The expected influence of sols of different nature on the quality of foam, foam concrete, and its products.
\r\n\tThere are a variety of approaches to reversing biodiversity loss, ranging from economic, to ecological and ethical. The utilitarian approach to conservation, bolstered by the concept of ecosystem services, can be utilized to improve the conservation case by supplementing the burgeoning biodiversity rhetoric. To address this issue, a pluralistic approach to biodiversity is required for conservation and sustainability.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-339-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-338-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-340-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"ab014f8ed1669757335225786833e9a9",bookSignature:"Dr. Gopal Shukla, Dr. Jahangeer Bhat and Dr. Sumit Chakravarty",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11460.jpg",keywords:"Ecosystem Services, Intrinsic Value, Global Trends in Biodiversity Loss, Convention on Biological Diversity, Utilitarian Value, Biodiversity Conservation, Perception, In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation, Nature Conservation, Sustainable Development Goals, Drivers of Degradation, Prioritizing Biodiversity",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 17th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 9th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 8th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Gopal Shukla, prior to becoming an assistant professor, has worked under NAIP (National Agricultural Innovation Project), NICRA ( National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture), and SERB (Science and Engineering Research Board) projects. The focus of his research and development work is forest conservation. He has authored 75 research papers, 10 book chapters and has edited 5 books.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Jahangeer is a Guest Associate Editor in Frontiers in the Environmental Science journal and is the first researcher to report the first time growing of Acacia dealbata Link. (Silver Wattle), an invasive species in the high altitudes of the Himalayas. He has 11 years of research and 8 years of teaching experience with a publication record of more than 60, including research articles, review papers, conference papers, and books of national and international repute.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Chakravarty, Ph. D., has a wide experience in forestry training, research, and development. He is currently working as a Professor in Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India. He has conducted research on several aspects of forestry, agroforestry, medicinal plants, and climate change. 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His focus of research is vegetation ecology, ethnobotany, and evaluation of ecosystem services, forest plant biodiversity, climate change, and socio-cultural issues in forestry. Dr. Jahangeer is currently working at the College of Horticulture and Forestry, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi, India.",institutionString:"Central Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Central Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"94999",title:"Dr.",name:"Sumit",middleName:null,surname:"Chakravarty",slug:"sumit-chakravarty",fullName:"Sumit Chakravarty",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94999/images/system/94999.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sumit Chakravarty, Ph.D., has wide experience in forestry training, research, and development. 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Foam stability is directly connected with the properties of liquid thin layers (foam films) which determine the structure of the foam. To evaluate quantitatively the stability of the foam, the rate of its destruction is determined [1].
Foaming agents used for the production of foam concrete of different hardening are considered in [2, 3]. The paper presents the classification of foaming agents according to their chemical characteristics [4, 5]. Properties of various foams, the bases of their obtaining, and destruction are investigated in the works [6, 7]. For foam concrete on the cement binder, the influence of the foaming agent used on the degree of cement hydration is considered. It is shown that the protein-based foaming agent is the best one [8].
Instability and destruction of the construction foam is one of the causes of volume instability in foam concrete. Especially sharply this question is on the lightweight foam concretes, because the volume of the foam in their composition is up to 90% [9].
In this regard, one of the ways to improve the stability of the foam concrete mixture can be the stabilization of the construction foam introduced into the cement-sand paste.
At present there are various ways to improve the stability of foams based on various stabilization mechanisms. The use of additives (glycerin, methylcellulose, ethylene glycol) increases the viscosity of foaming agent solutions and slows down the liquid slug from foam films [10]. Also, for the stabilization of foams, it is possible to use substances that contribute to the formation of colloidal particles in films, preventing their dehydration. This group includes gelatin, joiner’s glue, starch, and polysaccharides [10, 11].
For the production of thermal insulation materials, it is also recommended to use substances polymerized in the foam as stabilizers. Such additions strengthen the foam film significantly. They include polymer compositions based on synthetic resins and latex [12].
In addition, there are some ways of improving the stability of the foam based on other mechanisms of stabilization.
In [13] the influence of spherical monodisperse SiO2 particles with a diameter of 20 to 700 nm on the stabilization of foam based on sodium sulfonate was investigated. The positive effect obtained in this case is shown.
The question of obtaining stable foams formed from water dispersions of laponite modified by hexylamine is considered in [14]. It is shown that such a composition “surrounds” foam bubbles with a thin layer, providing a stabilizing effect.
It is also known that the foam can be stabilized by hydrophobic polymer particles with a diameter of less than 1 μm and a length of several tens of μm [15]. The stabilization effect is connected with the formation of dense thick layers of these particles around the foam films.
The paper [16] provides information that submicrometer-sized polystyrene particles in combination with poly[2–(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate] of various degrees of polymerization—30, 60, and 90—can be used as stabilizers for foam. A higher degree of polymerization results in the highly stable foams.
It is also known that the use of hydrophilic silica particles and liquid paraffin in the foam increases its stability considerably [17]. It is shown that the stabilizing effect is connected with the adsorption of silica particles and oil droplets on the air-water layer of the foam film.
The publication [18] provides information that a significant increase in the stability of the foam can be achieved by the introduction of silica particles of the micrometer size. It is also proposed to use spherical silica particles with a diameter from 150 to 190 nm with their subsequent modification by silane substances [19]. It is established that the hydrophobicity of the surface achieved is a key factor affecting the stability of the foam.
In [20] the data confirming the fact that the stabilization of foams by solid particles is possible and results in a good effect are given. The result depends on the packaging of the particles on the surface of the foam films. The denser the packaging, the better the effect. Also, on the basis of calculations, it is shown that for stabilization of foams on the water basis and on the basis of the liquid, aluminum particles with a diameter less than 3 and 30 μm, respectively, are required.
In [21] the method of determining the coefficient of effectiveness and critical coverage as well as the coefficient of adsorption of particles on the interface of foam bubbles is considered. The possibility of obtaining the most stable foam is stated to depend on them.
The possibility of obtaining porous ceramics from a foamed suspension based on Al2O3–TiO2/ZrO2–SiO2 is discussed in [22]. Suspension particles have a stabilizing effect and allow to obtain foam with air content up to 87%.
The carried out analysis suggests that the increase in the stability of the foam is mainly due to the mechanism of “armoring” the surface of the foam bubble by the injected solid particles. This process prevents the liquid from leaking out of the foam film under the influence of gravity and so prevents its subsequent destruction. The mechanisms of foam chemical stabilization with the purpose of getting the foam concrete are not considered yet.
The use of additives based on SiO2 nanoparticles in modern construction is well known [23, 24, 25].
One of the highly effective nano-additives used today is known to be silica (SiO2) sol [26, 27, 28]. Sols are colloidal aqueous solutions containing nanosize particles (1–100 nm) [29]. Chemistry of colloidal silica and its applications are discussed in detail in literature and primarily in [30, 31].
As the literature review shows, there is no knowledge concerning the methods of stabilization of construction foam on a protein basis for foam concrete at the expense of the introduction of sols of different nature into its composition. Also, the problems of improving the physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of the foam concrete of non-autoclaved hardening obtained on the basis of such a foam are not considered.
The main idea of the work is: it is possible to use SiO2 and Fe(OH)3 sols as stabilizers for protein foaming agent (PFA), as it is possible to form various chemical bonds between them, for example, hydrogenous, in the case of using SiO2 sol [30], or covalent, in the case of using Fe(OH)3 sol [12]. These bonds should contribute to the formation of strong spatial silicon- and iron-protein complexes which will increase the thickness of the foam film and prevent its destruction. This effect should preserve the volume of foam when it is introduced into the cement-sand mixture, as well as improve the physical, mechanical, and thermal characteristics of foam concrete and its products.
The expected chemical bonds formed in the system “aqueous solution of protein foaming agent, sol of different nature,” are shown in Table 1. The spatial stabilizing complexes based on them are also shown. The formation of these complexes is assumed to provide the foam stability increase. The expected influence of these effects on the physical and technical properties and quality of non-autoclaved foam concrete and its products is described.
