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",middleName:null,surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"768"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"56887",type:"chapter",title:"Petroleum Source Rocks Characterization and Hydrocarbon Generation",slug:"petroleum-source-rocks-characterization-and-hydrocarbon-generation",totalDownloads:8027,totalCrossrefCites:7,signatures:"Nabil Mohammed Al-Areeq",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"198686",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil",middleName:"Mohammed",surname:"Al-Areeq",fullName:"Nabil Al-Areeq",slug:"nabil-al-areeq"}]},{id:"56676",type:"chapter",title:"Petroleum Extraction Engineering",slug:"petroleum-extraction-engineering",totalDownloads:1844,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Tatjana Paulauskiene",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"173567",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Paulauskiene",fullName:"Tatjana Paulauskiene",slug:"tatjana-paulauskiene"}]},{id:"57399",type:"chapter",title:"Optimal Planning for Deepwater Oilfield Development Under Uncertainties of Crude Oil Price and Reservoir",slug:"optimal-planning-for-deepwater-oilfield-development-under-uncertainties-of-crude-oil-price-and-reser",totalDownloads:1336,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Zhang Haoran, Liang Yongtu, Ma Jing, Di Pengwei, Yan Xiaohan\nand Huang Zhongliang",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"219463",title:"Dr.",name:"Haoran",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Haoran Zhang",slug:"haoran-zhang"},{id:"221017",title:"Prof.",name:"Yongtu",middleName:null,surname:"Liang",fullName:"Yongtu Liang",slug:"yongtu-liang"},{id:"221018",title:"Mr.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Jing Ma",slug:"jing-ma"},{id:"221019",title:"Mr.",name:"Pengwei",middleName:null,surname:"Di",fullName:"Pengwei Di",slug:"pengwei-di"},{id:"221020",title:"Ms.",name:"Xiaohan",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",fullName:"Xiaohan Yan",slug:"xiaohan-yan"},{id:"221021",title:"Mr.",name:"Zhongliang",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Zhongliang Huang",slug:"zhongliang-huang"}]},{id:"56472",type:"chapter",title:"Drilling Fluids for Deepwater Fields: An Overview",slug:"drilling-fluids-for-deepwater-fields-an-overview",totalDownloads:2707,totalCrossrefCites:11,signatures:"Luis Alberto Alcázar-Vara and Ignacio Ramón Cortés-Monroy",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"149837",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis A.",middleName:null,surname:"Alcazar-Vara",fullName:"Luis A. 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1. Introduction
According to the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (CSCMP), logistics is defined as the process of planning, implementing and controlling all operations and information flow for the efficient and effective transportation and storage of goods or services from a point of origin to a point of consumption. As presented in Figure 1, many operations are involved in a logistics network, and manufacturing is a crucial operation to transform inbound goods (e.g., raw materials) into outbound goods (e.g., end products, sub-assemblies, work-in-process, etc.) throughout this network.
Figure 1.
General example of a logistics network.
Due to the complexity of these operations, where many of them involve problems of NP-hard computational complexity, research and improvement efforts require the use of advanced of quantitative and qualitative strategies and tools. Among these, the use of Search Algorithms such as meta-heuristics has been proposed to solve to near-optimality large NP-hard problems within reasonable time [1].
As presented in Figure 1, transportation is needed for the efficient flow of goods throughout the supply chain (SC). Thus, the analysis and solution of routing problems are the first set of problems to be addressed in this chapter.
Then, manufacturing planning is needed to achieve the required quantities of sub-assemblies and end-products to supply the customers (or even other suppliers) in time through the SC. Thus, production planning problems are the second set of problems to be addressed in this chapter. Note that both sets are mutually important and dependent for the appropriate performance of the SC.
While there are many search algorithms or meta-heuristic approaches to solve these problems, this chapter addresses the specific configuration settings to apply Genetic Algorithms (GA) to solve both sets of problems. As the solutions have different representations (i.e., permutations, binary chains, real numbers), having a common algorithmic base can lead to a better understanding for successful implementation for other problems and contexts.
GA are based on the principle of natural selection of “survival of the fittest” where individuals within a population compete between each other for vital resources (i.e., food, shelter, etc.) and/or to attract mates for reproduction. Due to this selection mechanism, it is expected that poorly performing individuals have less chance to survive in contrast to the most adapted or “fit” individuals which are more likely to reproduce, inheriting their good characteristics to their offspring to make them better and more adapted to their environment [2].
