\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"763",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Pancreatic Cancer - Molecular Mechanism and Targets",title:"Pancreatic Cancer",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanism and Targets",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides the reader with an overall understanding of the biology of pancreatic cancer, hereditary, complex signaling pathways and alternative therapies. The book explains nutrigenomics and epigenetics mechanisms such as DNA methylation, which may explain the etiology or progression of pancreatic cancer. Book also summarizes the molecular control of oncogenic pathways such as K-Ras and KLF4. Since pancreatic cancer metastasizes to vital organs resulting in poor prognosis, special emphasis is given to the mechanism of tumor cell invasion and metastasis. Role of nitric oxide and Syk kinase in tumor metastasis is discussed in detail. Prevention strategies for pancreatic cancer are also described. The molecular mechanisms of the anti-cancer effects of curcumin, benzyl isothiocyante and vitamin D are discussed in detail. Furthermore, this book covers the basic mechanisms of resistance of pancreatic cancer to chemotherapy drugs such as gemcitabine and 5-flourouracil.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0410-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6935-2",doi:"10.5772/1271",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"pancreatic-cancer-molecular-mechanism-and-targets",numberOfPages:446,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"580ba59e1d406efa850f806203741251",bookSignature:"Sanjay K. Srivastava",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/763.jpg",numberOfDownloads:62077,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:18,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:36,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 15th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 15th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 20th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 19th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 17th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"69661",title:"Prof.",name:"Sanjay",middleName:"K",surname:"Srivastava",slug:"sanjay-srivastava",fullName:"Sanjay Srivastava",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69661/images/2415_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sanjay K. Srivastava is a Professor of Biomedical Sciences at Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center (TTUHSC), Amarillo, Texas, specializing in cancer biology, cell signaling and nutritional chemoprevention. Dr. Srivastava served as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Pharmacology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and did his post-doc from University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Texas. He received a M.S. in Biochemistry from Lucknow University and a Ph.D. in Biochemical Toxicology from Industrial Toxicology Research Center, India. Dr. Srivastava is funded by grants from the National Cancer Institute, NIH. He has authored/co-authored more than 100 research papers and book chapters and is in the editorial board of several journals. Dr. Srivastava has been the recipient of several awards including TTUHSC “President’s Excellence in Research Award”. His research has been featured by news agencies including BBC, MSNBC, CBS, ABC, Science News etc.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1078",title:"Gastrointestinal Oncology",slug:"gastrointestinal-oncology"}],chapters:[{id:"33487",title:"Risk Factors in Pancreatic Cancer",doi:"10.5772/27107",slug:"risk-factors-in-pancreatic-cancer",totalDownloads:2543,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Andrada Seicean and Radu Seicean",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/33487",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/33487",authors:[{id:"68858",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrada",surname:"Seicean",slug:"andrada-seicean",fullName:"Andrada Seicean"},{id:"77513",title:"Dr.",name:"Radu",surname:"Seicean",slug:"radu-seicean",fullName:"Radu Seicean"}],corrections:null},{id:"33488",title:"Epigenetics and Pancreatic Cancer: The Role of Nutrigenomics",doi:"10.5772/27832",slug:"epigenetics-and-pancreatic-cancer-the-role-of-nutriogenomics",totalDownloads:2730,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Beverly D. 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\r\n\tThe book aims to collect the state of the art of techniques and technologies for monitoring lentic and lotic environments so important for the ecological role they perform.
\r\n\r\n\tThe knowledge relating to the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of the still or slow-moving waters - the so-called "lentic environments": lakes, swamps, ponds - but also fresh and salty waters, are to be deepened. Contributions related to their interaction with lotic waters - streams, rivers - will also be well appreciated. All those elements useful to represent the quality of these environments will be considered and treated also in relation to the ecological role they play.
\r\n\r\n\tStudies based on observations made and aimed at forecasting transformations (understood as the evolution of environments over time) will be collected. We also want to collect contributions relating to the influence of the surrounding environment such as those due to human disturbance or even to causes of natural origin. In addition, also studies relating to the management of inland waters and related indicators to identify the more common problems of pollution. Finally, we also want to collect contributions relating to best practices (the most significant experiences, procedures, actions, or in any case those that have allowed the best results to be obtained in relation to the conservation of these environments) through intelligent, low-cost systems.
