\r\n\t1. 90% of girls fully vaccinated with HPV vaccine by age 15 years. \r\n\t2. 70% of women are screened with a high-performance test by 35 years and again by 45 years \r\n\t3. 90% of women identified with cervical disease receive treatment (90% of women with precancer treated, and 90% of women with invasive cancer managed
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book “glows in teal”, committing itself, to the noble task of elimination of HPV infections and related cancers. This book has, well experienced and dedicated scientists from all over the world, contributing chapters in the fields of Epidemiology of HPV; HPV Vaccination – Efficacy – acceptance, affordability and policies; Pathophysiology and carcinogenesis of HPV; Hi-Tech screening protocols, methodologies for HPV testing; Diagnosis and treatment of Pre cancers and invasive cancers due to HPV; Prevention and control of Papillomaviridae infections and related Cancers of Cervix, Vagina, Vulva, Penis, Anus and Oropharynx.
\r\n
\r\n\tWe, firmly hope that the knowledge shared in this book would immensely contribute to the global goal of elimination of Papillomavidae and related cancers, and serve as a beacon of “teal light” symbolizing cancer eradication, from the lighthouse of Scientific wisdom and Social welfare, The InTech publishers."
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b7612146e5bd35247afd8bb1b6913be8",bookSignature:"Dr. Rajamanickam Rajkumar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11370.jpg",keywords:"Incidence, Prevalence, Determinants, Awareness, Transmission, Pathophysiology, Oncogenesis, Host Cell Changes, DNA Alterations, HPV Screening, HPV Vaccination, Types of Vaccines",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 11th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 10th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 31st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 30th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Dr. Rajamanickam Rajkumar, is a Champion for the cause of Cervical Cancer Elimination HPV Research, in rural India, from 2000, in collaboration with the IARC/WHO, The Ohio State University Medical Center -USA, and The Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology Singapore.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"120109",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajamanickam",middleName:null,surname:"Rajkumar",slug:"rajamanickam-rajkumar",fullName:"Rajamanickam Rajkumar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/120109/images/system/120109.png",biography:"Rajamanickam Rajkumar is an international frontline scientist in cervical cancer and HPV prevention with a Ph.D. in Cancer Epidemiology. 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1. Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to set the stage to the remainder of the content of the book by providing an overview about dietary fibers, their uses, benefits, chemistry and biochemical aspects. While the chapters are specific, in-depth and detailed, the contents of this particular chapter are kept general, so that readers of the book may gain an understanding of dietary fibers at the very beginning—especially if they are not familiar with this area of study, and go into a deeper understanding thereafter.
2. A brief overview of dietary fibers
Dietary fibers are considered a non-digestible form of carbohydrates, due to the inability of the digestive enzymes to break them down into monomeric units. The amount of dietary fiber in the diet varies based on the type of food and quantity consumed by an individual. The solubility of fibers has a significant impact on their function and therefore, they are classified into two main categories as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
The classification of dietary fibers (insoluble and soluble dietary fibers).
Dietary fibers that are insoluble, such as cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose have distinct characteristics such as filaments resembling threads, and most insoluble dietary fibers such as numerous vegetables have a rough feel. Dietary fibers that are insoluble are less prone to fermentation as compared with soluble dietary fibers [1]. Sources of soluble and insoluble dietary fibers are shown in Table 1. The solubility of some of the commonly sourced dietary fibers is shown in Table 2. An overview of non-starch polysaccharides which come under dietary fibers is shown in Table 3.
Soluble dietary fibers
Insoluble dietary fibers
Main constituent
Pectin
Gums
Lignin
Cellulose
Hemicellulose
Common food source
Citrus fruits
Oats
Strawberries
Green pepper
Bran cereals
Apples
Cauliflowers
Pears
Peas
Mustard greens
Table 1.
Chemical constituents and common food sources of dietary fibers.
Polysaccharides / food Ingredients
Solubility
Locust beans—commonly extracted from carob trees
Only soluble in warm water
Carrageenan (Iota type)
Soluble both in room temperature and warm water
Carbohydrate gum also generally known as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC)
Soluble in water in room temperature, but not in warm water
Table 2.
Common dietary fibers and their solubility.
Non-starch polysaccharides
Dietary fibers
Polyglucose
Beta-glucan, cellulose and hemi-cellulose
Polyfructose
Inulin
Table 3.
Overview of non-starch polysaccharides and their form of dietary fibers.