Figure 2 presents the general structure and main elements of a GA. This meta-heuristic is population-based. Thus, it works by continuously improving on a set of solutions by using reproduction operators which facilitate the search mechanisms for the solution space of the problem. This set, known as the population, consists of N feasible solutions which are evaluated through a fitness function (i.e., the total distance equation, or objective function, to determine the total cost associated to each solution). Then, the solutions with the best fitness values become candidates for reproduction to (hopefully) inherit their best features to new solutions and improve the overall population in the next generation (iteration). It is expected that after X generations the mean fitness of the population converges to a local optimum.
Figure 2.
General structure and main elements of a GA.
Within this context, the present chapter addresses the different representations of candidate solutions, fitness functions, and reproduction operators, for the application of GA to solve the following sets of problems:
Routing Planning (Section X.2): Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) and Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problem (CVRP).
Production and Selection of the Most Profitable Goods (Section X.3): Economic Lot Problem with Multiple Items and Knapsack Problem.
Production Scheduling (Section X.4): Permutation Flow-Shop Scheduling Problem.
This chapter ends with a discussion of the results and the practical implications of the future work (Section X.5).
2. Genetic algorithm for route planning problems
2.1 Traveling salesman problem
The Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP) represents the scenario of a salesperson who must visit each place within a set of cities or towns. This must be performed with the following considerations: the salesperson starts and ends the whole journey at a single location (i.e., the main office) and must visit each place only once [3]. Although this is the basic understanding of the TSP, the main feature of finding a single route, or sequence of minimum distance or cost, is shared by other real-world applications such as vehicle routing [4], production planning [5], service time [6], and design of computer networks [7]. Figure 3 presents an overview of the TSP model with n = 12 cities.
Figure 3.
Example of a feasible TSP solution with n = 12 cities.
Note that each single route that complies with the previous restrictions represents a candidate solution, and there are as much as n! candidate solutions if brute search were to be considered as solving method to find the optimal or best solution. Just for the example presented in Figure 3, there are up to 12! = 479′001,600 or 479.00e+006 feasible solutions to visit all 12 cities. This number increases exponentially as n increases linearly. Thus, if just a single city is added to the TSP problem, the number of feasible solutions can increase to 13! = 6.23e+009.
This leads to a problem with an infinite solution space if large sets of cities are considered. This classifies the TSP as an NP-hard problem, which is very difficult to solve within reasonable time, even with the most advanced computational systems. Thus, different meta-heuristics have been developed to provide fast near-to-optimal solutions. Among these meta-heuristics the following can be mentioned [8]: Nearest Neighbor (NN), Simulated Annealing (SA), Tabu Search (TS), Genetic Algorithm (GA), Ant Colony Optimization (ACO), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Tree Physiology Optimization (TPO).
As presented in [8] GA and SA are among the most suitable heuristics, achieving error gaps from best known solutions within the 10% mark for small (n < 100), moderate (100 < n < 150) and large (150 < n < 450) TSP instances. However, within the context of TSP solutions, it is always recommended to test the solving methods with very large instances (i.e., n > 500) to corroborate their performance.
Thus, the developed GA considers TSP instances with n ≈ 1000. For this purpose, the GA considers the structure presented in Figure 2 with the settings and reproduction operators presented in Table 1 and described in Figure 4.
Parameter
Setting
Generations (Iterations)
1000
Fitness Function
Symmetric Euclidean Distance of TSP Route
Population Size
According to the size of the TSP
Selection
Tournament
Reproduction Operators:
Crossover
Partially-Matched Crossover (PMX)
Mutation
Swap, Inversion
Table 1.
GA settings for the TSP.
Figure 4.
Partially-matched crossover, and swap/inversion mutation operators for the TSP.
Implementation of the GA was performed in MATLAB with an Intel Core i7–5500 CPU at 2.40 GHz and 8GB RAM. Testing was performed with a set of TSP instances from the TSPLIB95 database [9]. The details of these instances, including the GA’s population size N used for each case, are presented in Table 2. The results of the tests can be observed in Figure 5 and Figure 6.
N
Size of the TSP (n)
Name of the Instance
N
Size of the TSP (n)
Name of the Instance
200
51
eil51.tsp
200
198
d198.tsp
200
52
berlin52.tsp
300
200
kroA200.tsp
200
70
st70.tsp
300
200
kroB200.tsp
200
76
eil76.tsp
300
225
ts225.tsp
200
76
pr76.tsp
300
225
tsp225.tsp
200
99
rat99.tsp
300
226
pr226.tsp
200
100
kroA100.tsp
300
262
gil262.tsp
200
100
kroB100.tsp
300
264
pr264.tsp
200
100
kroC100.tsp
300
280
a280.tsp
200
100
kroD100.tsp
300
299
pr299.tsp
200
100
kroE100.tsp
300
318
lin318.tsp
200
100
rd100.tsp
500
400
rd400.tsp
200
105
lin105.tsp
500
417
fl417.tsp
200
107
pr107.tsp
500
439
pr439.tsp
200
124
pr124.tsp
500
442
pcb442.tsp
200
127
bier127.tsp
500
493
d493.tsp
200
130
ch130.tsp
500
574
u574.tsp
200
136
pr136.tsp
500
575
rat575.tsp
200
144
pr144.tsp
800
654
p654.tsp
200
150
ch150.tsp
800
657
d657.tsp
200
150
kroA150.tsp
800
724
u724.tsp
200
150
kroB150.tsp
1500
783
rat783.tsp
200
152
pr152.tsp
1500
1002
pr1002.tsp
200
159
u159.tsp
1500
1060
u1060.tsp
200
195
rat195.tsp
1500
1084
vm1084.tsp
Table 2.