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Her multidisciplinary approach is based on analytical evidence integrated by a biological and ecological vision.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"315689",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmine",middleName:null,surname:"Massarelli",slug:"carmine-massarelli",fullName:"Carmine Massarelli",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002qpfU1QAI/Profile_Picture_1640002411379",biography:"Dr. Carmine Massarelli (Environmental technologist at Italian National Council of Research, Water Research Institute)is an expert in the development of Smart Technologies for water management and environmental monitoring, characterization and monitoring of contaminated and degraded sites, integration of spatial data such as standard methodologies, interoperability and data infrastructures.\r\nHe is also an expert in Geographic Information Systems, database administration, programming and IT-related roles, maintenance and creation of geographic data (accuracy and quality), use of scripting, and building cartographic output applying the principles of cartography using open-source IT systems for the processing, analysis, and integration of remote sensing data with airborne and satellite sensors for thematic purposes.",institutionString:"National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"315745",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Campanale",slug:"claudia-campanale",fullName:"Claudia Campanale",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002qpiKlQAI/Profile_Picture_1640002388093",biography:"Dr. Claudia Campanale is a pioneering researcher in monitoring emerging pollutants in environmental matrices and extreme environments through a multidisciplinary approach and based on analytical evidence integrated by a biological and ecological vision. \r\nShe uses Py-GC-MS and micro FTIR techniques for purification and characterization methods. Her microplastic research is focused on identifying and quantifying persistent organic pollutants sorbed on microplastics to investigate the role of these contaminants of emerging concern as carriers of hazardous chemicals to marine environments.\r\nShe is an expert in analytical chemistry techniques such as HPLC-MS, GC-MS, ICP-MS to characterize and quantify pollutants (inorganic and organic) in environmental matrices (water, soil, sediment).\r\nHard work, dedication, and passion are the basis of research.",institutionString:"National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"278926",firstName:"Ivana",lastName:"Barac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278926/images/8058_n.jpg",email:"ivana.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Unfortunately, improvements in agriculture, food processing, marketing, rural, and urban planning with low physical activity patterns, resulted in an “obese world” over time. The body weight is regulated by various physiological mechanisms that maintain the balance between energy intake and energy expenditure. Obesity occurs when the body consumes more calories than it burns, through overeating and underexercising [1]. Obesity could be defined as a final picture of abnormal, excessive fat accumulation in the body because of increased feeding and decreased physical activity [2]. When the body weight exceeds 20% above what is considered normal, according to standard age, height, and weight tables, it is defined as obesity [3]. Obesity is not only a cosmetic concern, but it is also a complex disorder, which increases the risk of impaired health. According to various studies, overweight and obesity are important contributing factors for the development a variety of mental and physical disorders [4, 5]. Excess bodyweight is the sixth most important risk factor contributing to the overall burden of disease, worldwide [6]. The obese individuals incur an elevated risk from all-cause mortality. It has been reported that obesity is the fifth leading risk factor for global deaths. The mortality rate from all causes in the obese population is at least 20% higher, compared to the normal-weighted society [7]. Information has been provided showing that obesity lead to several disorders including type 2 diabetes mellitus, high blood pressure, cardiovascular diseases, stroke, kidney disease, breathing problems, sleep apnea, osteoarthritis, malignancy, mental problems (such as clinical depression), anxiety, and eventually impaired health in general [8–11]. Since obesity tends to exert a global impact on inflammation, it increases the risk of many cancer types, such as breast, colon, endometrial, kidney, gallbladder, and liver cancers [12]. It has clearly been shown that obesity results in lowered quality of life, as well as a higher risk of premature death [5]. Overall quality of life could be diminished due to disability, depression, and social isolation of the obese person, besides impaired physical health. It has been proven that obesity markedly reduces life expectancy [13]. The severe consequences of obesity for physical health and emotional well-being already emerge in childhood [14], and it is well known that childhood obesity is the most serious public health problem, as children are more likely to become obese adults in their future life. Furthermore, it has been shown that overweight and obesity developed in childhood confers significant impact on both physical and psychological health in the future [1, 14, 15]. Overweight and obese children will also be exposed to higher risk of disability and premature death [16]. A vicious circle has been shown in children who are overfed, as they become overeating adults [15].