The expected influence of sols of different nature on the quality of foam, foam concrete, and its products.
The foam stabilization effect can be important for the production of heat-insulating foam concrete of low density (class of average density ≤ D200), as it will prevent volume instability of raw foam concrete mixture. Also, this effect will make it possible to use hardening accelerators—electrolytes—in the composition of foam concrete which usually destroy it. In high-rise construction when the foam concrete mixture is fed vertically to a great height, foam stabilization will prevent its destruction under the influence of its own pressure in the falling pipeline [12].
It is known that when getting foam concrete products by cutting technology, there appear problems with cutting the mass of foam concrete—there arise chips and other geometric defects. They reduce the quality category of foam concrete products to category II (according to GOST 31360-2007).
To obtain the first quality category is important because in carrying out a brickwork, it allows to place the foam concrete blocks on the construction glue (coefficient of thermal conductivity, λ ≈ 0.3 W/(m∙°C)), and not on the cement mortar λ ≈ 0.3 W/(m∙°C)). The use of construction glue is proved to increase the thermal insulating properties of masonry walls significantly. It is assumed that the stabilized foam and the use of the hardening accelerator will considerably increase the number of products of the first quality category.
To confirm the stabilizing effect of SiO2 and Fe(OH)3 sols, the stability of the construction foam was investigated depending on the concentration of the dispersed phase of the sols in the solution of the protein foaming agent.
In the study, a protein foaming agent “Foamcem” was used as a foaming agent, on the basis of which a 3% aqueous solution was prepared. In addition, SiO2 sol of the industrial production “SITEC” was used, its characteristics being shown in Table 2. Also, Fe(OH)3 sol obtained in the laboratory was used.
Title | Density (kg/m3) | Concentration, | pН | Specific surface area, S (m2/g) |
---|---|---|---|---|
KZ-1 “SITEC” | 1165 | 25.6 | 3.2 | 120–140 |
Main characteristics of the industrial SiO2 sol.
Fe(OH)3 sol was obtained by the following method: 5 ml of a 10% solution of iron chloride FeCl3 was slowly poured into boiling water with a volume of 100 ml.
The stability of the foam was evaluated as the time of extraction (in minutes) of a half of the liquid phase from which the foam was prepared.
Foam stability in the cement paste was evaluated by the coefficient of the foam resistance. Determination of the resistance coefficient was made by mixing equal volumes of cement paste and foam for 1 min followed by measuring the volume of the porous paste. The resistance coefficient of foam in the cement paste is calculated as the ratio of the volume of the porous paste to the sum of the volumes of the cement paste and foam (with water/cement ratio = 0.4).
The results of the studies are shown in Figures 1–4. From the figures it can be seen that the stability of the foam stabilized with the SiO2 and Fe(OH)3 sols increases up to four times and the foam resistance coefficient in the cement paste increases from 0.9 up to 0.98. These results agree with the forecast as shown in Table 1.
Stability of the foam stabilized with SiO2 sol.
Stability of the foam stabilized with Fe(OH)3 sol.
The coefficient of resistance of the foam stabilized with SiO2 sol in the cement paste.
The coefficient of resistance of the foam stabilized with Fe(OH)3 sol in the cement paste.
Further, in order to clarify the stabilizing mechanism, the surface tension of the foaming agent solution was measured at different concentrations of the dispersed phase of SiO2 sol, as shown in Table 3 [10]. The table shows that with increasing the sol concentration, the surface tension practically does not change.
Concentration of the dispersed phase of the sol in the foaming agent solution (%) | 0 | 0.306 | 0.610 | 3013 |
The surface tension coefficient of the foaming agent solution, σ*, 10−3 (J/m2) | 52.9 ± 0.8 | 52.9 ± 0.8 | 53.2 ± 1.2 | 52.1 ± 1.1 |
Values of the surface tension coefficient of foaming agent solution stabilized with SiO2 sol.
The value of the surface tension coefficient at the ambient temperature of 21°C.
Further, the foam multiplicity (frequency rate) when introducing of SiO2 and Fe(OH)3 sols into the solution of the foaming agent was investigated. The foam multiplicity was determined by the ratio of the foam volume (l) to the foam solution volume (l). It was found that the multiplicity of the foam on the sol basis does not change, which correlates with the results of measuring the surface tension of the modified foam solutions. The value of the foam multiplicity was 13.
Further, in order to determine the possible chemical bonds formed between the molecules of the protein foaming agent and the injected sols, infrared Fourier spectroscopy of the following model systems was carried out: “aqueous solution of the protein foaming agent” and “aqueous solution of the protein foaming agent—the injected sol” (Figures 5 and 6).
IR spectra: No. 1, the system “aqueous solution of the protein foaming agent.” No. 2, the system “aqueous solution of the protein foaming agent—SiO2 sol.”
IR spectra: No. 1, the system “aqueous solution of the protein foaming agent—Fe(OH)3 sol.” No. 2, the system “aqueous solution of the protein foaming agent.”
From spectrum No. 2, Figure 5, the shift and broadening of the band in the region of 3311 cm−1 corresponding to the valence vibrations of the hydroxide (OH−) groups in comparison with spectrum No. 1 are seen. This effect can characterize the occurring hydrogen bonds between the nitrogen atom in the protein and hydrogen of the OH− group of SiO2 sol with the formation of a silicon-protein complex, as shown in Figure 7a.
Spatial stabilizing complexes formed by the introduction of various sols into the solution of protein foaming agent: (a) silicon-protein complex and (b) iron-protein complex.
In both spectra (Figure 6) the bands in the region of adsorption 1630–1510 cm−1 correspond to the deformation vibrations of the carbonyl group С=O of protein. The shift and broadening of this line can be observed on spectrum No. 1, which may correspond to the formation of a covalent bond of iron ion (III) with oxygen of the amide group in the composition of the iron-protein complex formed, as shown in Figure 7b. The region of 1150 cm−1 corresponds to the deformation vibrations of the NH▬C=O group, the shift and broadening of this band on spectrum No. 1 indicate a possible covalent bond of the iron ion (III) with nitrogen in the composition of the iron-protein complex formed, as shown in Figure 7b.
Thus, it can be concluded that the decoding of IR spectra of foaming agent solutions stabilized with various sols confirms the assumption expressed in Table 1 concerning the formation of hydrogenous and covalent chemical bonds in the composition of the stabilizing silicon- and iron-protein complexes.
Further, it was assumed that the appearance of chemical bonds and spatial stabilizing complexes should increase the thickness and strength of the foam film, which results in the increase of the foam stability. For this purpose, electron microscopy of samples of the foam concrete with medium density D600 was carried out: a control sample and a sample prepared on the basis of the foam stabilized with the SiO2 sol (Figure 8).
Electron microscopy of the foam concrete samples of the medium density D600: (a) control sample and (b) sample based on foam stabilized with SiO2 sol.
From the pictures it can be seen that the thickness of the foam film in the control sample is ∼450 nm and in the sample based on the stabilized foam is ∼3.5 μm, i.e., increase by one order. This result can explain the stabilizing effect and the increase in foam stability as well as confirm the assumptions made.
Further the possibility of receiving heat-insulating non-autoclaved foam concrete of average density D200 on the basis of the foam stabilized with SiO2 sol was investigated.
For light thermal insulating non-autoclaved foam concrete, one of the significant problems is the reduction of the volume of the foam concrete mixture because of the mixture destruction, which results in the deviation from the projected average density and uneven structure of the material and exerts a negative influence on the properties of thermal insulating foam concrete.
It was assumed that a more stable foam will allow to avoid the destruction of the mixture, to provide the necessary density of the foam concrete, and to obtain a reduced thermal conductivity coefficient.
The composition of the foam concrete with medium density D200 is shown in Table 4. Portland cement CEM 42.5 was used as a binder, dolomitized limestone was used as a filler, protein foaming agent “Foamcem” was used as a foaming agent, and SiO2 sol of industrial production was used as a stabilizer (SITEC company).