TSPLIB instances for GA testing.
Figure 5.
Mean error gap across all TSP test instances with (a) the GA, and (b) the revised hybrid-GA.
Figure 6.
Error gap across all TSP test instances with (a) the GA, and (b) the revised hybrid-GA.
As presented in Figure 5, the mean error gap through all instances begins to decrease as the selection and reproduction mechanisms of the GA start to operate on the initial and updated populations. By the 300th generation the mean error gap decreases under the 10% mark to finally reach an approximate of 7% by the 1000th generation. This corroborates the performance reported in [8].
Finally, Figure 6 presents the performance of the GA based on the size of the test instances (n). With the settings reported in Table 1, as n increases, the GA takes more time to converge to a local optimum which, in some cases, it is slightly over the 10% mark. Also, the size of the population (N) must be increased to improve the search performance.
Based on these findings, particularly for the TSP with n ≈ 1000, the following recommendations can be made:
Diversification of solutions depends of the size of the population (N) and the TSP (n). Because N is the only controllable parameter, it is important to find an appropriate balance between it and n because a large N can increase the computational memory load of the algorithm which is already affected by n.
A larger number of generations should be considered for large TSP problems. This because convergence may get slower due to n, independently of the reproduction or selection operators, or the size of the population.
Integration with other heuristics or meta-heuristics can improve on the initial population or some of the search operators, and thus, on the convergence of the GA through all generations. This process, called hybridization, has led to obtain very suitable results for large TSP instances [10].
As an example of hybridization, Figures 5 and 6 present the performance of the revised GA (hybrid-GA) with a much smaller N (= 50 for all instances) and a Greedy algorithm to improve four offspring (two by crossover, one by flip mutation, one by swap mutation) which are included within the updated population. This increases the speed of the GA, reaching the 10% by the 100th generation, with a final mean error gap of 5% by the 1000th generation. Also, improvement of the large instances (n > 500) is observed, achieving error gaps under the 10% mark.
2.2 Capacitated vehicle routing problem
The Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problem (CVRP) represents an extension on the TSP. As shown in Figure 7, the CVRP determines a set of routes that start and end at a specific place or location (e.g., a distribution center). These routes must visit or serve a finite number of locations and meet their demand requirements. Each route must be served by a single vehicle (e.g., a salesperson) with finite capacity, and only one vehicle can serve a location. Thus, the CVRP can be understood as a variant of the multiple-TSP with capacity restrictions [11].
Figure 7.
Example of a feasible CVRP solution with n = 12 cities and 3 routes.
As in the case of the TSP, the CVRP is a combinatorial problem of NP-hard complexity which cannot be solved within a reasonable polynomial time [12]. Due to this, the CVRP has been addressed by different meta-heuristics such as Tabu -Search (TS) [13, 14], GA [15], SA [16, 17], and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) [18].
For this case, the GA presented in Figure 2 was modified to solve the CVRP. The GA and its configuration settings are presented in Figure 8 and Table 3 respectively. Note that the reproduction operators remain the same as considered for the TSP. Testing was performed with a set of instances from the CVRPLIB database [19, 20]. Table 4 presents the details of the selected instances.
Figure 8.
Modified structure of the GA for the CVRP.
Parameter
Setting
Generations (Iterations)
1000
Fitness Function
Symmetric Euclidean Distance of CVRP Routes
Population Size
N = 100
Selection
Tournament
Reproduction Operators:
Crossover
Partially-Matched Crossover (PMX)
Mutation
Swap, Inversion
Table 3.
GA settings for the CVRP.
