First- and second-line drugs, MICs and mechanisms of drug resistance
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80355-550-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-549-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-551-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"64324b1973f6a1bc612f961f850618f0",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Zuzana Sevcikova Tomaskova",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",keywords:"Structure, Selectivity, Kinetics, Voltage Sensor, Mutations Behind Diseases, Drug Development, Molecular Mechanism, Gene Therapy, Cooperative Binding, Phosphorylation, Binding Sites, Protein-Protein Interaction",numberOfDownloads:331,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 21st 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 3rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 22nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Sevcikova Tomaskova received her Ph.D. degree in biophysics from Pavol Jozef Safarik University, Slovakia. She is a senior researcher, focused on the study of mitochondrial chloride channels, using electrophysiological methods for ion channel current measurement and complex analysis.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"232970",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zuzana",middleName:null,surname:"Sevcikova Tomaskova",slug:"zuzana-sevcikova-tomaskova",fullName:"Zuzana Sevcikova Tomaskova",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/232970/images/system/232970.jpg",biography:"Zuzana Sevcikova Tomaskova graduated in biophysics on Commenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia. In 2009, she achieved her Ph.D. degree in biophysics on Faculty of Science, Pavol Jozef Safarik University in Kosice, Slovakia. She is specialized in single channel current measurement on bilayer lipid membrane and also in advanced current analysis. She gained 2nd place in Competition of young scientists in natural sciences in 2009 and year later, she was awarded by the Award of the president of Slovak Republic for young scientists. In 2012, she received a short-term FEBS fellowship and learned single channel patch-clamp method at Nencki Institute in Warsaw, Poland. Her work is mainly focused on cardiac mitochodrial chloride channels. 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First- and second-line drugs, minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and mechanisms of drug resistance are presented in Table 1 [4]. Antituberculosis drugs are mainly divided into two parts.
First-line antituberculosis drugs- Isoniazid (INH), rifampicin (RIF), ethambutol (EMB), pyrazinamide (PZA) and streptomycin (SM).
Second-line antituberculosis drugs- Sub divided into two
Fluoroquinolones- Ofloxacin (OFX), levofloxacin (LEV), moxifloxacin (MOX) and ciprofloxacin (CIP).
Injectable antituberculosis drugs- Kanamycin (KAN), amikacin (AMK) and capreomycin (CAP).
Less-effective second-line antituberculosis drugs- Ethionamide (ETH)/Prothionamide (PTH), Cycloserine (CS)/Terizidone, P-aminosalicylic acid (PAS).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Isoniazid | \n\t\t\t0.02–0.2 (7H9/7H10) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tcatalase/peroxidase | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tenoyl reductase | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\talkyl hydroperoxide reductase | \n\t\t||
Rifampicin | \n\t\t\t0.05–0.1 (7H9/7H10) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tβ-subunit of RNA polymerase | \n\t\t
Pyrazinimide | \n\t\t\t16–50 (LJ) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPZase | \n\t\t
Streptomycin | \n\t\t\t2–8 (7H9/7H10) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tS12 ribosomal protein | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t16S rRNA | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t7-methylguanosine methyltransferase | \n\t\t||
Ethambutol | \n\t\t\t1–5 (7H9/7H10) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tarabinosyl transferase | \n\t\t
Fluoroquinolones | \n\t\t\t0.5–2.0 (7H9/7H10) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tDNA gyrase | \n\t\t
Kanamycin | \n\t\t\t2–4 (7H9/7H10) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t16S rRNA | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\taminoglycoside acetyltransferase | \n\t\t||
Amikacin | \n\t\t\t2–4 (7H9/7H10) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t16S rRNA | \n\t\t
Capreomycin | \n\t\t\t2-4 (7H9/7H10) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t16S rRNA | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\trRNA methyltransferase | \n\t\t||
Ethionamide | \n\t\t\t2.5–10 (7H11) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tenoyl reductase | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.5 (LJ) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tthymidylate synthase A | \n\t\t
First- and second-line drugs, MICs and mechanisms of drug resistance
Isoniazid (INH) is one of the most effective and specific antituberculosis drugs, which has been a key to treatment since its introduction in 1952 [5].