\nThe childhood obesity has also been linked to cardiovascular disease risk during adulthood. This is compounded by the risk related to chronic hyperglycemia exposure in youth with type 2 diabetes mellitus [17]. The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that children in low- and middle-income countries are more vulnerable to inadequate prenatal, infant- and young-child nutritional states. And, at the same time, these kids are exposed to high-fat, high-sugar, high-salt, energy-dense, micronutrient-poor foods, which tend to be lower in cost and also lower in nutrient quality [18]. These dietary patterns, in conjunction with lower levels of physical activity, result in a sharp increase in childhood obesity, while undernutrition issues remain unsolved [18]. The obesity and overweight conditions are also pervasive among elderly people. It has been reported that obesity is also the problem of wealthy people. However, obesity now inversely affects the poor and uneducated people. It has been reported in several studies that obesity is higher in low social classes, amongst those on a low educational level, and within ethnic minority groups [7, 18]. WHO reported that children in developing countries incur a risk of obesity and inadequate nutrition, simultaneously [18]. The obesity and overweight are also pervasive among elderly people. The prevalence of obesity is rising progressively among older age groups [19], and it is well known that main complications of obesity in elderly people is the metabolic syndrome (with glucose intolerance, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease) [20, 21]. It is therefore not surprising that obesity increases the risk of heart failure in elderly. Other serious consequences of obesity in elderly people are the several cancer types, Alzheimer’s disease, pulmonary dysfunction, osteoarthritis, obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, and functional inactivity [20, 22, 23]. It has been proven that inactivity, (mostly depending on obesity), aging, and comorbidity reduced quality of life are commonly leading to frailty and premature death in elderly people [3, 24]. The other dark side of obesity is the economy. It is obvious that obesity leads to many health problems, which can cost millions to treat.
\nObese individuals are likely to have more medical and health problems [1]. Moreover, these reduce personal economic productivity, due to impaired health. It was reported that obese individuals have medical expenses that were approximately 30% greater than their normal weight peers [25]. Obesity is considered a top public health concern, due to the high level of morbidity and mortality in the United States [26]. It was reported that medical costs for obesity accounted for 40% of the healthcare budget in 2006. The medical care costs of obesity in the United States were estimated to be $147 billion in 2008. The annual nationwide productive costs of obesity-related absenteeism range between $3.38 billion ($79 per obese individual) and $6.38 billion ($132 per obese individual). Obesity affects 34% of children in the United States. For the pediatric healthcare delivery system, expenses were $179 per year higher in obese children versus children with a normal body mass index (BMI) [24]. Recently, it was reported that direct medical cost of overweight and obesity combined is approximately 5.0–10% of the United States healthcare spending [27]. The actual cost of obesity and related morbidity in developing countries have not been reported in any detail to date, but it is clear that prevalence of childhood and adulthood obesity is increasing in low-income countries, which lead to heavy treatment burden in their domestic budget.
\nObesity threats public health more than communicable diseases in the present world. Overweight and obesity cause death in more people than those being underweight. The increased prevalence of obesity has occurred in the United States during the last 30 years [27], and according to WHO, the worldwide prevalence of obesity, more than doubled between 1980 and 2014 [18]. In 2014, more than 1.9 billion adults, 18 years and older, were overweight. Of these, over 600 million were obese [28]. Historically, at the beginning of the era, obesity was only the problem of rich people and the affluent countries. However, obesity is now dramatically increased in lower and middle-income countries. Rural-urban comparisons and migration studies provide evidence for an effect of modernization in increasing the prevalence of obesity [7]. Fifty percent of the adults are overweight and obese in many countries [15]. The “WHO-MONICA” study revealed markedly different prevalence patterns within Europe, ranging from 7% in Swedish men to 45% in women from Lithuania [28]. It was asserted, in a research report from China, that 55.6% of the population express central obesity [10]. Obesity prevalence in the United States ranged from 29 to 50% [28, 29], and around the world, rates of obesity are on the rise—since 1980, the global obesity rate has nearly doubled, and there are now over 200 million obese men and nearly 300 million obese women. However, the Japanese population is exempted from these trends [28].