3. Dietary fibers of importance
Out of all soluble and insoluble fibers, there are some which are of high importance from a nutritive as well as an industrial perspective which are introduced in brief as below.
3.1 Inulin
Inulin acts as a storage polysaccharide. Inulin has been a component of the human diet since ancient times. According to BeMiller [2], ancient humans have consumed a variety of tubers and roots, some of which contain starch and others which contain inulin or a related gluco-fructan, on all five continents. Thus, it is very likely that incorporation of inulin in the modern-day diet is of importance as well due to consistency and exposure.
3.2 Pectin
The proportion of methylation, or the fraction of carboxyl groups bonded with methanol, is used to categorize pectin products. Pectins are utilized for a range of jellies and jams in the food industry, due to their unique ability to produce spreadable gels [2].
3.3 Beta-glucan
Beta-glucan has been identified as a supportive food ingredient in lowering cholesterol levels in the blood [3]. In addition, studies have showed that beta-glucan has the capability to reduce stress level at occasions [4, 5]. The variety of beta-glucan structures depends on environmental sources. It is a key component of plant cell walls. Cereal-glucan has been associated with lowering the risk of heart disease, whereas yeast-glucan has been observed to primarily boost the immune system’s ability to fight cancer and infections [4, 5].
3.4 Cellulose
As the most well-known dietary fiber of all categories, there are several health benefits associated with cellulose including reduction of constipation, decrease in the incidence of diverticulitis, and weight reduction. Owing to its abundance in plant sources, cellulose is the most common form of dietary fiber that is present in the mammalian diet and, therefore, is also the most researched dietary fiber component of all.
3.5 Hemicellulose
Xylose, pentose sugars, and arabinose are components of indigestible hemicellulose [6]. These fibers absorb water while being insoluble and are found in a variety of fruits and vegetables.
3.6 Lignin
Lignin is thought to have gained its name from the Latin word “lignum,” meaning “wood.” Lignin is composed of phenolic compounds that are covalently linked to polysaccharides. As lignin-rich food are indigestible, they have a distinct feel than other food and are sometimes referred to as “woody.” Lignin is an insoluble dietary fiber that helps prevent the formation of bile stones and lower cholesterol [7]. It also has aromatic properties.
4. Health benefits of dietary fibers: a summary
Dietary fibers are a very complicated collection of food components. The consumption of dietary fiber as a whole has several health advantages as it is linked to lower risk of diabetes, gastrointestinal problems, stroke, and hypertension [3, 4]. In the small intestine, dietary fibers have an inherent ability to bind to cholesterol and bile acids, and this ability is hypothesized to be the cause of the hypolipidemic action [5]. The high fiber content of vegetables, food rich in protein, various fruits and whole grains make them appealing targets for the prevention of diseases such as cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis. Due to the general importance of food fibers, a huge and prospective market for fiber-rich foods and components has developed within in the recent years, and there has been a tendency in recent years to identify specific sources of dietary fiber that could be utilized in the food industry [8]. Soluble dietary fibers are currently used as an ingredient in beverages, and it is becoming a global trend in the food industry at present replacing traditional and other food products that are less in nutritional value [9].
In the study of colon cancer formation, the effects of fiber rich diets on microbial population and fecal matter sterol ratios in the colon have received much interest at present. This is mainly due to the vital properties of dietary fibers [10]. Among the shared effects of soluble and insoluble dietary fibers, weight loss is one of the main benefits that one can experience in addition to decreasing energy density and inflammation [11]. In addition, dietary fibers prevent syndromes such as bowel syndrome and metabolic syndrome [12]. Adequate dietary fiber is necessary for the human body to operate properly and to be healthy, free of NCDs and other diseases and conditions. It is critical that individuals pay closer attention to their daily fiber intake since fiber plays a vital role throughout the human body systems.
5. Physiochemical properties of dietary fiber
Dietary fiber is a polysaccharide mixture with several functional abilities that activates while it moves further in the mammalian gastrointestinal tract. These actions are a result of its physiochemical structure. Some structural properties of dietary fiber that helps in its optimal functionality are discussed in the subsequent sections.
5.1 Particle size and bulk volume
Digestion itself means breaking down of complex molecules into simpler structures. Equally, for dietary fiber, the size of the molecule plays a major role in exhibiting its primary functions such as the time taken for fermentation, bacterial degradation and hydration process.