Size of the CVRP (n)
Number of CVRP Routes
Name of the Instance
Size of the CVRP (n)
Number of CVRP Routes
Name of the Instance
100
25
X-n101-k25
335
84
X-n336-k84
105
14
X-n106-k14
343
43
X-n344-k43
109
13
X-n110-k13
350
40
X-n351-k40
114
10
X-n115-k10
358
29
X-n359-k29
119
6
X-n120-k6
366
17
X-n367-k17
124
30
X-n125-k30
375
94
X-n376-k94
128
18
X-n129-k18
383
52
X-n384-k52
133
13
X-n134-k13
392
38
X-n393-k38
138
10
X-n139-k10
400
29
X-n401-k29
142
7
X-n143-k7
410
19
X-n411-k19
147
46
X-n148-k46
419
130
X-n420-k130
152
22
X-n153-k22
428
61
X-n429-k61
156
13
X-n157-k13
438
37
X-n439-k37
161
11
X-n162-k11
448
29
X-n449-k29
166
10
X-n167-k10
458
26
X-n459-k26
171
51
X-n172-k51
468
138
X-n469-k138
175
26
X-n176-k26
479
70
X-n480-k70
180
23
X-n181-k23
490
59
X-n491-k59
185
15
X-n186-k15
501
39
X-n502-k39
189
8
X-n190-k8
512
21
X-n513-k21
194
51
X-n195-k51
523
137
X-n524-k153
199
36
X-n200-k36
535
96
X-n536-k96
203
19
X-n204-k19
547
50
X-n548-k50
208
16
X-n209-k16
560
42
X-n561-k42
213
11
X-n214-k11
572
30
X-n573-k30
218
73
X-n219-k73
585
159
X-n586-k159
222
34
X-n223-k34
598
92
X-n599-k92
227
23
X-n228-k23
612
62
X-n613-k62
232
16
X-n233-k16
626
43
X-n627-k43
236
14
X-n237-k14
640
35
X-n641-k35
241
48
X-n242-k48
654
131
X-n655-k131
246
47
X-n247-k50
669
126
X-n670-k130
250
28
X-n251-k28
684
75
X-n685-k75
255
16
X-n256-k16
700
44
X-n701-k44
260
13
X-n261-k13
715
35
X-n716-k35
265
58
X-n266-k58
732
159
X-n733-k159
269
35
X-n270-k35
748
98
X-n749-k98
274
28
X-n275-k28
765
71
X-n766-k71
279
17
X-n280-k17
782
48
X-n783-k48
283
15
X-n284-k15
800
40
X-n801-k40
288
60
X-n289-k60
818
171
X-n819-k171
293
50
X-n294-k50
836
142
X-n837-k142
297
31
X-n298-k31
855
95
X-n856-k95
302
21
X-n303-k21
875
59
X-n876-k59
307
13
X-n308-k13
894
37
X-n895-k37
312
71
X-n313-k71
915
207
X-n916-k207
316
53
X-n317-k53
935
151
X-n936-k151
321
28
X-n322-k28
956
87
X-n957-k87
326
20
X-n327-k20
978
58
X-n979-k58
330
15
X-n331-k15
1000
43
X-n1001-k43
Table 4.
CVRPLIB instances for GA testing.
As presented in Figure 9, the mean error gap reaches the 10% mark by the 200th generation, with an approximate of 8.5% by the 1000th generation. In contrast to the patterns observed in Figure 6, in Figure 10 there is not a clear relationship between the size of the instance (n) and the error gap. Thus, there are large instances with very small error gaps (approximately 6%) and medium instances with large error gaps (over 10%). This however is expected because there are more tasks to be performed on the CVRP such as route segmenting and capacity restriction compliance. This leads to frequently consider GAs for small CVRP instances (n < 200) [15, 21].
Figure 9.
Mean error gap across all CVRP test instances with the GA.
Figure 10.
Error gap across all CVRP test instances with the GA.
Based on these findings, particularly for the CVRP with n ≈ 1000, the following recommendations can be made:
Due to the size of the population and the additional tasks, faster processes are needed for diversification of solutions. In example, Tabu Search (TS) uses small sets of candidate solutions (neighbors) through the consideration of movements (or moves). Also, convergence to a local optimum can be minimized by forbidding certain moves (e.g., make them tabu) which would make the algorithm to revisit a region within the solution space. This is an advantage when compared to GA, which requires full-candidate solution populations, and avoidance of previously obtained solutions may require additional tasks.
Hybridization can improve the convergence and overall search performance of near-optimal solutions. In example, implementing a tabu mechanism on the population can reduce the rate of previously visited solutions (same solutions) and even dynamically reduce the size of the population.
Initial convergence of the GA, and overall initial performance, may benefit from an initial population with very suitable solutions. However, this may restrict the diversification of solutions through later generations.
3. Genetic algorithm for production and selection of goods
3.1 Economic lot quantity with multiple items
In manufacturing, an important aspect is the supply of resources such as raw materials, sub-assemblies, end/final products, etc. The availability of these resources must comply with time and cost restrictions.