\nOverweight and obesity affect every age group around the world. The National “Health and Nutrition Examination Survey” in the United States has reported that the prevalence of obesity is on the increase in all the pediatric age groups, in males and females, and in various ethnic and racial groups [1]. World Health Organization (WHO) reported that 39% of adults were overweight in the year 2014, especially in the urban area [18]. The more disturbing situation is that the 42 million children under the age of five were overweight or obese in the year 2013 [18]. The childhood overweight and obesity in developing countries have been 30% higher than in the developed countries [18], and childhood obesity has reached epidemic levels in developed countries! Twenty-five percent of children in the United States are overweight and 11% are obese [18, 30, 31]. Although there is a paucity of data on the prevalence of childhood obesity in developing countries, the worldwide prevalence of pediatric obesity has increased several-fold in recent years [18].
\nThere is no single cause for overweight and obesity. The mechanism of obesity development is not fully understood, and it is believed to be a disorder with multiple causes. In the human body, excess energy is stored as fat in the adipose tissue, in order to be used in case of an energy deficit. Formerly, the focus on adipose tissue and adipogenesis (which means the development of fat cells) has been on obesity. The molecular and biological studies in adipose tissue have displayed unpredictable results. But, the negative image of adipose tissue has been turned around with the discovery of its crucial role in immune responses, glucose homeostasis, as well as thyroid biology and reproductive functions [32]. During the past two decades, it has been recognized that adipose tissue, which contains both white and brown adipocyte, is regulating energy balance and substrate metabolism [33, 34]. The white adipose tissue (WAT) is storing energy as triglycerides and is chiefly responsible for the obesity due to excess energy storage [35].
\nThe regulation of energy intake and expenditure is a homeostatic process. Adipocytes secrete bioactive proteins, such as leptin, adiponectin, visfatin, omentin, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), cytokines, resistin, and retinol-binding protein 4, responsible for the regulation of overall energy homeostasis [32]. Therefore, obesity may be regarded as an inflammatory reaction in the human body, and consequently, WAT is mainly associated with obesity. The circulating inflammation-related adipokines are usually increased, as the adipose tissue expands [33]. However, the brown adipose tissue (BAT), which surrounds the hearth and large vessels during infancy, serve as important “furnaces” burning energy in the human body [35]. The amount of BAT decreases in adulthood as humans mature and can now only be found within white fat pads as scattered cells. The brown adipocytes are multilocular and contain less lipid than white adipocytes [32, 35], and BAT exerts a very important role in the regulation of energy turnover by increasing when the environment turns cold, as well as with catecholamine discharge [36]. This knowledge points to the fact that various factors may serve as internal and external “regulators” in either combatting or preserving obesity. Environmental factors, lifestyle preferences, emotional problems, and cultural environment play pivotal roles externally in the rising prevalence of obesity worldwide [15]. However, one fundamental cause of overweight and obesity is an energy imbalance between consumed and expended calories. Once overweight, then obesity takes place, when the body consumes more calories than it burns. Factors, such as inactivity, unhealthy diet, eating habits, family lifestyle, metabolism, and genetics play important roles in the development of overweight and obesity [1]. It was reported that over the 90% of obesity causes are idiopathic and <10% are associated with genetic and hormonal causes [1]. Various countries, from America to Europe, from the Middle East to North Africa, have reported that obesity is a major health issue [29–31, 37, 38]. It was documented that every country (from developed to developing) has own particular contributing factors to obesity, including the fast food chains, adopting western like eating, traditionally lack of exercises and more. However, they have reported that
The studies have shown that understanding the biology of adipogenesis might lead to an effective solution treating the obesity epidemic. Researchers are specifically asserting that a manipulation of adipocyte biology, via enhancement of leptin and adiponectin synthesis, would be a sounder strategy combatting the obesity epidemic [32]. They reported that reactivation of BAT in adult humans is a potentially viable solution for successfully treating the obesity epidemic [32]. Almost all researchers agree that prevention is the key strategy for controlling the current epidemic of obesity. However, obesity prevention is one of the greatest public health challenges in the twenty-first century. The International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) has been working with this purpose for a long time [18]. Although 50% of the adults are overweight and obese in many countries, obesity and overweight are preventable and curable [7, 18]. It is well known that heavy children incur an increased risk of being overweight adults, and it is harder for them to reduce excessive weight, once it becomes established [39]. For this reason, prevention of obesity, especially in the low age group, is the key strategy for controlling this epidemic problem. The weight control must be constituted in early childhood [15]. Prevention may include primary prevention of overweight or obesity, secondary prevention or prevention of weight regains following weight loss, and avoidance of more weight increase in obese persons unable to lose weight [15]. There is no doubt that the primary prevention is the main strategy for