An experiment conducted on the period of time used for coconut residue to fully undergo the hydration process showed that reduction of particle size from 1127 μm to 550 μm enabled them to retain the hydration properties [13]. In addition, it was observed that the capacity of fat absorption had increased.
5.2 Surface area
The geometrical linkage is an important factor of any molecule, especially in the instance of dietary fiber as it is capable of resisting digestion unlike other starch-based molecules. A major reason for this is its characteristic higher surface area.
The availability of dietary fiber to microbial breakdown in the colon is influenced by porosity and accessible surface, whereas the regiochemistry of the surface layer may play a role in some cases. Moreover, physiochemical characteristics (certain types of adsorption or binding molecules) are also responsible for some of the physiological effects of fiber in the diet. The porosity of the material and the surface area available to bacteria, use of molecular probes such as enzymes or other molecular probes are all dependent on its surface area. However, the fiber’s architecture is an aspect that is linked to its origin and history of processing [14].
5.3 Solubility and viscosity
Solubility has a significant impact on the functionality of fiber. It is widely known that soluble, viscous polysaccharides can obstruct nutrient digestion and absorption in the stomach. The polymer is anticipated to be more energetically stable in the solid state than in solution if the polysaccharide structure allows molecules to fit together in a crystalline array [15].
5.4 Cationic binding and organic molecules
While charged polysaccharides (which including pectins via their carboxylic acid groups) and related compounds such as phytates in wheat fibers have been demonstrated to bind metal ions in vitro, fiber has been associated with limiting absorption of nutrients. Charged polysaccharides have little influence on mineral and trace element absorption, although related compounds such as phytates can be harmful. The capacity of different fibers to sequester and even chemically bind bile acids has been proposed as a possible mechanism by which dietary fibers rich in uronic acids and phenolic compounds may have a hypocholesterolemic effect [16].
5.5 The process of hydration
The hydration characteristics of dietary fiber influence their fate in the digestive tract and explain some of their physiological consequences. Swelling and water retention capacity give a broad picture of fiber hydration and are relevant for fiber-fortified diets. Bulk density reveals more about the fiber, including the substrate pore volume. It contributes to the existing knowledge of how fiber behaves in food and during the gastrointestinal transit. The physical processes that the fibers go through before entering the body alter the physical characteristics of the fiber matrix as well as the hydration properties [17].
6. Physiochemical mechanism of dietary fiber
Dietary fiber metabolizes only through the process of microbial fermentation. It is a plumber of carbohydrates. This is essentially due to the lack of enzymatic matter that is essential for breaking the glycosidic bond. The mammalian gastrointestinal (GI) tract consists of gut micro-biota, which is capable of fermenting. As the fiber moves through the GI tract, the gut micro-biota metabolizes it through fermentation.
Different species of gut bacteria act upon these large polymers of glucose in order to break them into monomers. Primary degraders such as Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides and Ruminococcus bromii that have the ability to ferment glucose from glucose polymers act upon these large polymers of glucose in order to break them into monomers [18].
Due to the lack of enzymes that initiate the cleavage of glucose from glucose polymers, a secondary degrader names Firmicute species rely on primary degraders to release glucose monomers. This process takes place in the lumen. After degradation the glucose short-chain fatty acid (SCFA—by-product of fermented dietary fiber), specifically butyrate is absorbed by the colon epithelial cells (bolonocytes). Later, the remaining SCFA enters the circulation by the portal vein (blood that transports to liver) [19].
7. Concluding remarks
The study of dietary fibers remains a vital area of study when it comes to food, nutrition and health. They have been added to a variety of food products as a whole as a food ingredient that imparts several health benefits, especially when it comes to the GI tract and the gut microbiome. As a highly studied area, it is hoped that the contents of this chapter has provided a general understanding of this food component and thereby demonstrated its essentiality as a nutrient, bioactive and ingredient.