Resistance to isoniazid is a complex process. Mutations in several genes, including
A study by Hazbo´n et al. [12] analysed 240 alleles and found that mutations in
Mutations in
In
Rifampicin (RIF) was introduced in 1972 as an antituberculosis drug and has excellent sterilizing activity. Rifampicin acts by binding to the β-subunit of RNA polymerase (
Rifampicin MICs ranging from 0.05 to 1 μg/ml on solid or liquid media, but the MIC is higher in egg media (MIC = 2.5–10 μg/ml). Strains with MICs < 1 μg/ml in liquid or agar medium or MICs < 40 μg/ml in Lowenstein-Jensen (LJ) medium are considered RIF-susceptible. The great majority of
Pyrazinamide (PZA) is an important first-line antituberculosis (anti-TB) drug that is used in short-course chemotherapy and is one of the cornerstone drugs in the treatment of MDR-TB [23]. One key characteristic of pyrazinamide is its ability to inhibit semidormant bacilli residing in acidic environments [23]. Pyrazinamide is a structural analogue of nicotinamide and is a pro-drug that needs to be converted into its active form, pyrazinoic acid, by the enzyme pyrazinamidase/nicotinamidase (PZase) [24]. PZA is only active against
PZase is encoded in
Ethambutol (EMB) [dextro-2,2’-(ethylenediimino)di-1-butanol], which is an essential first-line drug in tuberculosis treatment, plays an important role in the chemotherapy of drug-resistant TB [36]. EMB is also an important antimycobacterial drug as it enhances the effect of other companion drugs including aminoglycosides, rifamycins and quinolones. The most common side effects observed with ethambutol are dizziness, blurred vision, color blindness, nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, loss of appetite, headache, rash, itching, breathlessness, swelling of the face, lips or eyes, numbness or tingling in the fingers or toes. Patients taking ethambutol should have their visual acuity and color vision checked at least monthly.
The MICs of EMB for
Arabinosyl transferase, encoded
Streptomycin (SM), an aminocyclitol glycoside antibiotic, was the first drug to be used in the treatment of TB, in 1948 [50]. SM kills actively growing tubercle bacilli with MICs of 2–4 μg/ml, but it is inactive against non-growing or intracellular bacilli [23]. The drug binds to the 16S rRNA, interferes with translation proofreading, and thereby inhibits protein synthesis [51, 52]. Ototoxicity and nephotoxicity are associated with SM administration. Vestibular dysfunction is more common than auditory damage. Renal toxicity occurs less frequently than with kanamycin or capreomycin. Hearing and renal function should be monitored in patients getting SM.
Mutations associated with streptomycin resistance have been identified in the genes encoding 16S rRNA (
The fluoroquinolones (FQs) have broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and so are widely used for the treatment of bacterial infections of the respiratory, gastrointestinal and urinary tracts, as well as sexually transmitted diseases and chronic osteomyelitis [63]. In contrast to many other antibiotics used to treat bacterial infections, the FQs have excellent in vitro and in vivo activity against
The cellular target of FQs in
Mutations within the QRDR of
The aminoglycosides amikacin (AMK)/kanamycin (KAN) and the cyclic polypeptide capreomycin (CAP) are important injectable drugs in the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Although belonging to two different antibiotic families, all exert their activity at the level of protein translation. Renal toxicity occurs from these drugs. Regular monitoring of hearing and renal function is recommended.