Within this aspect, the Economic Lot Quantity (EOQ) models are aimed to estimate the lot size Q which minimizes operational costs associated to inventory management. In general, Q minimizes the following cost function:
T=DQCo+Q2Ch.E1
Where Co is the ordering cost per lot, Ch is the holding cost per unit of product, and D is the cumulative demand through a planning horizon [22]. As presented in Figure 11, Q can also be understood as the lot size that equals the total order cost with the total holding cost through a planning horizon (and this leads to minimize T):
Figure 11.
Inventory management costs associated to the EOQ model.
Which computes the optimal value for Q. Now, if N items with independent orders are considered, then:
T=∑i=1NDiQiCoi+Qi2Chi.E4
Under the assumption of independence, Qi can be optimally computed by using Eq. (3) for each item [22]. Thus, for the present case, the GA is only developed to verify its efficiency to solve the EOQ to optimality with a large N.
The GA follows the standard structure presented in Figure 2. As the solution consists of a set of Qi values, the restrictions associated to permutations (such as in the case of TSP/CVRP) are not present. Thus, a simpler crossover operator can be used.
Figure 12 presents an overview of the linear crossover operator used for the GA. On the other hand, Table 5 presents the configuration settings of the GA.
Figure 12.
Linear crossover operator for the multiple-item EOQ (α = 0.5).
Parameter
Setting
Generations (Iterations)
2000
Fitness Function
Total Inventory Management Cost (T)
Population Size
N = 1000
Selection
Tournament
Reproduction Operators:
Crossover
Linear Crossover
Mutation
Swap, Inversion
Table 5.
GA settings for the multiple-item EOQ.
The average results for different randomly generated sets of N products are presented in Figure 13. As this is a simpler problem than both, the TSP and the CVRP, optimality can be reached within 100–200 generations. Note that it is always recommended to select an exact method if it is available and results can be obtained within very reasonable time.
Figure 13.
Mean error gap across all multiple-item EOQ with the GA.
3.2 Knapsack problem
The Backpack or Knapsack Problem (KP) is a binary multicriteria problem of NP-hard computational complexity and it is frequently considered as a strategy to select items to maximize profits without affecting capacity restrictions [23, 24].
The KP can be mathematically formulated as a vector of binary variables 𝑥𝑗 where 𝑥𝑗= 1 if the item j is selected, and 𝑥𝑗= 0 otherwise. Then, if pj is a measure of importance (in this case, profit) for an item j, wj represents the size of said item, and cv is the size of the backpack, the problem refers to the selection of the quantity of all elements whose binary vectors xj satisfy the following restrictions [24]:
∑j=1nwjxj≤cvE5
xj∈01,j=1,…,nE6
These must contribute to maximize the following objective function:
T=∑j=1npjxjE7
The KP also can be extended to consider more restrictions. In example, if cv is the volumetric capacity of the backpack, cz can be added to include its weight capacity. Thus, if wj represents the volume of the item j, zj can be used to represent its weight, leading to the following restriction:
∑j=1nzjxj≤czE8
Figure 14 presents an overview of the reproduction operator for the GA considered to solve a large KP instance. Note that, due to the binary nature of the decision variable, the crossover and mutation operators can be implemented faster. Then, the configuration settings of the GA are reviewed in Table 6.
Figure 14.
Uniform crossover operator for the KP.
Parameter
Setting
Generations (Iterations)
100
Fitness Function
Total Profit of Selected Goods (T)
Population Size
N = 1000
Selection
Tournament
Reproduction Operators:
Crossover
Uniform Crossover
Mutation
Swap, Inversion
Table 6.
GA settings for the KP.
Based on the instance reported in [24], six random test instances with N = 250 items were generated. Figure 15 presents the mean results for these instances. Error gap assessment was performed with the optimization software Lingo. This led to an error gap of 4.0% which is consistent with the results reported in [24].
Figure 15.
Mean objective function values across all KP instances with the GA.
4. Genetic algorithm for production scheduling problems
This chapter ends with an application of GA for solving one of the most useful models for manufacturing planning. This model, known as the Permutation Flow-Shop Scheduling Problem (PFSP), consists of finding the optimal sequence of N-jobs to be processed on M-machines [25]. The optimal sequence of jobs is the one that minimizes the make-span of the N-jobs through the M-machines, thus, minimizing the completion time of the last job on the last machine. Note that this sequencing implies two important restrictions: (a) no job can be started on the following machine until it is finished in the previous machine; and (b) a job cannot be started on a machine if it is busy processing another job. As consequence, this is one of the main strategies to reduce idle and waiting times within a workshop [26].