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Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",email:"viduranga@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",institution:null},{id:"320764",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Kanchana",middleName:"Priyadarshani",surname:"Samarasinghe",fullName:"Kanchana Samarasinghe",slug:"kanchana-samarasinghe",email:"kanchanapriyadarshini@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320764/images/12899_n.jpg",institution:null},{id:"437009",title:"Ms.",name:"Chamodya R.",middleName:null,surname:"Dharmadasa",fullName:"Chamodya R. Dharmadasa",slug:"chamodya-r.-dharmadasa",email:"kkucb183@learning.acbt.lk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. A brief overview of dietary fibers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. 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Dietary fiber supplements: Effects in obesity and metabolic syndrome and relationship to gastrointestinal functions. Gastroenterology. 2010;138(1):65-72'},{id:"B2",body:'BeMiller JN. Carbohydrate chemistry for food scientists. Woodhead Publishing and AACC International Press, USA; 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2016-0-01960-5'},{id:"B3",body:'Anderson JW, Baird P, Davis RH, Ferreri S, Knudtson M, Koraym A, et al. Health benefits of dietary fiber. Nutrition Reviews. 2009;67(4):188-205'},{id:"B4",body:'Ciudad-Mulero M, Fernández-Ruiz V, Matallana-González MC, Morales, P. Dietary fiber sources and human benefits: The case study of cereal and pseudocereals. In Advances in food and nutrition research. 2019;90:83-134. Academic Press'},{id:"B5",body:'Cui J, Lian Y, Zhao C, Du H, Han Y, Gao W, et al. Dietary fibers from fruits and vegetables and their health benefits via modulation of gut microbiota. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2019;18(5):1514-1532'},{id:"B6",body:'Stanhope KL, Goran MI, Bosy-Westphal A, King JC, Schmidt LA, Schwarz J-M, et al. Pathways and mechanisms linking dietary components to cardiometabolic disease: Thinking beyond calories. Obesity Reviews. 2018;19(9):1205-1235. DOI: 10.1111/obr.12699'},{id:"B7",body:'Naumann S, Haller D, Eisner P, Schweiggert-Weisz U. Mechanisms of interactions between bile acids and plant compounds—a review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020;21(18):6495'},{id:"B8",body:'Dhingra D, Michael M, Rajput H, Patil RT. Dietary fibre in foods: A review. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2012;49(3):255-266. DOI: 10.1007/s13197-011-0365-5'},{id:"B9",body:'Gunenc A, Hosseinian F, Oomah BD. Dietary fiber-enriched functional beverages in the market. In: Diet Fibre Funct Food Nutraceuticals From Plant to Gut. USA: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2016. pp. 45-75. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119138105.ch3'},{id:"B10",body:'Sánchez-Alcoholado L, Ramos-Molina B, Otero A, Laborda-Illanes A, Ordóñez R, Medina JA, et al. The role of the gut microbiome in colorectal cancer development and therapy response. Cancers. 2020;12(6):1406'},{id:"B11",body:'Weickert MO, Pfeiffer AF. Impact of dietary fiber consumption on insulin resistance and the prevention of type 2 diabetes. The Journal of Nutrition. 2018;148(1):7-12. DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxx008'},{id:"B12",body:'Soliman GA. Dietary fiber, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular disease. Nutrients. 2019;11(5):1155. DOI: 10.3390/nu11051155'},{id:"B13",body:'Raghavendra SN, Ramachandra Swamy SR, Rastogi NK, Raghavarao KSMS, Kumar S, Tharanathan RN. Grinding characteristics and hydration properties of coconut residue: A source of dietary fibre. Journal of Food Engineering. 2006;72:281-286'},{id:"B14",body:'Guillon F, Auffret A, Robertson JA, Thibault JF, Barry JL. Relationships between physical characteristics of sugar beet fibre and its fermentability by human fecal flora. Carbohydrate Polymers. 1998;37:185-197'},{id:"B15",body:'Guillon F, Champ M. Structural and physical properties of dietary fibres, and consequences of processing on human physiology. Food Research International. 2000;33:233-245'},{id:"B16",body:'Dongowski G, Ehwald R. Properties of dietary preparations of the cellan-type. In: Guillon F et al., editors. Proceeding of the PROFIBRE Symposium, Functional properties of non-digestible carbohydrates. Nantes: Imprimerie Parentheses; 1998. pp. 52-54'},{id:"B17",body:'Thibault JF, Lahaye M, Guillon F. Physiochemical properties of food plant cell walls. In: Schweizer TF, Edwards CA, editors. Dietary fibre, a component of food. Nutritional function in health and disease: Springer-verlag, Berlin; 1992. pp. 21-56'},{id:"B18",body:'Macfarlane GT, Englyst HN. Starch utilization by the human large intestinal microflora. 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1. Introduction
Society demands better treatments for each disease and therefore the industry tries to obtain them. Novel drugs with better bioactivity are researched to achieve the best result in our bodies. However, several novel drugs present problems related to their chemical properties that prevent them from being used as a pharma or nutraceutical product. The molecule can be unstable in water solution, and/or easily oxidized, and presents poor bioavailability. Different strategies might improve the current therapy. One possibility is to find a good formulation, which stabilizes the drug or carries it to the desired tissue. Moreover, the adverse effect due to the dosage can also be reduced. For this reason, a great number of carriers are been proposed to challenge the previous problems.