Cement (kg) | Filler (kg) | Water (l) | Foaming agent (l) | Stabilizer (SiO2 sol) (kg) |
---|---|---|---|---|
125 | 45 | 102 | 2.52 | 0.3 |
Consumption of the materials for 1 m3 of foam concrete of average density D200.
To assess the stability of the foam concrete mixture, the volume instability of the foam concrete (mm) was measured at different contents of the dispersed phase of the sol in the foam. Volume instability was measured after 24 hours of the foam concrete hardening (Figure 9). From the figure it is seen that the use of the stabilized foam reduces the volume instability up to 0 when the concentration of the dispersed phase of sol in the foam is at least 0.2%. The coefficient of thermal conductivity of foam concrete of average density D200 at the design age was λ = 0.04 W/(m∙°C); for comparison, λair = 0.029 W/(m∙°C).
Dependence of the volume instability of the foam concrete mixture on the content of the dispersed phase of SiO2 sol in the foaming agent solution.
Further the physical-technical and thermal insulating properties of foam concrete and its products after the introduction of the stabilized foam into its composition were evaluated.
The compositions of the foam concrete mixtures of different average densities are shown in Table 5. During the preparation of foam concrete mixtures, 3% aqueous solution of foam on a protein basis stabilized with different sols was used. The samples were being solidified under normal conditions for 28 days.
Class by average density | Cement (kg) | Filler (kg) | Water (l) | Foaming agent (l) | Stabilizer (l) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SiO2 sol | Fe(OH)3 sol | |||||
D400 | 330 | 50 | 152 | 2.1 | 1.5 | 6.1 |
D500 | 370 | 100 | 183 | 1.98 | 1.44 | 5.7 |
D600 | 400 | 170 | 211 | 1.75 | 1.3 | 5.0 |
Consumption of materials per 1 m3 of foam concrete of different average densities.
During the experiment it was expected that a more stable foam will allow to use the electrolyte additives to activate the hardening of cement and to obtain the improved physical and mechanical characteristics of foam concrete and its products. In the case of using a conventional foam solution, such additives destroy the foam. Sodium chloride (NaCl) in an amount of 5% by weight of cement was used as a hardening activator. The obtained characteristics of foam concrete are shown in Table 6.
Class by average density | Foam type | Stabilizer | Compressive strength, MPa/% | Bending tensile strength, MPa/% | Thermal conductivity, λ, W/(m∙°C)/% |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
D400 | Control | — | 0.8/100 | 0.45/100 | 0.100/100 |
Stabilized | SiO2 sol | 1.2/150 | 0.76/169 | 0.086/86 | |
Fe(OH)3 sol | 1.2/150 | 0.66/147 | 0.09/90 | ||
D500 | Control | — | 1.3/100 | 0.69/100 | 0.120/100 |
Stabilized | SiO2 sol | 1.9/146 | 1.14/165 | 0.101/84 | |
Fe(OH)3 sol | 1.7/131 | 0.88/128 | 0.107/89 | ||
D600 | Control | — | 1.7/100 | 0.88/100 | 0.140/100 |
Stabilized | SiO2 sol | 2.3/135 | 1.38/158 | 0.117/84 | |
Fe(OH)3 sol | 2.2/129 | 1.15/131 | 0.132/94 |
Physical and mechanical characteristics of foam concrete samples of average density D400–D600 prepared on the basis of the stabilized foam.
When assessing the physical and mechanical characteristics of the foam concrete samples obtained on the basis of a stabilized foam, the following results were got:
The use of electrolytes does not destroy the stable foam.
The compressive strength of the samples with medium density D400–D600 at the age of 28 days of normal hardening increases up to 50% compared to the control sample, and the tensile strength at bending increases up to 69%.
The thermal conductivity coefficient of the samples with additives decreases up to 16% in comparison with the control sample.
Also, for samples of foam concrete of average density D600, a study of their frost resistance was carried out. It showed an increase in the class of frost resistance from F15 to F35, as shown in Table 7.
Stabilizer | Class of frost resistance |
---|---|
— | F15 |
Sol SiO2 | F35 |
Sol Fe(OH)3 | F35 |
Frost resistance samples of the foam concrete of average density D600 prepared on the basis of the stabilized foam.
All studies were conducted in accordance with GOST 25485-89.
At the next stage of the work, physical and chemical studies of samples of foam concrete with medium density D500, prepared on the basis of stabilized foam and NaCl additives, were carried out: X-ray phase and differential thermal analysis. Three samples of foam concrete were studied: No. 1, control; No. 2, based on the foam stabilized with SiO2 sol and with the addition of NaCl; and No. 3, based on the foam stabilized with Fe(OH)3 sol and with the addition of NaCl.
In all samples X-ray phase analysis showed the presence of reflexes corresponding to β-SiO2 with d/n (interplanar spacing) = (3.337, 2.447, 2.280, 2.119, 1.657; 1.539) Å, as well as reflexes corresponding to Ca(OH)2, d/n = (3.114, 2.625, 1.926, 1.675) Å, low-basic hydrosilicate C6S6H d/n = (3.030, 2.033, 1.95) Å, and hydrosilicate C2SH2 (d/n = (3.030, 2.765, 1.830, 1.565) Å). In the X-ray spectra of samples No. 2 and No. 3, new lines belonging to the low-basic hydrosilicate C3S2H3 (d/n = 2.88; 2.766; 2.152; 1.973; 1.793; 1.627 Å) appear. The radiographs of samples No. 2 and No. 3 show the lines characterizing the dolomitized limestone. Alite analytical line (C3S, d/n = 1.76 Å) is present only in the control sample; in other samples, it does not manifest itself, which indicates a deeper degree of cement hydration in them. The formation of additional low-basic hydrosilicates with increased strength, as well as the absence of an analytical line of alite on the radiographs, can explain the increase in the strength of foam concrete samples No. 2 and No. 3.
The derivatographic analysis, Table 8, confirmed the data of X-ray phase analysis and showed that the total mass loss of samples based on the stabilized foam and NaCl additives increases by 20%; besides that, a new phase of low-basic hydrosilicate C3S2H3 (endothermic effect in the region of 350–400°C) appears in the samples, which also confirms the increase in the strength of the foam concrete samples.
No. | Stabilizer | Endothermic effects, °C | Total mass loss on the effects, mg | The total mass loss by the sample, mg | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mass loss, mg | ||||||||
Additive | (130–170) | (350–400) | (520–580) | (750–880) | (930–960) | |||
1. | — | 88 | — | 24 | 14 | — | 126 | 179 |
2. | Fe(OH)3 sol | 86 | 16 | 20 | 33 | 28 | 183 | 213 |
NaCl | ||||||||
3. | SiO2 sol | 90 | 18 | 19 | 40 | 30 | 197 | 227 |
NaCl |
Derivatographic analysis of foam concrete samples of average density D500.
Then, in order to assess the porous structure of foam concrete based on the foam stabilized with SiO2 sol, porosity of the samples was investigated by means of mercury porometry (Figure 10).
The total specific surface of pores of foam concrete with average density of D500: (1) a control sample, (2) a sample based on the foam stabilized with SiO2 sol.
The figure shows that the specific surface area of the pores in the sample based on the stabilized foam is twice that of the control sample. This may be due to the fact that such a foam is more stable in preparing a foam concrete mixture and in subsequent hardening the fine porous structure of the material is retained. The studies of the macroporous structure of foam concrete confirm this conclusion, as shown in Figure 11.
Macroporous structure of samples: (a) a control sample and (b) a sample based on the stabilized foam.
Figures 12 and 13 show the distribution of large pores according to their size for the foam concrete samples of average density D600; the study was conducted by means of the electron microscopy.
Distribution of macropores according to their size for the control sample of foam concrete.
The distribution of macropores according to their size for the foam concrete sample on the basis of foam stabilized with SiO2 sol.
As it can be seen from the figures, the peak of the pore distribution according to their size in the case of a foam concrete sample based on a stabilized foam is shifted toward a smaller pore diameter (Dav = 520 μm). The number of such pores is 18%, the half-width of the peak is 0.44 mm. For the control sample, the peak corresponds to Dav = 600 μm, the number of pores of the average diameter is 15%, and the half-width of the peak is 0.52 mm.