AMK and KAN are aminoglycosides that have a high level of cross-resistance between them [78-80]. The cyclic polypeptide CAP is structurally unrelated to the aminoglycosides and thus is a potential candidate to replace AMK or KAN if resistance to either of them is suspected [81, 82]. It has been demonstrated that the risk of treatment failure and mortality increase when CAP resistance emerges among MDR-TB cases [83]. However, cross-resistance in
AMK/KAN and CAP primarily affect protein synthesis in
Resistance to the cyclic peptide capreomycin has also been associated with mutations in
Ethionamide (ETH, 2-ethylisonicotinamide) is a derivative of isonicotinic acid and has been used as an antituberculosis agent since 1956. The MICs of ETH for
Cycloserine (CS) is an antibiotic that is used to treat TB. The exact mechanism of action of cycloserine is unknown, but it is thought to prevent the tuberculosis bacteria from making substances called peptidoglycans, which are needed to form the bacterial cell wall. This results in the weakening of bacteria’s cell wall, which then kills the bacteria. Cycloserine possesses high gastric tolerance (compared with the other drugs) and lacks cross-resistance to other compounds. But it causes adverse psychiatric effects; [96, 97] which is its main drawback. So, psychiatric interrogation is necessary before prescribing cycloserine drug. Cycloserine is one of the cornerstones of treatment for MDR and XDR tuberculosis [96, 97, 98]. Terizidone (a combination of two molecules of cycloserine) might be less toxic [96, 97], although studies of this drug are scarce.
Despite all the advances made in the treatment and management, TB still remains as one of the main public health problems that have plagued mankind for millennia. The challenges posed by
In recent years, the field of quantum computing [1] has developed into an active and diverse field of research, and significant progress has been made in a number of important areas. For a relatively small number of applications, quantum algorithms have been developed that provide a significant speedup relative to classical methods. Shor’s algorithm for factoring composite integers and Grover’s algorithm for quantum search were key developments in establishing quantum computing. More recently, significant progress has been made in the area of quantum chemistry and quantum physics. Beyond those two fields, only recently have quantum computing applications appeared in other areas of science and engineering, e.g., work in computational electromagnetics [2, 3], mixing in turbulent flow [4], and computational fluid dynamics [5]. More general applications have been developed which take advantage of the unique capabilities of quantum computing platforms, e.g., methods for the solution of linear systems of equations [6] and Poisson equation [7].
\nIn recent years significant progress has been made in designing and constructing quantum computers. Currently available quantum computers are relatively small-scale and have become known as noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) computers. These machines have a limited number of qubits (expected to increase to 50–100 in coming years), a limited connectivity between these qubits, a small set of available quantum gates, and typically very little or no quantum error correction.
\nThis chapter describes results of a recent investigation aiming to assess the potential of quantum computing and suitably designed algorithms for future computational fluid dynamics application, particularly for NISQ-type quantum hardware. In this work, the quantum circuit model is used for a “universal” or “digital” quantum computer, i.e., work on adiabatic quantum computing is not considered here. In the absence of the required quantum hardware, large-scale parallel simulations on parallel classical computers are required in developing such algorithms. In this work the recently developed quantum simulator [5] included in the MΦC multi-physics CFD framework is used [8, 9].
\nIn the near future, the most likely scenario for the introduction of quantum computing hardware is through the quantum coprocessor model, i.e., where a quantum processing unit (QPU) is loosely coupled to a classical computer with one or more CPUs [10]. In current designs, the quantum processor requires storage at low temperatures in a cryostat leading to a distinct physical separation between the classical and quantum hardware. Coupling takes place by exchanging classical information. In application of this hybrid quantum/classical approach, the quantum processor acts like a coprocessor with the quantum processor dealing with selected computationally demanding tasks. The quantum processor receives information from the CPU, and this is used to initialize the quantum state in the quantum processor. During the quantum simulation, the quantum state is transformed by application of quantum gates in quantum circuits. Then measurement operations are used to extract classical information from this quantum state, and this is subsequently passed to the CPU. Since in quantum mechanics a measurement leads to the (partial) collapse of the quantum state, in the hybrid classical/quantum approach, typically multiple realizations of the quantum state are needed to obtain classical information with acceptable levels of noise and uncertainty. It is important to recognize that, since initializing a particular quantum state in quantum computer can be a significant challenge, this hybrid approach can only be expected to lead to significant computational speedups in case the quantum simulation is significantly faster for the selected problem than conventional solution methods.
\nAs an example of this hybrid classical/quantum approach, the author introduced a quantum computing application in which the vortex-in-cell method was used to solve the incompressible-flow Navier-Stokes equations in a regular domain [5]. In this algorithm, the Poisson solvers dominating CPU time requirements are based on the quantum computing equivalent of the fast Fourier transform, i.e., the quantum Fourier transform. In this chapter, this algorithm and its application to example flow problems are investigated further. Specifically, the effect of applying an approximate QFT instead of the full QFT is analyzed for different levels of approximation or truncating of rotation gates in the quantum circuit implementation.