One of them is called cyclodextrin (CD), truncated cone-shaped oligosaccharides made up of α-(1→4) linked glucopyranoside units with six, seven and eight glucose units, α, β and γ-CD, respectively [1, 2]. A derivative called 2-Hydroxypropyl-βCD (HPβ-CD) is used as an orphan drug for Niemann Pick disease type C [3, 4]. Complexes formed of molecules and cyclodextrins (CDs) are called “inclusion complexes”. Generally, CDs encapsulate poorly water-soluble compounds and hydrophobic moieties of amphiphilic molecules. Nevertheless, the solubility of these complexes not only depends on the CD used but also on different factors such as pH or guess molecule [5, 6, 7, 8]. The capacity of CDs to increase solubility and protect several molecules has increased their use in the pharmaceutical and food industries [1, 9, 10].
However, the improvement achieved by adding CDs is sometimes insufficient. Then, researchers developed a novel material based on these excipients baptized as Cyclodextrin-based Nanosponge (CD-NS), innovative cross-linked polymer structures with a three-dimensional network, and with a crystalline and amorphous structure, spherical and possessing good swelling properties [11]. Recent reviews [12, 13, 14] point to their wide potential and minimal toxicity [15, 16]. Some applications of these polymers include i) increasing the apparent solubility of poorly soluble drugs, ii) modulating drug release and activity, iii) protecting drugs against several agents, iv) enhancing bioactivities, v) absorbing contaminants ability, vi) delivering the drug, etc.
Cross-linking CDs brings significant benefits to CD-NSs compared with the respective native CDs. In general, CD-NSs can form complexes with a series of different molecules due to their structure. They achieve a hindered diffusion of loaded guest molecules, thus promoting slower release kinetics [17, 18]. Another important property of CD-NSs is that they can be easily recovered from aqueous media and recycled. Although they are insoluble, soluble hyperbranched NS can also be synthesized [19]. Finally, one of their principal disadvantages has been recently solved, they have been tested as a good carrier not only for small molecules but also for higher ones like proteins [20, 21].
This chapter tends to be a first step for the researcher who starts with CD-NSs: i) an introduction of the routes of administration, including advantages and disadvantages is explained, ii) an explanation about the various types of CD-NSs, including its synthesis and classification is written, iii) the different ways to characterize the inclusion complexes are reported and iv) examples of smart delivery are displayed as an encourage study to demonstrate their potential.
2. Routes of administration, advantages, and disadvantages
The choice of the route of administration is crucial as it dramatically affects drug bioavailability and thus requires specific delivery strategies. Parenteral routes include intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneous routes, whereas the enteral routes are the oral, sublingual, and rectal routes [22]. Others are inhalation, intranasal, etc. [23]. In this section, each route will be described briefly and special attention will be paid to the oral route, which is the most desired but, at the same time, the most challenging.
When administered via intravenous injection (IV), the drug reaches the systemic circulation directly bypassing absorption and carrying out its effect rapidly. This route is ideal for unstable or scarcely absorbed drugs (e.g. blood products), and irritating drug formulations, the administration of which via subcutaneous and intramuscular routes will be painful. It is also intended for patients who are not able to take the formulations orally, due to mental disorders, nausea, or vomiting.
Intramuscular injection (IM) can involve various muscles, including the gluteal muscle to which up to 5 ml of the formulation can be administered. Via this route, aqueous or oil-based solutions, suspensions, and emulsions are accepted. Aqueous solutions are generally absorbed in 10–30 minutes, whereas drugs insoluble at interstitial pH or suspended in oil-based solutions present a long time of absorption. Vascularisation of the muscle, the volume, and the osmolarity of the injected formulations also affect the absorption time. A depot preparation of the drug can be given via this route with a sustained release of the drug into the bloodstream. IM injection is selected when the drug has a low oral bioavailability or when the patient is not compliant. Vaccines are also administered via this route.