Thus, it can be concluded that the stabilization of foam with SiO2 sol influences both the micro- and macropores of foam concrete. This increase in the foam concrete pore dispersion during the stabilization of foam explains the decrease in its thermal conductivity (Table 5).
The results obtained by our group were tested in the industrial conditions in accordance with the technological specifications for the production of foam concrete by cutting technology. In this technology the cutting process begins when a foam concrete mass develops a certain cutting strength. The time of cutting strength attainment can be 17–20 h depending on the composition of the foam concrete. To reduce the time of this technological stage is important from an economic point of view besides that it can improve the productivity of the enterprise.
The studies of samples obtained on the basis of the foam stabilized with SiO2 sol in production conditions also showed that the foam was not destroyed by the introduction of NaCl additives. The compressive strength of foam concrete products increases up to 38%, and the coefficient of thermal conductivity decreases and corresponds to the foam concrete the class of which is one class lower by the average density. At the same time, the duration of the cutting strength attainment reduces by 7 hours, which significantly speeds up the technological process.
In addition, the shrinkage value of the foam concrete samples was estimated in drying. It was stated to decrease by 18% compared to the control sample, as shown in Table 9.
Class by average density | Additive | The time of cutting strength attainment, hour | Thermal conductivity, λ, W/(m∙°C)/% | Shrinkage in drying, mm/m |
---|---|---|---|---|
D500 | — | 17 | 0.117/100 | 3.4 |
NaCl | 10 | 0.094/80 | 2.8 |
Physical and technical characteristics of industrial samples of non-autoclaved foam concrete of average density D500.
Figure 14 shows the number of foam concrete products of the first quality category which increases by 23% compared to the control products made of foam concrete. These figures confirmed the earlier assumptions.
The number of concrete products of the first quality category: (1) control products, (2) products based on the stabilized foam and NaCl additives.
The quality category of products was evaluated in accordance with the specifications (GOST 21520-89). According to its requirements for the blocks of the first quality category the limit deviations in height can be ±1 mm, in length, thickness and deviation from the rectangular shape it can be ±2 mm. Damage to the corners on one block with a depth of no more than 5 mm, damage to the ribs on one block with a total length of no more than twice the length of the longitudinal edge and a depth of no more than 5 mm are limited by the specifications.
Figure 15 shows the industrial samples of foam concrete products of average density D500.
Foam concrete products based on the stabilized foam and NaCl additives.
For the first time it is proposed to use SiO2 and Fe(OH)3 sols to stabilize the construction foam on a protein basis in order to obtain high-quality non-autoclaved foam concrete.
It is shown that the stability of the foam stabilized with SiO2 and Fe(OH)3 sols increases up to four times and the coefficient of resistance of the foam in the cement paste increases from 0.9 to 0.98.
The method of IR Fourier spectroscopy shows that the mechanism of the foam stabilization is connected with the formation of various chemical bonds between the molecules of the protein foaming agent and sols: hydrogenous in the case of using SiO2 sol and covalent in the case of Fe(OH)3 sol.
It is established that the new chemical bonds result in the formation of spatial stabilizing complexes in the foam film. This leads to an increase in its thickness by one order, which is confirmed by electron microscopy.
Heat-insulating foam concrete of average density D200 with thermal conductivity coefficient 0.04 W/(m∙°C) was obtained on the basis of the foam stabilized with SiO2 sol.
On the basis of the foam stabilized with SiO2 and Fe(OH)3 sols and NaCl additive, high-quality foam concrete of medium density D400–D600 was obtained. Compressive strength increases up to 50%, tensile strength in bending increases up to 69%, shrinkage in drying decreases by 18%, the coefficient of thermal conductivity decreases by 16%, and frost resistance increases by 20 cycles.
Studies of the porous structure of foam concrete based on the stabilized foam have shown that the specific surface area of the pores increases twice and the average pore diameter decreases from 600 to 520 μm.
Industrial testing of the developed foam concrete of the average density D500 has been made. The use of the foam stabilized with SiO2 sol and the additive of NaCl in its composition allows to reduce the time of cutting strength attainment by 7 hours and to increase the number of products of the first quality category by 23%.
Medical laboratory is a very important component in public health practice and operation especially in case of COVID-19. Medical Laboratory Science practice involves the analysis of human specimen like body fluids, excretion and various body swabs for the purpose of medical laboratory diagnosis, treatment and research [1] of which coronavirus is the one under study. It is important to note that medical laboratory science can also be called Clinical Laboratory Science or Medical Laboratory Technology depending on the nomenclature in the countries of practice [2].
The historical trend of COVID-19 pandemic [3, 4, 5, 6] has adequately placed medical laboratory services in a very critical aspect in containment of the disease across the globe. The medical laboratories play a critical role in the detection, management, disease surveillance and control in provision of accurate health data for national planning and decision making and COVID-19 is not an exception. Timely access and geographical availability of COVID-19 diagnostic testing remains a challenge in the health system and could affect ongoing containment measures [7] for the COVID-19.
The first medical diagnosis made by humans were done by ancient scientists through observation with their physical senses. The ancient Greek attributed all diseases to disorders of bodily fluids called humors, and during late medieval period, then later with the advent of microscope, the microscopy procedure on such specimens have revealed more [8] followed by later technologies, automations, sophistications and molecular testing in the current age.
This chapter shall review the medical laboratory involvement and intervention during COVID-19 era and the ongoing efforts towards supporting laboratory surveillance and response to COVID 19. It will equally show the capacity of medical laboratory perspectives in COVID-19 and provide more information on the medical laboratory testing strategy, towards developing and managing sudden capacities for testing relevant specimens at all levels of health system. Also, the approaches for ensuring laboratory testing sustainability in identifying new and suitable methods consistent with maximizing testing reagents, mobilizing human resources and guide towards implementation of public health measures towards COVID-19 containment, while exploring the recognition and protection policies for medical laboratory professionals during COVID-19 shall be presented.
Obeta et al. [1] highlighted some importance of medical laboratory in public health matters to include rapid, accurate and prompt diagnosis for proper treatment and effective monitoring of patients’ response to treatment. Medical laboratory provides up to 70% informed decisions regarding patients’ hospital admissions and discharge. It guides physicians, nurses and other healthcare workers in choosing the correct laboratory tests and ensure the proper sample collection. Medical laboratory services equally carry out equipment installation, validation and repay in the healthcare laboratories. Medical laboratory component is key in infectious diseases surveillance like Ebola, Tuberculosis, HIV, Malaria and now COVID-19. Quality assurance of a healthcare facility and public health in general is made possible by medical laboratory research towards quality improvement.
Researches [1, 8, 9, 10] have shown the main functions of medical laboratory during the COVID-19 pandemic to include the following:
Establishing appropriate accurate, and sustainable diagnostic testing capacities to respond to COVID-19 needs
Ensuring surge (sudden) capacity to process a large volume of specimens to cope with COVID-19 epidemiological response needs.
Conducting virological monitoring of the pandemic at local, state, national, regional and global levels.
Ensuring timely release of laboratory data and linking data with surveillance data to inform public health decision making and response activities.
Tracking the genetic evolution of COVID-19 and contributing in research and development of vaccines by characterization of viruses
To achieve adequate COVID-19 monitoring and surveillance, there is need for widespread and continuous testing of not only suspected cases or contacts, but even asymptomatic and apparently healthy population in order to achieve adequate COVID-19 trend monitoring in context of rapid human-to-human spread, and prompt identification of cases.
Undoubtedly, there are many benefits of large-scale population testing for COVID-19 as demonstrated in many high-income countries. For countries that have numerous challenges in their health care delivery system in terms of medical laboratory diagnostics, house-to-house case searching and community contact tracing for infectious diseases surveillance is adequate.