controlling this growing public health problem. Supportive environments and communities are fundamental in shaping people’s choices and preventing obesity [15]. However, the clinical and epidemiological evidence demonstrated that lifestyle factors, like physical activity and nutrition, should be efficient to some degree to prevent and treat overweight and obesity in the adult population [2, 8]. As part of the intervention strategies and staff in early life, parents should be primarily enlightened for the results of their act on their children. Management of obesity in children differs from adults and focusing on the prevention of weight gain is more important rather than weight loss during childhood. Effective health service should be established for the top priority groups, i.e., the children and adolescents. As the prevalence of overweight and obesity is higher in low-income and uneducated people, the educational program should be implemented by institutions like schools and the media. Obesity and its comorbidities necessitate careful clinical assessment to identify underlying factors to allow coherent management. Effective long-term weight loss depends on permanent changes in dietary quality, energy intake, and activity [6]. There is no concern about personal responsibility being crucial for ongoing healthy life. For this reason, WHO describes the actions to support healthy diets and regular physical activity. WHO suggests that people should limit energy intake from total fats and sugars and increase consumption of fruits and vegetables, as well as legumes, whole grains, and nuts, at an individual level. People can engage in regular physical activity (60 min a day for children and 150 min per week for adults) [18]. WHO also emphasizes that individual responsibility can only have its full effect where people have access to a healthy lifestyle. Therefore, at the societal level, it is important to support individuals through sustained political commitment. It is clear that the responsibility could be awakened with enhanced knowledge. The awareness derived from information may force people to take responsibility with their life. All weight management strategies need to educate people about healthy lifestyle. Weight management, to be achieved chiefly by behavior techniques that focus on lifestyle, includes dietary measures and physical activity. The public health policies should be established to prevent and avoid overweight and obesity in every age group. With this purpose, the policy makers in public health services should build sustainable strategies for a healthy environment for physical activity and non-processed (raw) food for healthy diet. WHO has developed the “Global Action Plan for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases 2013–2020.” The countries commit to advance the implementation of the WHO Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health, including, where appropriate, through the introduction of policies and actions aimed at promoting healthy diets and increasing physical activity in the entire population [18]. The government’s role in obesity has largely focused on interventions and policies, such as national surveillance, obesity education and awareness, grant-based food subsidy programs, zoning for food access, school-based nutrition programs, dietary guidelines, nutrition labeling, and food marketing and pricing policies. Over the last 50 years, the childhood obesity problem has caught researcher’s attention. Although they agree that prevention is basic, one still needs to understand why childhood obesity is a common problem, from east to west, and poverty to affluent countries around the world. Moreover, the low and middle-income countries experience a double burden of diseases derived from malnutrition and western like fast-food nutrition, simultaneously. To prevent the epidemic and find a sustainable solution for the childhood obesity problem primarily, it should be understood why children develop obesity. There is no doubt that unexpected changes in society’s way of living affect children’s lifestyle and well-being deeply. What are the changes in adult life, regarding the facilitation of reducing the incidence of obesity in their children? In order to shed some light on the problem in question, researchers, policy makers, doctors, healthcare providers, and finally, the whole society must think again on societal norms and man’s way of living. The lifestyle of human beings changed fundamentally in the twenty-first century, due to developing technology, agricultural changes, food processing, and marketing. The most striking change in human behavior is getting too familiar with a lifestyle ruled by technology. As a result, the essential chain between production and consumption disappeared. People’s behavior about consumption without sound skepticism reflects on their children. Children’s nature is prone to activity. Everybody has observed his or her unlimited energy. However, this “modem” way of living has repressed the “life energy” of children and turned it into “virtual energy”. A new approach is required for combatting the childhood epidemic obesity problem, since the present problem is environmental and not genetic. The frequency of “obesity” gene expression has not increased in the population, but the children’s environment has changed. Combatting the childhood obesity epidemic can be achieved with changing in societal norms. Children are hermeneutical entities like adults, and they need durable role models in their lives. Therefore, preventing the childhood obesity depends on the prevention of adulthood obesity. Society must be reconstructed and rid themselves of the vicious circle of overeating, overconsuming, inactivity, technology, impaired biorhythms, sleepiness, and finally meaningless activities. People will have to retrieve a sound purpose and meaning in their lives. There are two possible ways of fighting the obesity epidemic; reforming social norms or modifying people’s organ/cellular phenotypes, introducing a predefined diet and exercise program.