\nThe second part of this chapter describes a more recent investigation into the development of quantum algorithms relevant for computational aerodynamics based on modeling at the kinetic level. The key innovation in these developments is the design targeting execution of the algorithm fully on the quantum processor. In particular, at the start of the simulation, multiple quantum states in the quantum processor would be initialized. Then, the quantum algorithms would perform a series of unitary transformations. Only at the end of the simulation would measurements be performed to extract the required classical. A key question this study aims to answer is for which applications this approach is feasible.
\nThis chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 describes key principles of quantum computing relevant to the quantum algorithms for fluid simulations described here. Section 3 describes the hybrid quantum/classical implementation of the vortex-in-cell method along with a number of example applications. The quantum discrete-velocity algorithm for kinetic flow modeling is described in Section 4. Conclusions and future research directions are presented in Section 5.
\nThe fundamental unit of quantum computation is the qubit [1]. Whereas a classical bit is confined to existing in either the 0 or 1 state, a qubit can be in a state of superposition, i.e., it exists in both states simultaneously. Upon measuring the qubit, the quantum state collapses to either of these two states, and the qubit is no longer in a state of superposition. The state of a qubit is defined through a pair of complex numbers [1]. A collection of \n
In the present work, the quantum circuit model of quantum computing is used. In this case, the unitary operations on a quantum state allowed by quantum mechanics are represented by a series of quantum (logic) gates acting on the quantum state. A quantum logic gate is an elementary quantum computing device that performs a fixed unitary operation on selected qubits in a fixed period of time. Written in a matrix form, unitary means that the determinant of the transformation equals one.
\nThe quantum state |Ψ> for a register with \n
We will now describe how this quantum state can be used to represent the storage space required for the computational problems of interest here, representing discretized partially differential equations. As a first step, consider a function
However, it is important to stress that the quantum state vector only represents the likelihood that upon measurement the quantum state collapses into a particular state [1]. In other words, with \n
The ability to implement the quantum Fourier transform (QFT) efficiently on a quantum computer is of paramount importance for many quantum algorithms. Figure 1 shows the “standard” quantum circuit implementation of the QFT for an example register with 6 qubits. In Figure 1, “H” represents the one-qubit Hadamard gate, and the “Rk” gates are controlled rotation gates over an angle defined by index “k,” i.e., \n
Quantum circuit for QFT on six-qubit register.
A particular challenge is presented by the controlled rotation gates particularly those involving small angles. The QFT can be implemented approximately by removing all rotation gates with angles smaller than a certain threshold value, resulting in the approximate QFT (AQFT). In particular for fault-tolerant implementations, this is desirable as it greatly reduces the gate count. In the following, we define the approximation or “band-limiting” in the AQFT as follows. The rotation gates are eliminated above a limit value “k,” i.e., for an angle smaller than 2\n
The vortex-in-cell method is a well-studied hybrid particle-mesh method for incompressible flows and is particularly well suited for flows in regular domains such that efficient Poisson solvers can be used. In the present work, the Fourier analysis approach to solving the problem in a fully periodic domain is used, using the QFT for the required discrete Fourier transforms.
\nThe vortex-in-cell (VIC) method solves the incompressible-flow Navier-Stokes equations, transformed into the Helmholtz equations for vorticity evolution [5]:
\nIn simulations using the VIC, the flow evolves through a (large) number of time steps. During each of these time steps, the velocity field is recomputed using solutions of three Poisson problems for stream function \n
This part of the VIC is of particular interest here, as it represents the part that would be performed by the quantum processor in the quantum coprocessor model.