For illustration purposes, Figure 16 shows an example of a solution for a 5-jobs (a, b, c, d, e) and 3-machines (1, 2, 3) PFSP. Note that each job may take different processing times depending of the assigned machine, and the established sequence remains the same for all machines. Thus, the established sequence has a direct effect on the completion time or makespan.
Figure 16.
Example of a 5-jobs, 3-machines PFSP.
Thus, the information (i.e., processing times) of a PFSP with N-jobs and M-machines is frequently presented as shown in Table 7. As in the case of the TSP/CVRP models, the PFSP is also of NP-hard computational complexity, thus, metaheuristic methods are frequently considered to solve it within reasonable time.
Job
Processing Times
P1
P2
P3
…
PM
1
P11
P12
P13
…
P1M
2
P21
P22
P23
…
P2M
…
…
…
…
…
…
N
PN1
PN2
PN3
…
PNM
Table 7.
Data of the PFSP.
As it is a permutation-based problem, the structure and settings considered for the TSP GA (see Figure 2 and Table 1) were considered for the PFSP with 500 generations. For testing purposes, the library and best results reported in [27] for 30 randomly selected 20-jobs, 20-machines PFSP instances were considered. The results are presented in Figure 17.
Figure 17.
Mean error gap across 30 randomly selected 20 × 20 PFLP test instances with the GA.
As observed, the mean error gap reaches the 10% mark at the beginning of the GA, with a final mean error gap of 0.005% by the 500th generation. Thus, the GA can provide near-optimal results for the PFSP.
5. Conclusions and future work
In this chapter the basic elements of a GA were reviewed to describe its application for different logistics and manufacturing problems. The routing problems, beyond the transportation context, can be applied on machine maintenance schemes or material changing services within production plants to minimize operational times. Also, they can be applied to improve the material flow through the warehouse, which is a main facility within the SC. Operations such as order-picking and bin-shelving can be optimized by modeling them as TSP instances [28].
On the other hand, the KP for selection of items is a problem shared with other contexts such as waste reduction in cutting processes, selection of investments and portfolios, decisions for capital budgeting and asset-backed securitization [29]. The PFSP has been also extended on other fields such as in scheduling of quality control tasks on different machines [30].
Thus, the relevance of solving these combinatorial problems, particularly those of large scale, is very important due to their impact in other science and industrial fields.
Within the search algorithms, the GA can provide very suitable results for these problems. However, as presented in Sections X.2, X.3., and X.4, final performance depends of the type of problem. While the GA can achieve mean error gaps under the 10% mark for TSP/CVRP, for the PFSP the GA can achieve near optimal results under the 1% mark.
These results were supported by extensive experiments which were performed with well-known test databases or libraries. In practice, these experiments also provide important feedback to consider alternative meta-heuristics or develop hybrid approaches for improvement of performance.
This is because, as reviewed, a single meta-heuristic or search algorithm may not be enough to solve all problems if near-optimality is required. In this case, hybridization between different methods have improved on the search mechanisms of meta-heuristics, either deterministic or stochastic. Also, the integration with mathematical programming (which implies an exact solving method) has provided innovative proposals to solve NP-hard problems [31].
Future work is extensive on this field because:
better solving methods are required due to the presence of increasingly complex combinatorial problems;
advanced mathematical modeling is required to reduce the complexity of NP-hard problems and thus, make them more suitable to optimization through meta-heuristics or exact methods such as Branch & Bound;
automatic decision models require the use of Big Data Analysis which, to some extend, depends of meta-heuristic methods.
Thus, as a concluding remark, it can be stated that any advance on these algorithms can impact on different fields. Just to mention an important field within the current industry, meta-heuristics are playing an important role on the implementation of dynamic decision models within Industry/Manufacturing 4.0 systems. Within this context, recent works have reported the application and improvement of these search algorithms for cost-efficient deployment of computing systems in logistics centers [32], dynamic CVRP [33], and development of Digital-Twin platforms [34].