\nLifestyle preferences, cultural environment, education, socioeconomic level, and environmental factors, play pivotal roles in the rising prevalence of obesity worldwide. It is important to emphasize that all of the given causes for the increased levels of obesity are predicated. It is essential to build sustainable strategies for a healthy lifestyle. The most crucial step for people is to take personal responsibility for their health. There is no doubt that the primary prevention is the main strategy for controlling this growing public health problem.
\nOverweight and obesity cause death of more people than underweight and communicable diseases.
Overweight and obesity reduce life expectancy.
Overweight and obesity impair health and reduce quality of life.
More than half of the population in the world is overweight and obese.
The worldwide prevalence of obesity more than doubled between 1980 and 2014.
Obesity in children is a major health concern in the developed world.
Almost a quarter of children around the world are overweight and obese.
Forty-two million children under the age of five are overweight or obese.
Obesity affects 34% of children in the United States.
Overweight and obese children are being overweight and obese when becoming adults.
The prevalence of overweight and obesity is higher in poor and uneducated people.
Education is the most important step for challenging obesity.
Primary prevention is essential for challenge obesity.
The policy makers in health services, and health professionals in medicine, play important roles in preventing and curing this “contemporary” epidemic.
People should take personal responsibility for their health development.
Combatting the childhood obesity epidemic can be achieved by changing social norms.
Obesity is preventable.
As it is well-known, many systems of applied mathematics are modeled by retarded functional differential equations of type
(cf. [1]), where
In order to examine the stability of an equilibrium
for which
where
It may be supposed that system (3) has a solution of the form
This can only happen if and only if
is called characteristic quasi-polynomial of the linear delay system (3).
The organization of the chapter is as follows. In the next section, we introduce and prove two criteria regarding stability of
If there is no delay present, i.e.
where the coefficients of
The asymptotic stability of (3) is determined by the stability of the matrix
There is a very simple but very important necessary condition for
Theorem 1.1 (Stodola). If the characteristic polynomial
and we can split
Thus, the stability of
This means that all coefficients of all factors in the product above are positive. By performing the multiplications one can see that the coefficients of
In the case of
furthermore in case of
(cf. (8)), thus
and
Unfortunately the criterion is for
has positive coefficients, but two of its zero, namely
(cf. (8)) and
hold
where
As a consequence of the fundamental theorem of algebra, we can split
In view of the above considerations for the first and the second-order polynomials we see that
holds. We prove this statement in two steps.
Indeed,
from
holds. The case
If
If inequalities
holds, then its characteristic polynomial has the form
This means that
In order to formulate the necessary and sufficient stability condition for the polynomial
i.e.
where
of
hold. □
For
two-dimensional system we have
Thus, this criterion can be stated as
or
third-dimensional system we have
Thus, this criterion is
or
fourth-dimensional system we have
Thus, this criterion can be stated as
or
As the application of the above theorem, we mention the Orlando formula (cf. [11]) which establishes the useful relation between the Hurwitz determinants and the polynomial whose roots are sums of the roots of a given polynomial and which can be proved by mathematical induction (cf. [12]).
In case of
We remark (cf. [12]) if criterion (34) is satisfied then
Clearly, if (47) holds then condition (34) is redundant: many of inequalities in (34) are unnecessary. For
the characteristic polynomial
has the characteristic polynomial
It suffices to calculate
Thus,
holds (cf. Figure 1).
Stability chart of the polynomial
There is a criterion of geometric character which is useful for the study of the stability of
is called Mikhailov hodograph or amplitude-phase curve (cf. [14]).