\nFigure 2 shows an example of a VIC simulation of two leapfrogging vortex rings, i.e., flow structures of fundamental importance in fluid mechanics. The lower vortex ring is stronger than the ring above it, and it will therefore convect upward faster, leading to the interaction of the vortex rings as shown. The iso-surface represents vorticity strength, i.e., a direct indicator of the “strength” of the considered vortex. Results are compared for two different meshes, 1283 and 2563, to highlight the dependency of the solution on the chosen mesh size. Also, in the shown simulation, no quantum errors were simulated, and the full QFT was used. If we now replace the QFT with the AQFT, the results shown in Figures 3 and 4 are obtained. In Figure 3, the “k” limit in the QFT is set to five for both meshes, showing that for the finer mesh this leads to unacceptable errors, while the coarser-mesh simulation still produces worthwhile results. If the “k” limit for the finer mesh is increased from 5 to 6, i.e., more controlled rotation gates are included in the AQFT circuit, the simulation on the finer mesh can also be made to produce similarly useful results. These example results show what level of approximation in the QFT is tolerable for application of the VIC method. For other QFT-based CFD solvers, a similar sensitivity study would need to be conducted.
\nVortex-in-cell simulation of leapfrogging vortex rings. Effect of mesh refinement is shown. “Noiseless” simulation using full QFT.
Vortex-in-cell simulation of leapfrogging vortex rings. For two different mesh resolutions, the effect of applying AQFT is shown (“k” limit is 5).
Vortex-in-cell simulation of leapfrogging vortex rings. For 1283 mesh, AQFT (“k” limit 5) is used. For 2563 mesh, “k” limit in AQFT is 6.
In computational fluid dynamics, the most widely used methods involve solving the Navier-Stokes equations for a continuum fluid, i.e., where fluid density, velocity components, and energy in each location in the computational domain are to be found from conservation equations. The vortex-in-cell method used in the previous section employs the Navier-Stokes equations in a transformed form involving vorticity rather than velocity, but importantly it still uses the continuum flow assumption.
\nAn alternative approach to the Navier-Stokes-based modeling is a description of the flow at a more detailed level, i.e., at the kinetic level [11]. Instead of governing equations for mass, momentum, and energy conservation, the flow is now described by the Boltzmann equation governing a particle distribution function in state space (or 3D velocity space for a 3D monatomic gas flow) for each location in the considered domain [10].
\nFor a monatomic gas, the distribution function \n
The distribution function defines for each point \n
The key advantage of this approach is that non-continuum flows, i.e., flows for which the density is so low that we cannot assume it to act as a continuum, can also be modeled. However, the main problem is the large computational cost when using a direct discretization approach due to the high dimensionality, i.e., for a 3D flow problem, we have a six-dimensional solution space (or seven when including time).
\nA further main challenge is the cost of evaluating the collision term. For the free-molecular flows considered here, the collision term can be discarded, and we will use the
In the discrete-velocity method used here, the velocity space is discretized using a uniformly spaced Cartesian mesh. A maximum molecular velocity magnitude is defined, \n
The discrete-velocity approach used here has a number of characteristics facilitating a quantum implementation:
A uniformly spaced Cartesian mesh is used for the spatial discretization as well as for the discretization of the velocity space.
In case solid objects are present in the computational domain, these are rectangular, and its edges align with the mesh lines in the mesh. Specifically, solid bodies can be defined by “tagging” selected groups of cells in the mesh.
A constant velocity-space discretization is used in each point in space, i.e., the velocity-space boundaries defined earlier as well as the number of discrete velocities are identical in each cell.
The convection part of the Boltzmann equation (i.e., the second term on the left-hand side in the shown equation) along with gas-solid interactions determines the time evolution of the distribution function in the absence of interparticle collisions.
The time-integration method used here is based on the reservoir technique [13], such that during the time integration the convection step always exactly involves the distribution function defined in a cell of computational mesh to move to a cell that is a nearest neighbor. This is commonly referred to as “streaming” of data.
In the examples shown, problems are restricted to two-dimensional flows. For this case, the collisionless Boltzmann equation originally defined for 3D can be reduced to two kinetic equations for two reduced distribution functions:
\nwhere the velocity and coordinate vectors are now defined in 2D.