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"vehicle routing problem, knapsack problem, flow-shop Scheduling, local-search Algorithms, genetic algorithms",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75518.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75518.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75518",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75518",totalDownloads:292,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 9th 2020",dateReviewed:"February 10th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 3rd 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"March 3rd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The supply chain comprehensively considers problems with different levels of complexity. Nowadays, design of distribution networks and production scheduling are some of the most complex problems in logistics. It is widely known that large problems cannot be solved through exact methods. Also, specific optimization software is frequently needed. To overcome this situation, the development and application of search algorithms have been proposed to obtain approximate solutions to large problems within reasonable time. In this context, the present chapter describes the development of Genetic Algorithms (an evolutionary search algorithm) for vehicle routing, product selection, and production scheduling problems within the supply chain. These algorithms were evaluated by using well-known test instances. The advances of this work provide the general discussions associated to designing these search algorithms for logistics problems.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75518",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75518",signatures:"Gladys Bonilla-Enriquez and Santiago-Omar Caballero-Morales",book:{id:"9964",type:"book",title:"Search Algorithm - Essence of Optimization",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Search Algorithm - Essence of Optimization",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Dinesh G. Harkut",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9964.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-087-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-086-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-088-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"216122",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinesh G.",middleName:null,surname:"Harkut",slug:"dinesh-g.-harkut",fullName:"Dinesh G. Harkut"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Genetic algorithm for route planning problems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Traveling salesman problem",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Capacitated vehicle routing problem",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Genetic algorithm for production and selection of goods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Economic lot quantity with multiple items",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Knapsack problem",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Genetic algorithm for production scheduling problems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusions and future work",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Simchi-Levi D, Chen X, Bramel J. The Logic of Logistics Theory, Algorithms, and Applications for Logistics Management. 3rd ed. New Delhi, India: Springer Science+Business Media; 2014. 447 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-9149-1'},{id:"B2",body:'Sivanandam SN, Deepa SN. Introduction to Genetic Algorithms. 1st ed. Berlin: Springer; 2008. 442 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-73190-0'},{id:"B3",body:'Singh-Juneja S, Saraswat P, Singh K, Sharma J, Majumdar R, Chowdhary S. Travelling Salesman Problem Optimization Using Genetic Algorithm. In: Proceedings of the Amity International Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AICAI 2019); 4-6 February 2019; Dubai, United Arab Emirates, United Arab Emirates: IEEE; 2019. p. 264-268'},{id:"B4",body:'Crama Y, van de Klundert J, Spieksma FCR. Production planning problems in printed circuit board assembly. Discrete Appl Math. 2002; 123: 339-361'},{id:"B5",body:'Bertsimas DJ, Simchi-Levi D. A new generation of vehicle routing research: robust algorithms, addressing uncertainty. Oper Res. 1996; 44(2): 286-304'},{id:"B6",body:'Tsung-Sheng C, Yat-Wah W, Wei TO. A stochastic dynamic travelling salesman problem with hard time windows. Eur J Oper Res. 2009; 198:749-759'},{id:"B7",body:'Bharati TP, Kalshetty YR. A hybrid method to solve travelling salesman problem. IJIRCCE. 2016; 4(8):15148-15152'},{id:"B8",body:'Halim AH, Ismail I. Combinatorial Optimization: Comparison of Heuristic Algorithms in Travelling Salesman Problem. Arch Computat Methods Eng. 2019; 26: 367-380. DOI: 10.1007/s11831-017-9247-y'},{id:"B9",body:'Reinelt G. TSPLIB 95 [Internet]. 1995. Available from: http://comopt.ifi.uni-heidelberg.de/software/TSPLIB95/ [Accessed: 2021-01-20]'},{id:"B10",body:'Nguyen HD, Yoshihara I, Yamamori K, Yasunaga M. Implementation of an Effective Hybrid GA for Large-Scale Traveling Salesman Problems. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SYSTEMS, MAN, AND CYBERNETICS—PART B: CYBERNETICS. 2007; 37(1): 92-99. DOI: 10.1109/TSMCB.2006.880136'},{id:"B11",body:'Toth P, Vigol D. Models, relaxations and exact approaches for the capacitated vehicle routing problem. Discrete Applied Mathematics. 