Some geometrical properties of the hodograph
is continuous in every point of the real line. Moreover, we deal with the change
where
therefore we have
This means that it is enough to know the behavior of the vector
the curve
is true, which means that
the curve
holds.
from which
resp. as
follows. Thus,
which means that
Often what is to be checked is not the stability of the characteristic polynomial
which takes the interior of the unit circle of the complex plane
It is clear that
hold.
The second way is the application of the so called Jury test which proof is based on the Rouché theorem (cf. [16]).
In what follows we shall examine the situation when system (1) with
where
the eigenvalue crossing condition holds:
the transversality condition
In the case of the two-dimensional system there is a result about the fulfillment of the above two conditions.
fulfill the eigenvalue crossing condition and the transversality condition if and only if at the critical value
hold.
Thus, at the critical value
which at
Since
therefore we have
Using the well known calculation
furthermore the first and third part of (69) the formula
proves the lemma.
Because a matrix of order two can have no other eigenvalues besides the critical eigenvalues the crossing can happen only if for suitable
holds.
We have to remark that there are two forms of Hopf bifurcation: the standard one and the so called non-standard. Under standard Hopf bifurcation we mean the phenomenon when the critical eigenvalues of the Jacobian matrix
From the left half-plane to the right, if the function
From the right half-plane to the left, if the function
if function
if function
(cf. [17]). System (79) has the unique equilibrium point
The Jacobian of (79) at
whose eigenvalues are the zeros of its characteristic polynomial
It is easy to see that if we choose
This means that Hopf bifurcation occurs at the critical value
extended in
In case of
Clearly,
in case of
Because
the polynomial
In the case of the three-dimensional system we post a result (cf. [18]), the proof of which is similar to the one in [19].
fulfill the crossing and the transversality conditions if and only if at the critical value
furthermore
hold.
This means that
if for some
hold, then one of the three zeros, like
which contradicts the fact that
It is clear that from conditions (89) it follows that the zeros of
because
Because
it follows for the derivative of the implicit function
Using (89), resp. (90), furthermore
As a consequence of the Stodola criterion the necessary condition for the stability of the polynomial
are valid, where
then the roots of
from left to right, if
from right to left, if
hold.
one can see that if
Thus, from
in the left half-plane if and only if
in the right half-plane if and only if
where
then we get the Lorenz system (cf. [21]), the Chen system (cf. [22]) and the Lü system (cf. [23]). Yan showed (cf. [24]) that in the system (107) Hopf bifurcation may occur. In what follows we show that his calculations can be simplified as we know the coefficients of the characteristic polynomials of the Jacobian of system (107). If
The Jacobian of (107) takes the form
Hence the corresponding Jacobians are:
resp.
The eigenvalues of
where
We remark that only a special parameter configuration was investigated in [24], namely
it is easy to see from the characteristic polynomial that in case
the parameter
(in case of
the parameter
and
will be positive only in case if
(in case of
In this case we have
which contradicts the transversality condition.
It is easy to see the following: by fixing the parameters
resp.
and
The eigenvalues of the matrix
where
If
then at
Hopf bifurcation takes place, because
resp.
When modeling and analyzing processes and behaviors which come from a natural environment, it often happens that we need a bit of distance in time to see the changes of the considered quantities (which are the variables of our model). For example, when we think about the epidemiological models, it is a well-founded thought that we need some time while susceptibles become infectious, and hence it is reasonable to assume that the migration of the individuals from the class of susceptibles into the infected is subject to delay.
Another expressive example is the modeling of the processes of the human body or the brain, like emotions: love, hate, etc. A bit of time has to pass for the brain to process the signals coming from various places, and only after this delay, the mood could change. These changes can be described and analyzed with delayed differential equations. One type of these systems is the so called Romeo and Juliet model, where the changes of Romeo’s and Juliet’s love and hate in time are described as a system of two linear ordinary differential equations. In this chapter we are going to consider this model with general coefficients and investigate the stability of the linear system.