Medical Laboratory plays a crucial role in monitoring co-morbidities, diagnosing complications, assessment of treatment responses and assessing the disease prevalence in the community. Advancement of molecular techniques is mainly relying on understanding the genomic and proteomic composition of COVID-19.
WHO [5, 7] emphasizes “detect, protect and treat” to break the chain of transmission of SARS-COV-2 and COVID-19. Early medical laboratory testing and immediate treatment significantly decrease future COVID-19 cases. Medical laboratory assessment reveals diagnoses, confirms or rules out prognosis based on signs and symptoms, determines severity, monitors treatment responses or complications in COVID-19. The role of medical laboratories is more evident globally today as the battle against COVID-19 rages.
On December 31, 2019, China alerted the WHO about the occurrence of several cases of an unusual pneumonia caused by an unknown virus among persons who had either visited or had consumed food from the live animal market in Wuhan city of China, the epicenter of the outbreak. Since then, the infection has spread to other Chinese cities as well as internationally, resulting in the current pandemic. On January 7, 2020, the WHO announced they had identified a new virus. The novel virus was named 2019-COV and was identified as member of the coronaviridae family which also includes SARS and MERS. China announced its first death from the virus on January 23, 2020 as rail and air departure were suspended on January 30, WHO declared the outbreak a global health emergency [4, 5, 7].
The medical laboratory has been duly involved and its involvement ranges from the discovery the pneumonia like virus to the description as SARS and MERS in nature, viral characterization and sequencing and the naming of the viral disease as new coronavirus and COVID-19 [11]. The role of the medical laboratory services from COVID-19 discovery to the management cannot be over emphasized.
There is no doubt that COVID-19 is new and so are the technologies for testing and research. COVID-19 era is filled with operational differences between the medical laboratory developed protocols and new commercial consumables protocols following the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the implementation of those new protocols is challenging and requires continuous training for the laboratory staff [12]. Another challenge is limited access to COVID -19 reagents. This restricted the number of testing of citizens to those that were having symptoms or at risk as there is fear of exhausting the limited COVID-19 reagents and consumables. In the testing proper, there is delayed outbreak detection and reporting of COVID -19 cases maybe due to distance from testing and collection sites and the technicalities involved. Also there is limited access to clinically validated or regulatory approved molecular and serologic tests either through the WHO network, national regulators or through commercial manufacturers [13, 14].
As COVID-19 ravages the world, there are shortages and difficulties in importing large diagnostic kits in the country. There is also poor knowledge and research capacity on COVID-19. Aside from technical difficulties associated with COVID-19 testing, certain seasonal changes might equally affect the number of tests [9]. Table 1 discusses the challenges and way forward towards offering COVID-19 medical laboratory services.
S/N | Challenges | Way forward |
---|---|---|
1 | Misdiagnosis of COVID-19 due to poor training or use of quacks | Adequate training of qualified professionals |
2 | Poor working environment | Construct modern Medical Laboratory working environment |
3 | Poor working tools and equipment | Procure modern tools and equipment |
4 | Unstable power supply | Stabilize power supply and have a standby power supply or an alternative power |
5 | Poor team work among health professionals | Instill team spirit among practitioners |
6 | Lack of political will towards medical laboratory practices | Politicians should learn from COVID-19 lockdown to have the will to update medical laboratory facilities as they could be clients in such facilities |
7 | Corruption | Kill corruption surrounding COVID-19 |
8 | Haphazard quality system | Standardize quality system |
9 | New technologies and technicalities associated with COVID-19 | Imbibe new technologies and technicalities from the producers |
10 | Paucity of fund in COVID-19 laboratory services | Fund the medical laboratory services to the full with regards to COVID-19 and associated services |
11 | Unavailability of local testing kits | Give grant and fund research for production of local testing kits |
12 | Different countries have little no validated rapid kits | Mandate the regulatory bodies to validate more rapid kits to boost testing |
13 | Poor knowledge and research capacity | Encourage more research in laboratories |
14 | Non-involvement of medical laboratory component in COVID-19 vaccination | Involve medical laboratory component to give a basal parameter before vaccination and after some days of vaccination to assist in post vaccine research |
Challenges and way forward for medical laboratory practice in COVID-19 era.
The medical laboratory methods and technologies applied in testing COVID-19 includes: neutralization/virological cell culture test, COVID-19 genomic sequencing, nucleic acid testing (NAT) /amplification testing, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), real time PCR (RT- PCR) and Gene Xpert systems, immunological testing, biosensors, rapid diagnostic techniques (RDTs) [15]. These methods are illustrated in Figure 1.
Diagnostic methods and technologies employed in COVID-19 testing. KEY: CBPB, cell-based potentiometric biose; CLIA, Chemiluminescence immunoassay; ddPCR, droplet digital PCR; E-gene, envelope protein gene; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; FET, field effect transistor; IFA, Immunoflorescence assay; LAMP, loop mediated isothermal amplification; LFIA, lateral flow immunoassay; LSPR, localized surface plasmon resonance (sensor); MCLIA, magnetic Chemiluminescence enzyme immunoassay; M, membrane protein gene; N-gene, Nucleocapsid protein gene; NAT, nucleic acid testing; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; ORF, open reading frame; OSN-qRT, PCR - one step nested RT-PCR; qRT-PCR, real-time quantification PCR; RDT, rapid diagnostic technique; RdRp, RNA-dependent RNA polymerasegene; S, spike proteins.
Basically, virological cell culture test is the gold standard for virus discovery, pathogenesis research and strategy evaluation but since the emergence of COVID-19, PCR has been adopted as the gold standard and has been in use globally considering the shorter turnaround time. Genomic sequencing uses sophistication to track the pandemic and aids vaccine development [16]. Immunological testing is based on the quantification and detection of antigen and antibody interactions. Biosensors use selectivity features of a bimolecular and sensitivity of physiochemical transducers in COVID-19 testing. Rapid Diagnostic Techniques (RDTs) are new technologies which apply some of the above mentioned techniques to achieve shortest turnaround time and accessibility. Although each method has its advantages and disadvantages, it is advisable to employ at least two methods [15, 17, 18, 19] for quality medical laboratory testing especially when using RDTs as shown in Figure 2.
NCDC medical laboratory testing algorithm in Nigeria while using RDTs.
As part of the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic, medical laboratory diagnosis has remained the corner stone to this intervention. Molecular assays performed on nasopharyngeal swab or other upper respiratory tract specimen are the most commonly used and reliable test for the diagnosis of COVID-19. A variety of RNA gene targets are used by different molecular assays.
The processes from sample collections, sample transport and actual testing for COVID-19 remains very important including all quality system measures put in place to ensure reliability and sensitivity. The medical laboratory research uses samples from nasopharyngeal swabs, oropharyngeal swabs, throat swabs, saliva, sputum, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, conjunctival swabs, rectal swabs, whole blood, serum/plasma, stool, and urine [15].
It is evident that medical laboratory parameters have been adequately employed to access diagnosis like increased neutrophil, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, C-reactive protein, lactate dehydrogenase and urea. There is also decrease in procalcitonin, albumin, and white blood cells like leukocytes, and lymphopenia and eosinopenia have been noted among COVID-19 patients. Also, medical laboratory parameters have been employed in the assessment of the severity of the COVID-19 such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), d-dimer (d-D), glucose, fibrinogen, thrombin time, and C-reactive protein and fibrinogen. Some parameters are predictors during prognosis like IL-6 and D-Dimer, absolute lymphocyte count, lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase and absolute monocyte count which can predict whether the patient can be admitted into intensive care unit or not. During treatment, laboratory parameters are used to assess improvement in treatment and complications. For example; reduction in aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatine kinase and dehydrogenase shows response to treatment while increased procalcitonin and C-reactive protein indicates liver abnormality, high D-dimer, fibrinogen, prothrombin time predicts thromboembolism and new-onset renal failure [17, 20].
A medical laboratory, irrespective of location, modern, sophisticated or molecular in nature in the aspect of COVID-19 fight, has a huge role to play especially in the local certain where COVID19 testing has not reached. Many in such area may not know their status and no wonder the presence of a knowledgeable Scientist shall corroborate the medical laboratory implications of COVID-19 to be able to approach every client and sample in a safe and professional way.