2002; 123(1-3): 487-512. DOI: 10.1016/S0166-218X(01)00351-1'},{id:"B12",body:'Zhang DZ, Lee CKM. An Improved Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm for the Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problem. In: Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics; 9-12 October 2015; Kowloon, China: IEEE; 2015. p. 2124-2128. DOI: 10.1109/SMC.2015.371'},{id:"B13",body:'Kwon YJ, Kim JG, Seo J, Lee DH, Kim DS. A Tabu Search Algorithm using the Voronoi Diagram for the Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problem. In: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Computational Science and Applications (ICCSA 2007); 26-29 August; Kuala Lampur, Malaysia: IEEE; 2007. p. 480-485. DOI: 10.1109/ICCSA.2007.11'},{id:"B14",body:'Jin J, Crainic TG, Lokketangen A. A parallel multi-neighborhood cooperative tabu search for capacitated vehicle routing problems. European Journal of Operational Research. 2012; 222(3): 441-451. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejor.2012.05.025'},{id:"B15",body:'Nazif H, Lee L. Optimised crossover genetic algorithm for capacitated vehicle routing problem. Applied Mathematical Modelling. 2012; 36: 2110-2117. DOI: 10.1016/j.apm.2011.08.010'},{id:"B16",body:'Mari F, Mahmudy WF, Santoso PB. An Improved Simulated Annealing for the Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problem (CVRP). Jurnal Ilmiah Kursor. 2018; 9(3): 119-128. DOI: 10.28961/kursor.v9i3.178'},{id:"B17",body:'Ilhan I. A population based simulated annealing algorithm for capacitated vehicle routing problem. Turkish Journal of Electrical Engineering & Computer Sciences. 2020; 28: 1217-1235'},{id:"B18",body:'Khaddar-Bakhayt AG, Al-Sattar HA, Abbas IT. Solving CVRP by Using Two-stage (DPSOTS) Algorithm. Global Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics. 2017; 13(6): 1553-1567'},{id:"B19",body:'Uchoa E, Pecin D, Pessoa A, Poggi M, Vidal P, Subramanian A. New Benchmark Instances for the Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problem. European Journal of Operational Research. 2017; 257(3): 845-858. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejor.2016.08.012'},{id:"B20",body:'Uchoa E, Pecin D, Pessoa A, Poggi, M, Subramanian A, Vidal T. CVRPLIB [Internet]. 2014. Available from: http://vrp.atd-lab.inf.puc-rio.br/index.php/en/ [Accessed: 2021-01-20]'},{id:"B21",body:'Baker BM, Ayechew MA. A genetic algorithm for the vehicle routing problem. Computers & Operations Research. 2003; 30(5):787-800. DOI: 10.1016/S0305-0548(02)00051-5'},{id:"B22",body:'Sanchez-Sierra ST, Caballero-Morales SO, Sanchez-Partida D, Martinez-Flores JL. Facility Location Model with Inventory Transportation and Management Costs. Acta Logistica. 2018; 5(3): 79-86'},{id:"B23",body:'Martello S, Toth P. Knapsack Problems: Algorithms and Computer Implementations. 1st ed. England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 1990. 308 p'},{id:"B24",body:'Bonilla-Enriquez G, Sanchez-Partida D, Caballero-Morales SO. Algoritmo genetico para el problema logistico de asignacion de la mochila (Knapsack Problem). Research in Computing Science. 2017; 137: 157-168'},{id:"B25",body:'Singhal E, Singh S, Dayma A. An Improved Heuristic for Permutation Flow Shop Scheduling (NEH ALGORITHM). International Journal of Computational Engineering Research. 2012; 2(6): 30-36'},{id:"B26",body:'Rosas-Gonzalez A, Clemente-Guerrero DM, Caballero-Morales SO, Flores-Juan JC. Machines Permutation Flow-Shop Scheduling Problem with Break-Down Times. International Journal of Computer Applications. 2013; 83(1): 1-6. DOI: 10.5120/14409-2488'},{id:"B27",body:'Watson JP, Barbulescu L, Whitley DL, Howe AE. Contrasting structured and random permutation flow-shop scheduling problems: Search space topology and algorithm performance. INFORMS Journal on Computing. 2002; 14(2): 98-123'},{id:"B28",body:'Bartholdi JJ, Hackman ST. Warehouse & Distribution Science. Release 0.96. Atlanta, Georgia, USA: The Supply Chain and Logistics Institute; 2014. 323 p'},{id:"B29",body:'Kellerer H, Pferschy U, Pisinger D. Knapsack Problems. 1st ed. Germany: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg; 2004. 548 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-24777-7'},{id:"B30",body:'Erseven G, Akgün G, Karakaş A, Yarıkcan G, Yücel Ö, Öner A. An Application of Permutation Flowshop Scheduling Problem in Quality Control Processes. In: Proceedings of the International Symposium for Production Research (ISPR 2018); 28-31 August; Vienna, Austria: Springer; 2018. p. 849-860. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-92267-6_68'},{id:"B31",body:'Boschetti MA, Maniezzo V, Roffilli M, Röhler AB. Matheuristics: Optimization, Simulation and Control. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Hybrid Metaheuristics (HM 2009); 16-18 January; Concepcion, Chile: Springer Verlag; 2009. p. 171-177. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-04918-7_13'},{id:"B32",body:'Li CC, Yang JW. Cost-Efficient Deployment of Fog Computing Systems at Logistics Centers in Industry 4.0. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics. 2018; 14(10): 4603-4611. DOI: 10.1109/TII.2018.2827920'},{id:"B33",body:'Abdirad M, Krishnan K, Gupta D. A two-stage metaheuristic algorithm for the dynamic vehicle routing problem in Industry 4.0 approach. Journal of Management Analytics. 2020. DOI: 10.1080/23270012.2020.1811166'},{id:"B34",body:'Balderas D, Ortiz A, Mendez E, Ponce P, Molina A. Empowering Digital Twin for Industry 4.0 using metaheuristic optimization algorithms: case study PCB drilling optimization. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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