\nInspired by the previous work on the Dirac equation [14], an efficient quantum circuit implementation of the streaming operations in x- and y-direction on a Cartesian 2D mesh can be created as shown in Figure 5. The example shows how a 12-qubit register is used for a discretized function with 6 qubits defining the indices of 64 grid points in x- and y-coordinate directions. The circuits with the filled circles define streaming to “right” neighbors, i.e., when each control qubits has the |1> state, the target qubit gets negated (“X” symbol used here). Similarly, the left streaming operation employs multiple-control NOT gates with target qubits being negated when each control qubit is in state |0>.
\nQuantum circuit implementation of “left streaming” and “right streaming” in x- and y-direction on a 64 × 64 Cartesian mesh.
For the streaming operations in quantum discrete-velocity method, further extensions are needed. First, the quantum register needs to be extended relative to that shown in Figure 5 to account for the storage of two discretized reduced distributions defined in the discretized velocity space. The additional distribution function is accounted for using an additional qubit termed “g” in the following quantum circuit diagrams. The number of additional qubits needed for the discrete-velocity mesh clearly depends on the number of discrete velocities used. For example, for a 16 × 16 discrete-velocity mesh, we add 8 qubits (four for each direction in state space). The qubits are denoted by the “u0,”…, “v0,”… qubits in the quantum circuits. Finally, to account for solid objects, we use an additional qubit (“BC” in the diagrams) set to |1> to denote a cell within fluid and |0> for a cell within a solid. For a 64 × 64 Cartesian mesh and a 16 × 16 discrete-velocity mesh, Figure 6 shows the quantum circuit used to simulate the free-molecular flow around a rectangular body, for which the evolution of the flow field starting from an initial uniform flow is shown in Figure 7. The key feature in the quantum circuits shown in Figure 6 is the extended number of control qubits, i.e., beyond the checks on the qubits corresponding to spatial coordinates, control qubits also involve the “BC” qubit (fluid/solid flag) as well as the qubits related to the discrete-velocity indices. This least feature originates from the need to stream only data associated with selected discrete velocities in the used time-integration method.
\nQuantum circuit implementation of streaming operations for discrete-velocity method (with 16 × 16 velocity mesh). Two-dimensional domain with 64 × 64 Cartesian mesh.
Discrete-velocity simulation of Mach 2 flow around rectangular body. 64 × 64 Cartesian mesh, velocity-space mesh with 64 × 64 discrete velocities.
A key aspect of the flows simulated by the quantum algorithm described here are gas-solid interactions. In this work, specular-reflection boundary conditions are assumed. This means that upon hitting a solid surface, a gas particle will bounce off this surface with the wall-normal velocity component effectively getting reversed and the tangential-flow component being preserved. In Figure 7, the time evolution of a Mach 2 free-molecular flow is shown, starting from an initial flow at uniform velocity everywhere.
\nAs can be seen in Figure 7, the specular-reflection boundary conditions gradually make the velocity vectors align with the solid wall such that there is no longer a flow into the solid body. This is the physically correct behavior. In the quantum register, the indexing for the velocity-mesh data is designed such that a change of the sign of the discrete velocity implies a bit negation of qubits representing the index of the considered discrete velocity. As an example, Figure 8 shows the quantum circuit implementation of the specular reflection for a rectangular body. In this case, only 16 × 16 discrete velocities are used for clarity. It can be seen that control qubits are used to “select” cells in space for which to apply the boundary condition. A further control qubit involves the “BC” qubit representing the solid/fluid flag. The negation operation (“X”) is applied to the qubits representing the velocity-mesh index to create the “change of sign” of the considered discrete-velocity data. This circuit is shown as an illustration of the quantum algorithm design approach used here.
\nQuantum circuit implementation of specular-reflection boundary conditions for rectangular body. 64 × 64 Cartesian mesh, 16 × 16 discrete-velocity mesh.
Although the circuits shown in Figure 6 perform the correct convection operations, an important practical constraint needs to be considered. For the quantum computer implementations achieved so far and those foreseen for the near future, the kind of multi-qubit-controlled NOT operations used here cannot be implemented. A small set of native gates will be available which most likely includes NOT, CNOT, and the Toffoli gate.