Subcutaneous injections can be given in the forearm or abdomen. Up to 2 ml of the formulation can be administered. Together with aqueous solutions and suspensions, adrenalin can be added to induce vasoconstriction and therefore increase the residence time of drugs (e.g. local anesthetics) or hyaluronidase to make the extracellular matrix more fluid, thus improving the absorption rate.
The absorption rate is extremely variable as it is influenced by the blood flow. Subcutaneous injections are also used for depot formulations. It is easy to administer and requires minimal skills, thus allowing self-administration. Insulin and heparin are given via this route.
Among all, oral delivery has been recognized as the most attractive route, as it is cheap, simple, accepted by patients, requires fewer sterility restrictions, and offers more possibilities in the design of the formulation (including sustained and controlled delivery) [24]. It is used for drugs with topical action in the gut and systemic effects when they reach the bloodstream. However, it is not suitable for emergencies in which an immediate effect is fundamental.
Over the past few years, many efforts have been made to develop oral delivery systems able to overcome the obstacles in the gastrointestinal tract (GI) in which the mechanism of absorption is complex with multiple levels of barriers [24].
There is a long list of variables that influence the GI absorption of drugs, which are grouped in technical challenges, physicochemical properties of the drug, and environmental factors [25].
The technical challenges concern the pharmaceutical form, i.e. liquid or solid. In solid forms, the rate and extent of disintegration, and dissolution of the formulation are important to a drug, and to carry out its effect, needs to be in a solution for developing the absorption.
Most drugs are absorbed in the small intestine, characterized by a large surface area of absorption and having a crucial influence on bioavailability.
The walls of the GI tract are characterized by the presence of mucus, which has been a target for drug delivery systems (DDS) capable of mucopenetration or mucoadhesion [24]. Mucopenetration consists in regulating the hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity of the carrier’s matrix or combining mucolytic enzymes to promote drug penetration. On the contrary, mucoadhesive carriers, which have attracted significant attention [26, 27, 28], can adhere to mucus, thus increasing the residence time. CD NSs have proven to possess this property, making them particularly promising for oral delivery [20].
Last but not least, the first-pass effect should be borne in mind when dealing with the oral route as it is certainly a limiting factor. It refers to the metabolism (mainly in the liver) of the drug before it reaches the systemic circulation, which may lead to a drop in bioavailability [29]. For this reason, several drugs are administered via other enteral routes (e.g. rectal and sublingual).
The sublingual route offers the benefit of bypassing the first-pass effect due to the passive diffusion through the highly permeable mucosa underneath the tongue. It is simple with a low risk of infection and the effect is rapid. Nitroglycerin is administered via this route.
The rectal route exploits the highly vascularized rectal mucosa for drug absorption. The first-pass effect is partially avoided. It is indicated for patients with gastrointestinal motility problems, nausea, vomiting, and children.
Inhalation is used to obtain a rapid effect as the drug crosses the large surface area of the respiratory tract epithelium and reaches the systemic circulation. It avoids the first-pass metabolism. The particle size and morphology of the formulation inhaled are crucial. It is mainly used for the treatment of respiratory diseases. The intranasal route enables the drug to be absorbed via passive diffusion across the highly-vascularised respiratory epithelium directly into the systemic circulation. Nasal decongestants and anti-allergic drugs are administered via this route (Table 1).
Route of administration
Advantages
Disadvantages
Oral
easy
safe
cheap
not Emergency therapy
not for GI-sensitive drugs (unless they are encapsulated
first pass effect
risk of interaction with food and drugs
Sublingual
rapid effect
suitable for emergency therapy
uncertain dosage
Rectal
for pediatric use
for patients with impaired GI function
risk of irritation
unpredictable absorption
Inhalation
rapid absorption
suitable for general anesthesia and emergency therapy
risk of irritation
specific equipment is needed
Intravenous
suitable for emergency therapy
adjustable
accurate dosage
complications due to rapid onset
allergic reactions
Intramuscular
rapid absorption
systemic administration of hydrophilic drugs
administration of sustained-release formulations
small volumes
painful
care must be taken to avoid veins and arteries
risk of infections and abscesses
Subcutaneous
rapid absorption
administration of sustained-release formulations
administration of very small volumes
Table 1.
Advantages and disadvantages of the main routes of administration.