There is always a manual that help members, states and partners as they set up comprehensive quality assurance measures for COVID-19 testing laboratory network. The guidance emphasizes the use of standardized registration formats as quality tool, Quality control (QC), enrollment of laboratories in external quality assessment (EQA) schemes and issues of external quality assessment performance data for continuous quality improvement of COVID-19 testing laboratories. It is an essential resource for a medical laboratory personnel to be involved in day-to-day testing of COVID-19.
Figures 2 and 3 shows testing Algorithm for Nigeria while using RDTs and approved medical laboratories (75–25 Gene Xpert and 50 PCR Labs) for COVID-19 respectively as released by Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC).
NCDC approved medical laboratories for COVID-19 as at 23rd February, 2021.
In medical laboratory testing of COVID-19, each country adopts their protocol based on targeted proteins as it suits them based on available testing techniques and methodology and as well the laboratory set ups and environment. For instance, USA protocol for testing targets N (N1, N2, N3) genes and Rp-RNase; China targets ORF 1ab and N-genes, Nigeria targets N-genes and ORF 1ab; Germany RdRp, E and N-genes, Japan and Thailand targets N-genes while Hong Kong targets ORF 1b-nsp-14 and N-genes [15, 17].
The world biomedical day of 2020 awareness was solely dedicated to medical laboratory professionals across the globe because of their unique role in COVID-19.
In Nigeria and other countries, the emphasis on Testing is more of the recognition of the medical laboratories and professionals who toil to discover, test, monitor and research further towards COVID-19 elimination. Usually, medical laboratory professionals are not noticed for their great contribution to healthcare. They are rarely seen by people for their heroic contribution to patients’ healthcare but cannot be underestimated as they perform series of tests that are crucial to ensuring accurate diagnosis and treatments that can help save patients’ lives.
Medical laboratory professionals play a critical role in the diagnostics and testing of COVID-19 which they perform every day. A collaborative committee of 17 medical organizations including American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science (ASCLS), Association of Medical Laboratory Scientists of Nigeria (AMLSN) and American Society of Microbiology (ASM) in the year 2020 helped to coordinate the celebration of annual Biomedical science day in April, 2020 to increase public understanding of and appreciation for clinical laboratory personnel as COVID-19 rages worldwide [21]. Such recognitions usually come from government, organizations or various individuals all over the world.
Laboratory professionals use specialized instruments and techniques to analyze patient samples, such as blood, urine, body fluids, tissues and stool. They may be in a laboratory located in the hospital where the patient may be hundreds of miles away in a reference laboratory, however, no matter their distance to the patient, they produce results that directly affect the patient care. In addition to their day to day activities, laboratory professionals tackle threats to our national security and health such as disease outbreaks. They have played critical roles in fight against COVID-19. These effort have been appreciated by many governments across the globe [22, 23].
“We really need to hail the pathologist, medical technologists, and other laboratory professionals who are becoming unsung heroes of the COVID-19 pandemic” [21].
Now more than ever, is the chance for people all round the world to thank our unseen medical laboratory heroes and heroines. Each year medical laboratory professional’s week celebrates the people who provides critical diagnostic information to help save lives and shows appreciation for the vital work they performed. Across the world, everyday people are applauding the brave health care workers on the front lines of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Protecting Health Care Workers (HCWs) during routine care of suspected or confirmed COVID-19 patients is of paramount importance during the pandemic. The protection ranges from adequate provision of personal protective equipment to provision of temporary accommodation to carter for during testing and treatment of COVID-19 patients outside homes, Life insurance packages, Special Hazard Allowances and other allowances and Commencement of Vaccination among laboratory professionals/healthcare workers. In Nigeria, life insurance to medical laboratory scientists during the COVID-19 was given by the government through the Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH) as seen in Figure 4 as a clarification that the profession is among the front line healthcare workers targeted in the programme.
Medical laboratory scientists clarified as frontline health workers covered for life insurance during COVID-19.
Countries may differ in their approach to laboratory and healthcare workers protection and care during the COVID-19 as documented by several authors [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30] and analyzed in Table 2. Such support may involve mental health support provided by psychiatrists and psychologists to medical laboratory staff and other healthcare workers working on the frontline which may be in form of counseling or in-house psychologists outreach.
S/N | Countries | Government/employee support programme packages | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mental health | Salary | Childcare | COVID-19 allowance | Insurance | Food | Transport | Accommodation | CPD Units | Online training | Spiritual/prayers | Social/music & dancing | Authors | ||
1 | Australia | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | NS | A | NS | A | [28] |
2 | Bulgaria | A | A | NA | A | NS | NS | NS | NA | NS | A | NA | A | [27] |
3 | Canada | A | A | NA | A | NS | NS | NS | NA | NS | A | NA | A | [24] |
4 | China | A | A | NS | A | NS | NS | NS | NS | NS | A | NA | A | [30] |
5 | Denmark | A | A | A | NA | NS | NS | NS | NS | NS | A | NA | A | [27] |
6 | Finland | A | A | NA | NA | NS | NS | NS | NS | NS | A | NS | A | [27] |
7 | France | A | A | A | A | NS | NS | NS | NS | NS | A | NS | A | [27] |
8 | Germany | A | A | A | A | NS | NS | NS | NS | NS | A | NS | A | [27] |
9 | Ghana | A | A | NS | A | A | NS | NS | A | NS | A | A | A | [29] |
10 | Israel | A | A | A | NA | NS | NS | A | A | NS | A | A | A | [27] |
11 | Lithuania | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | NS | A | A | A | [27] |
12 | Malta | A | A | A | A | NS | A | A | A | NS | A | A | A | [27] |
13 | Nigeria | A | A | NA | A | A | P | NS | A | NA | A | A | A | |
14 | Romania | A | A | A | A | NS | A | A | A | A | A | A | A | [27] |
15 | UK | A | A | A | A | NS | A | NS | A | NS | A | NS | A | [27] |
16 | USA | A | A | A | A | NS | A | NS | A | NS | A | A | A | [24] |
Employee support (assistance) programmes by some countries for COVID-19.
KEY: A, Available; NA, Not available; NS, Not sure; P, Partial.
Employee support programme (ESP) or employee assistant programme (EAP) cannot be exhausted and depends on the government, private institutions or the healthcare workers involved. The list may include: mental health, salary, childcare, COVID-19 allowance, insurance, food, transport, accommodation, continuous professional development (CPD) units, online training, spiritual support in form of prayers, social lives using music and dancing and others as may be necessary.
Financial support, payment of salaries and job retention for Medical Scientists and other healthcare workers is a sine qua non, so that healthcare workers who were required to stay at home on preventive quarantine or levels of exposure are protected to receive their basic pay and class/grade allowances. Special allowances for COVID-19 are paid to frontline workers in Nigeria and other countries.
No doubt the COVD-19 is now a pandemic and the virus is really testing the resilience of our health delivery system. Medical laboratory science as the bedrock of diagnostic medicine and the role of medical laboratory science in containing any pandemic cannot be relegated to the background, not now or in the future. There is an urgent need to re-strategize in the effort towards fighting COVID-19 especially with regards to medical laboratory diagnosis as well as major component in infectious disease control globally.
All healthcare providers remain in the dark until the release of the medical laboratory test result on any new public health challenge COVID-19 as an example. Quality tools/equipment and conducive working environment provides quality results during public health challenges as noted during this COVID-19 pandemic.
The development of local medical laboratories to international standard are very germane to politicians as COVID-19 discourages medical tourism. Medical laboratories could do better with motivational packages such as recognition, hazard allowances and life insurance policies.
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) infection is a global pandemic. Health care workers role in patient management is predisposing and can serve as the means of hospital and community transmission.
Vast majority of health care workers are taking precautionary measures such as avoiding crowded places, washing of hands and the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) against coronavirus infection. This knowledge and attitude of health care workers shows excellent knowledge and possessed a positive attitude and good health practice towards the prevention of COVID-19. It is recommended that health care education of health care workers should continue in order to prevent and control infection.