\nThe solution around this limitation is the introduction of ancilla qubits, which can be regarded as the quantum equivalence of additional workspace in the memory of a classical computer. Then circuits involving multi-qubit operations involving a large number of control gates can be transformed into circuits with more qubits and a larger number of gate operations, however now with a smaller number of control qubits. As is typical in this context, we assume that the ancilla qubits are initially in |0>, and since these are to be reused multiple times, the transformed circuits need to reset the ancilla qubits of this state at the end of the operations. For the quantum circuits implementing streaming in positive
Quantum circuit implementation of streaming operation. Circuit transformations are shown for addition of 1, 2, and 3 ancilla qubits.
This chapter presented two different quantum algorithms with possible applications in computational fluid dynamics. Beyond their very different areas of application, the key differences are the computational model with regard the quantum coprocessor model of quantum computing. The hybrid quantum/classical algorithm for the vortex-in-cell method involves repeated exchanges of information between classical and quantum hardware, i.e., at each time step in the time integration. In contrast, the quantum algorithm implementing a discrete-velocity method for kinetic flow modeling can be performed on the quantum processor for the duration of the simulation, with classical information exchange only required at the start and end of the simulation.
\nThis work addressed a number of key challenges that remain to be investigated further. Firstly, the need for further efficient quantum algorithms as well as a further understanding of how to apply the quantum coprocessor model for this type of flow simulations was investigated. Secondly, the measurement-based extraction of classical information fundamentally changes the way quantum algorithms for CFD application will most likely be used. Finally, obtaining detailed information on the full flow field will be a challenge, so applications for which only certain characteristics of the solution are desired would present a good choice for future applications.
\nA part of the simulation results presented were obtained using the EPSRC-funded ARCHIE-WeSt High Performance Computer (www.archie-west.ac.uk), EPSRC grant no. EP/K000586/1.
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Their work provided the base for the development of semiconductor photocatalysis for the environmental remediation and energy applications. Photoactivity of some semiconductors was found to be low due to larger band gap energy and higher electron-hole pair recombination rate. To avoid these problems, the development of visible light responsive photocatalytic materials by different approaches, such as metal and/or non-metal doping, co-doping, coupling of semiconductors, composites and heterojunctions materials synthesis has been widely investigated and explored in systematic manner. This chapter emphasizes on the different type of tailored photocatalyst materials having the enhanced visible light absorption properties, lower band gap energy and recombination rate of electron-hole pairs and production of reactive radical species. Visible light active semiconductors for the environmental remediation purposes, particularly for water treatment and disinfection are also discussed in detail. 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Due to the participation of charge transfer reactions, the capacitance offered by transition metal oxide can be higher compared to double layer capacitance. The investigation on hydrous ruthenium oxide has revealed the surface redox reactions that contributed to the wide potential window shown on cyclic voltammetry curve. Although the performance of ruthenium oxide is impressive, its toxicity has limited itself from commercial application. Manganese oxide is a pseudocapacitive material behaves similar to ruthenium oxide. It consists of various oxidation states which allow the occurrence of redox reactions. It is also environmental friendly, low cost, and natural abundant. The charge storage of manganese oxide film takes into account of the redox reactions between Mn3+ and Mn4+ and can be accounted to two mechanisms. The first one involves the intercalation/deintercalation of electrolyte ions and/or protons upon reduction/oxidation processes. The second contributor for the charge storage is due to the surface adsorption of electrolyte ions on the electrode surface.",book:{id:"6083",slug:"semiconductors-growth-and-characterization",title:"Semiconductors",fullTitle:"Semiconductors - Growth and Characterization"},signatures:"Chan Pei Yi and Siti Rohana Majid",authors:[{id:"197956",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"S.R.",middleName:null,surname:"Majid",slug:"s.r.-majid",fullName:"S.R. Majid"},{id:"216449",title:"Ms.",name:"Pei Yi",middleName:null,surname:"Chan",slug:"pei-yi-chan",fullName:"Pei Yi Chan"}]},{id:"60792",title:"TCAD Device Modelling and Simulation of Wide Bandgap Power Semiconductors",slug:"tcad-device-modelling-and-simulation-of-wide-bandgap-power-semiconductors",totalDownloads:2142,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Technology computer-aided Design (TCAD) is essential for devices technology development, including wide bandgap power semiconductors. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. 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Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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