We are going to consider the following linear system:
where
where
In [25] the authors treat delay differential equations, which characteristic function for arbitrary
where
In this section we assume that
where
In what follows, the Mikhailov stability criterion will be proved, which is the implication of the argument principle (cf. [27, 28]). The treatment is based on [29].
where the order of the polynomials
where
furthermore
holds where
and the semicircle
Since
there is only a finite number of roots of
On
Now from the summation, we can write a typical term as
Therefore,
Hence the argument or phase
where
and
Dividing the numerator and denominator by
where
and
Now since
and since
we have
or
as
Now from the argument principle we can write
where
If we reverse the direction of integration along
in case of stability we have
As a consequence, we have the following.
and assume that the quasi-polynomial in (127) has no roots on the imaginary axis. Then
i.e. the argument of
hold, then the characteristic function, and hence the trivial equilibrium point of system (123) is asymptotically stable.
Hence using the characteristic function (126), where
we have for
and also
It could be seen that
furthermore
Therefore, we have to show that
and hence by using the Mikhailov criterion we have stability.
Substituting
By using straightforward estimations we obtain that
and hence
fulfills.
We show now a simple example in order to demonstrate the above theorem and what the conditions say. First of all, we are going to see that the conditions of the previous theorem are sufficient, but not necessary.
The characteristic polynomial of (166) is
Since
then the trivial solution of (166) is asymptotically stable. As earlier mentioned, the conditions of Theorem 1.10 are sufficient, but not necessary, which can be easily seen, if we study the phase portrait of the system (166) with the following different values of the parameter
Example: solutions with
Example: solutions with
In Figure 3 (above) the parameter
The previous example shows that it would be useful to give the largest bound in the theorem, because if we have a larger bound, then we can guarantee the stability of the quasi-polynomial for higher value of the parameter
where
In [30] Freedman and Rao worked with the system
where
Similarly to papers [30, 31] we gave an upper bound for
Let us write these conditions for
in [30] the condition
Furthermore let us denote the right hand side of the condition in
Since
because
is true following from the positivity of these constants. This means that
Repeatedly, following from the positivity of the constants
hence
but actually this estimation is not sharp for positive
The estimation of the sine function on the interval
If we find a tangent line of the
We can easily determine the constant
where
fulfills, which is true if and only if
i.e.
The proposition of the last theorem of this section is similar to one of Theorem 1.10. In the proof of Theorem 1.10 we used first-order Taylor polynomials to approximate the functions
and for the delay parameter
holds, where
with
then the quasi-polynomial (126) is Hurwitz-stable.
To show that
Then we have
with
If the conditions (184) are fulfilled, then the coefficient of
In the following example, we are going to show that in some cases the result of Theorem 1.11 is better than the result in [31].
The characteristic function of (192) is
Let us see what condition gives [31] for the parameter
fulfills, hence if
then the quasi-polynomial (193) is asymptotically stable. Furthermore simple calculations show that following from Theorem 1.11, the system is asymptotically stable for all
The solutions of system
We are going to consider the general form of the characteristic function (126):
where
In this chapter we will add a condition to the polynomial
Firstly, let us multiply the equality
is valid. Let us introduce the notations
With these notations the characteristic function (196) can be written at
Let
then with straightforward calculations we can make the following transformations:
Furthermore we can write the imaginary part in the same way, too:
Hence
Since the coefficients
and
Then, by dividing the equalities
Thus, since
and the discriminant of a polynomial
where
with
Straightforward calculations show that for all
Thus, the discriminant of
Figure 7 also shows the changing of the stability of system (209), with
Example: solutions with
In this subsection we are going to see for which value of the delay
Thus, we can determine the derivative of
where
Since
(For sake of simplicity replacing
Computing the exact value of
Thus,
Using the elementary identities
furthermore the Euler formula
Therefore, Hopf bifurcation occurs if
The location of zeros of polynomials and quasi-polynomials as well is crucial in the point of view of the stability of ordinary and retarded differential equations. Namely, if the zeros of the characteristic polynomial of the linearized matrix lie in the open left half of the complex plane, then the constant solution of the particular equation is asymptotically stable. The main task of our work was to depict different methods which allow the investigation of the stability of characteristic (quasi-)polynomials, too. The second objective of this work was in the case of retarded differential equations to treat a method how to estimate the length of the delay for which no stability switching occurs. As an application, we showed a method to detect Hopf bifurcation in ordinary and retarded dynamical systems.
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