Medical laboratory testing is very vital in public health emergencies [19] and in COVID-19 in particular thereby encouraging medical laboratory strengthening [31, 32], towards overcoming all laboratory associated challenges in COVID-19 [33, 34, 35, 36].
This chapter hereby recommends the following:
Healthcare providers should always rely on the medical laboratory testing results in all public health issues and not only on COVID-19
There is need to update and quality crosscheck of all COVID-19 testing kits and equipment
Adequate construction and update of medical laboratory facilities in use for COVID-19 and other public health issues
Institutions involved in COVID-19 should sort for scientific and empirical data for all public health issues and vaccination as guide to public health policies
Government should provide and pay good hazard allowances and life insurance to all medical laboratory professionals
Train and retrain all medical laboratory professionals to be at the same pace with any upcoming wave of COVID-19
Adequate policies should be employed to stem out various challenges affecting optimum performance of various medical laboratories across the globe
Knowing fully well that Scientists contributed to the vaccine production research, it should be most appropriate that COVID-19 antibody testing should be carried out on individuals before vaccination to determine status. Not only that, various medical laboratory parameters should be carried out on all that are receiving vaccine before and after vaccine administration to help track changes and monitor health status of individuals who have received the vaccine candidates available currently for COVID-19.
The authors wish to acknowledge MLT Ruth Pam Chuwang for initial assistance in the typing of the manuscript.
The authors declare no competing interests.
Obeta M. Uchejeso conceptualized the Chapter, All authors contributed equally in the chapter manuscript preparation, editing and approved the final manuscript for submission.
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In general, the pyrolysis types are classified base on heating rate mainly either fast or slow pyrolysis. The characteristic and properties of wood vinegar are primarily influenced by the type of carbonaceous feedstocks as well as the production techniques. Wood vinegar is a complex mixture of polar and non-polar chemicals with various molecular weights and compositions. Its major constituent is water (80–90%). Some physical properties; such as pH, specific gravity, dissolved tar content are, respectively, within the range of 2–4, 1.005–1.016 g/mL, 0.23–0.89% wt, and color, odor and transparency have been reported. In addition, the degree of oBrix was ranged between 1.7 and 6.6. Besides water, the chemical compositions of wood vinegars consisted of acetic acid with the largest component (30.45–70.60 mg.mL−1). A high number of phenol derivatives have been found and those in higher concentrations were 4-propyl-2-methoxyphenol (5–11 mg.mL−1) followed by 2-methylphenol (2–4 mg.mL−1). Wood vinegar has been regarded as a natural product, which claimed to be capable in several fields of application. In agriculture, wood vinegar has been used in vegetable cropping in order to combat disease, pest control, improve growth and fruit quality, seed germination accelerator as well as herbicide. In pharmaceutical and medical applications, it is used for the preparation of detoxification pad while in veterinary and animal production, incorporation of the wood vinegar in feed could promote acidity in large intestine to inhibit growth of enteropathogenic microbes. In food processing, wood vinegar has a characteristic smoke flavor, and also exhibits microbial growth inhibition. In addition, several investigators reported that bio-oil and wood vinegar obtained from fast pyrolysis and carbonization showed a high potential on organic wood preservative. In summary, the wood vinegar prepared from the tropical wood and/or biomass waste is widely beneficial. The chapter attempts to provide essential knowledge relevant to physicochemical characteristics of wood vinegar and its applications.",book:{id:"6370",slug:"tropical-forests-new-edition",title:"Tropical Forests",fullTitle:"Tropical Forests - New Edition"},signatures:"Yongyuth Theapparat, Ausa Chandumpai and Damrongsak\nFaroongsarng",authors:[{id:"219997",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongyuth",middleName:null,surname:"Theapparat",slug:"yongyuth-theapparat",fullName:"Yongyuth Theapparat"},{id:"226821",title:"Dr.",name:"Ausa",middleName:null,surname:"Chandumpai",slug:"ausa-chandumpai",fullName:"Ausa Chandumpai"},{id:"398427",title:"Dr.",name:"Damrongsak",middleName:null,surname:"Faroongsarng",slug:"damrongsak-faroongsarng",fullName:"Damrongsak Faroongsarng"}]},{id:"66710",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85804",title:"Deforestation in India: Consequences and Sustainable Solutions",slug:"deforestation-in-india-consequences-and-sustainable-solutions",totalDownloads:2062,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Deforestation is one of the most pressing environmental issues that the world is facing currently. It is the conversion of forested land to non-forested land by humans. Deforestation occurs when a land dominated by naturally occurring trees is converted to provide certain services in response to the human demand. The indiscriminate felling of trees has resulted in a reduction of 3.16% in the global forest cover from 1990 to 2015. Although India has seen an increment in the total forest cover of ca. 1%, still there are certain regions in the country that have sought a decrease in the forest cover. The main reasons attributed to the reduction in forest cover are shifting cultivation, rotational felling, other biotic pressures, diversion of forest lands for developmental activities, etc. Continuous illicit cutting of trees has impacted the microclimatic conditions, hydrological cycle, soil quality, biodiversity, etc. of the country, thereby making the country more vulnerable for any uneventful happening. Sustainable forest management practices, alternatives for shifting cultivation, promotion of plantation outside the forest and the usage of certified forest products, etc. are some of the measures that can be adopted to curb the rate of deforestation.",book:{id:"7629",slug:"forest-degradation-around-the-world",title:"Forest Degradation Around the World",fullTitle:"Forest Degradation Around the World"},signatures:"Rima Kumari, Ayan Banerjee, Rahul Kumar, Amit Kumar, Purabi Saikia and Mohammed Latif Khan",authors:[{id:"276688",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"mohammed-latif-khan",fullName:"Mohammed Latif Khan"},{id:"279797",title:"Dr.",name:"Purabi",middleName:null,surname:"Saikia",slug:"purabi-saikia",fullName:"Purabi Saikia"},{id:"279806",title:"MSc.",name:"Rima",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari",slug:"rima-kumari",fullName:"Rima Kumari"},{id:"279807",title:"BSc.",name:"Ayan",middleName:null,surname:"Banerjee",slug:"ayan-banerjee",fullName:"Ayan Banerjee"},{id:"285660",title:"Dr.",name:"Amit",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"amit-kumar",fullName:"Amit Kumar"},{id:"285661",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"rahul-kumar",fullName:"Rahul Kumar"}]},{id:"45219",doi:"10.5772/56279",title:"Potential Future Ranges of Tree Species in the Alps",slug:"potential-future-ranges-of-tree-species-in-the-alps",totalDownloads:4915,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"3403",slug:"management-strategies-to-adapt-alpine-space-forests-to-climate-change-risks",title:"Management Strategies to Adapt Alpine Space Forests to Climate Change Risks",fullTitle:"Management Strategies to Adapt Alpine Space Forests to Climate Change Risks"},signatures:"Niklaus E. Zimmermann, Robert Jandl, Marc Hanewinkel, Georges\nKunstler, Christian Kölling, Patrizia Gasparini, Andrej Breznikar,\nEliane S. Meier, Signe Normand, Ulrich Ulmer, Thomas\nGschwandtner, Holger Veit, Maria Naumann, Wolfgang Falk, Karl\nMellert, Maria Rizzo, Mitja Skudnik and Achilleas Psomas",authors:[{id:"165202",title:"Prof.",name:"Niklaus",middleName:"E.",surname:"Zimmermann",slug:"niklaus-zimmermann",fullName:"Niklaus Zimmermann"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"31959",title:"Structure, Diversity, Threats and Conservation of Tropical Forests",slug:"structure-diversity-threats-and-conservation-of-tropical-forests",totalDownloads:8039,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"902",slug:"tropical-forests",title:"Tropical Forests",fullTitle:"Tropical Forests"},signatures:"Madhugiri Nageswara-Rao, Jaya R. Soneji and Padmini Sudarshana",authors:[{id:"79318",title:"Dr.",name:"Padmini",middleName:null,surname:"Sudarshana",slug:"padmini-sudarshana",fullName:"Padmini Sudarshana"},{id:"120847",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhugiri",middleName:null,surname:"Nageswara-Rao",slug:"madhugiri-nageswara-rao",fullName:"Madhugiri Nageswara-Rao"},{id:"120848",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya",middleName:null,surname:"Soneji",slug:"jaya-soneji",fullName:"Jaya Soneji"}]},{id:"66710",title:"Deforestation in India: Consequences and Sustainable Solutions",slug:"deforestation-in-india-consequences-and-sustainable-solutions",totalDownloads:2056,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Deforestation is one of the most pressing environmental issues that the world is facing currently. It is the conversion of forested land to non-forested land by humans. Deforestation occurs when a land dominated by naturally occurring trees is converted to provide certain services in response to the human demand. The indiscriminate felling of trees has resulted in a reduction of 3.16% in the global forest cover from 1990 to 2015. Although India has seen an increment in the total forest cover of ca. 1%, still there are certain regions in the country that have sought a decrease in the forest cover. The main reasons attributed to the reduction in forest cover are shifting cultivation, rotational felling, other biotic pressures, diversion of forest lands for developmental activities, etc. Continuous illicit cutting of trees has impacted the microclimatic conditions, hydrological cycle, soil quality, biodiversity, etc. of the country, thereby making the country more vulnerable for any uneventful happening. Sustainable forest management practices, alternatives for shifting cultivation, promotion of plantation outside the forest and the usage of certified forest products, etc. are some of the measures that can be adopted to curb the rate of deforestation.",book:{id:"7629",slug:"forest-degradation-around-the-world",title:"Forest Degradation Around the World",fullTitle:"Forest Degradation Around the World"},signatures:"Rima Kumari, Ayan Banerjee, Rahul Kumar, Amit Kumar, Purabi Saikia and Mohammed Latif Khan",authors:[{id:"276688",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"mohammed-latif-khan",fullName:"Mohammed Latif Khan"},{id:"279797",title:"Dr.",name:"Purabi",middleName:null,surname:"Saikia",slug:"purabi-saikia",fullName:"Purabi Saikia"},{id:"279806",title:"MSc.",name:"Rima",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari",slug:"rima-kumari",fullName:"Rima Kumari"},{id:"279807",title:"BSc.",name:"Ayan",middleName:null,surname:"Banerjee",slug:"ayan-banerjee",fullName:"Ayan Banerjee"},{id:"285660",title:"Dr.",name:"Amit",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"amit-kumar",fullName:"Amit Kumar"},{id:"285661",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"rahul-kumar",fullName:"Rahul Kumar"}]},{id:"68528",title:"Forest Biodiversity and Deforestation in Bangladesh: The Latest Update",slug:"forest-biodiversity-and-deforestation-in-bangladesh-the-latest-update",totalDownloads:1548,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Located in the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, Bangladesh is a tropical country in Southeast Asia and a transitional point for flora and fauna between the Indo-Himalayan and Indo-Chinese subregions. About 11% land area (1,429,000 hectares) of the country is covered with four major forest types: mixed-evergreen forests, deciduous forests, mangrove forests, and freshwater swamp forests. Though Bangladesh is a small and densely populated country, it is the home of 1952 species of invertebrates, 653 fish, 50 amphibians, 147 reptiles, 566 birds, and 127 mammalian species of which many of them are globally threatened. We have discussed the latest status of all the major vertebrate groups in this chapter. Thirty-one species of vertebrates have gone extinct from Bangladesh over the last century. Many of the species are facing continuous threat of extinction due to deforestation and degradation of habitat caused by various anthropogenic activities. In this chapter, we are going to discuss about the current management and conservation practices and issues related to the forests and wildlife of Bangladesh.",book:{id:"7629",slug:"forest-degradation-around-the-world",title:"Forest Degradation Around the World",fullTitle:"Forest Degradation Around the World"},signatures:"Ahm Ali Reza and Md. Kamrul Hasan",authors:[{id:"281012",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Kamrul",middleName:null,surname:"Hasan",slug:"md.-kamrul-hasan",fullName:"Md. Kamrul Hasan"},{id:"302258",title:"Dr.",name:"AHM Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Reza",slug:"ahm-ali-reza",fullName:"AHM Ali Reza"}]},{id:"61747",title:"Physicochemistry and Utilization of Wood Vinegar from Carbonization of Tropical Biomass Waste",slug:"physicochemistry-and-utilization-of-wood-vinegar-from-carbonization-of-tropical-biomass-waste",totalDownloads:2175,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Pyroligneous acid also called wood vinegar is an aqueous liquid produced from pyrolysis of lignocellulose waste and biomass. In general, the pyrolysis types are classified base on heating rate mainly either fast or slow pyrolysis. The characteristic and properties of wood vinegar are primarily influenced by the type of carbonaceous feedstocks as well as the production techniques. Wood vinegar is a complex mixture of polar and non-polar chemicals with various molecular weights and compositions. Its major constituent is water (80–90%). Some physical properties; such as pH, specific gravity, dissolved tar content are, respectively, within the range of 2–4, 1.005–1.016 g/mL, 0.23–0.89% wt, and color, odor and transparency have been reported. In addition, the degree of oBrix was ranged between 1.7 and 6.6. Besides water, the chemical compositions of wood vinegars consisted of acetic acid with the largest component (30.45–70.60 mg.mL−1). A high number of phenol derivatives have been found and those in higher concentrations were 4-propyl-2-methoxyphenol (5–11 mg.mL−1) followed by 2-methylphenol (2–4 mg.mL−1). Wood vinegar has been regarded as a natural product, which claimed to be capable in several fields of application. In agriculture, wood vinegar has been used in vegetable cropping in order to combat disease, pest control, improve growth and fruit quality, seed germination accelerator as well as herbicide. In pharmaceutical and medical applications, it is used for the preparation of detoxification pad while in veterinary and animal production, incorporation of the wood vinegar in feed could promote acidity in large intestine to inhibit growth of enteropathogenic microbes. In food processing, wood vinegar has a characteristic smoke flavor, and also exhibits microbial growth inhibition. In addition, several investigators reported that bio-oil and wood vinegar obtained from fast pyrolysis and carbonization showed a high potential on organic wood preservative. In summary, the wood vinegar prepared from the tropical wood and/or biomass waste is widely beneficial. The chapter attempts to provide essential knowledge relevant to physicochemical characteristics of wood vinegar and its applications.",book:{id:"6370",slug:"tropical-forests-new-edition",title:"Tropical Forests",fullTitle:"Tropical Forests - New Edition"},signatures:"Yongyuth Theapparat, Ausa Chandumpai and Damrongsak\nFaroongsarng",authors:[{id:"219997",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongyuth",middleName:null,surname:"Theapparat",slug:"yongyuth-theapparat",fullName:"Yongyuth Theapparat"},{id:"226821",title:"Dr.",name:"Ausa",middleName:null,surname:"Chandumpai",slug:"ausa-chandumpai",fullName:"Ausa Chandumpai"},{id:"398427",title:"Dr.",name:"Damrongsak",middleName:null,surname:"Faroongsarng",slug:"damrongsak-faroongsarng",fullName:"Damrongsak Faroongsarng"}]},{id:"54603",title:"Methodological Considerations in the Study of Earthworms in Forest Ecosystems",slug:"methodological-considerations-in-the-study-of-earthworms-in-forest-ecosystems",totalDownloads:1806,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Decades of studies have shown that soil macrofauna, especially earthworms, play dominant engineering roles in soils, affecting physical, chemical, and biological components of ecosystems. Quantifying these effects would allow crucial improvement in biogeochemical budgets and modeling, predicting response of land use and disturbance, and could be applied to bioremediation efforts. Effective methods of manipulating earthworm communities in the field are needed to accompany laboratory microcosm studies to calculate their net function in natural systems and to isolate specific mechanisms. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. 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Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"24",type:"subseries",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"J. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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