3. Synthesis and classification of CD-NSs
The choice of appropriate synthetic conditions, allowed to obtain both water-soluble and water-insoluble polymer products, known also as CD-NSs or insoluble, and branched or soluble polymer [30, 31, 32]. The latter case allowed to overcome the limits of pristine CDs in terms of solubility in water and specific organic solvent, while the resulting formation of a three-dimensional cross-linked network was related to the presence of interstitial spaces among the monomers [33]. In this regard, the nature of the cross-linker and its amount in respect to the CD, ratio which defines the so-called cross-linking density, are presented to have a great impact on the properties and structure of the final material [34]. Also, being said interstices wider and more hydrophilic in respect to the cavities of CDs, a wider hosting capability was observed as a result.
3.1 General synthesis protocol
The most common method announced for the synthesis of CD based polymers, is characterized by employing a suitable solvent which could be either organic solvent or, in specific cases water, for the dissolution of the CDs. Afterwards, under continuous stirring, the chosen linking agent is added to the solution. Nevertheless, when required, the introduction of a catalyst occurs before the linking agent, and in specific cases, an increase in temperature is necessary to start the cross-linking reactions. The use of an ultrasound bath instead of stirring was also considered [35]. Eventually, either a sol–gel process or a precipitation polymerization can be observed, leading to the formation of a monolithic block or a precipitate, respectively. Also, in those cases in which the cross-linker is in the liquid form, and able to solubilize the CD, a melt polymerization can be performed [36, 37].
Once the synthesis is completed, the solvent, the catalyst, eventual unreacted monomers, and by-products are removed from the synthesized product by purification with water or other volatile solvents. In the end, a dry solid powder is collected [37, 38, 39]. Another well-known approach to synthesize CD-NSs is achieved through simple dehydration reactions. In this case, the CDs and the cross-linker, which is usually an acid bearing two or more carboxylic groups, are solubilized in water. After the addition of a suitable catalyst, the solution is heated to remove the water introduced as solvent as well as the water released as a by-product of the cross-linking condensation reaction. Moreover, the use of vacuum together with the temperature allows to shift the equilibrium of the reaction toward the products [40, 41]. Besides, less used synthetic routes report the use of interfacial or radical polymerization. In the first case, two immiscible phases such as a water solution of CD and a chlorinated solvent solution containing the chosen cross-linker, are mixed and stirred vigorously. The cross-linking occurs rapidly at the interface of the immiscible phases, and a precipitate is obtained [39]. While in the second case, a multistep procedure involving also preliminary derivatization of CD was displayed [42].
3.2 General classification
In general, based on the technological evolution of these materials, CD-NSs can be classified into four generations, considering their chemical composition and properties [19]. The first generation comprises all those NSs synthesized by a simple one-step reaction of CDs with a cross-linker. This generation was further divided into sub-categories according to the chemical nature of the linking molecules adopted for the synthesis. In this frame, carbonate, ester, ether, and urethane types are the most reported. These specific types of NSs will be described in more detail in the following paragraphs. Subsequently, the introduction of specific functions such as charge or luminescence to the final polymer structure defined the second generation of NSs. These materials displayed more complex polymer architectures achieved either via pre- or post-synthesis functionalization. In the first case, the introduced functions were limited to the surface of the polymer, whereas in the second case a more homogeneous distribution was observed. Referring to the division into generations, the 3rd generation deals with stimuli-responsive NSs, able to modulate their behavior (for example increasing/decreasing a drug release) according to the external environment.
3.2.1 CD-based polyurethane NSs
Urethane, or carbamate, CD-NSs are synthesized by reacting CDs (or a different dextrin) with a suitable diisocyanate as, for example, hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), toluene–2,4-diisocyanate (TDI). The reaction scheme is reported below (Figure 1, inset a). The resulting NSs are usually characterized by a rigid structure and a negligible swelling in water (in comparison with other CD-NSs), and organic solvent and high resistance to chemical degradation. Carbamate CD-NSs, were originally developed by Li and Ma for the treatment of wastewaters, as an alternative for activated carbon. They demonstrated with NSs remarkable performances in the removal of organic molecules such as p-nitrophenol reducing concentration of waste from 10−7–10−9 M to ppt level. The surface area was usually lower than activated carbon, (1–2 m2/g, two orders of magnitude) but it is supposed that organic molecules can be adsorbed, diffuse through the surface, and be absorbed inside the bulk of NSs [43].
Figure 1.
Schematic synthesis of a) CD-based polyurethane NSs and b) CD-based polycarbonate NSs.
The good affinity of organic molecules showed for pollutants [44], is also demonstrated by the application of urethane NSs in the complexation with biologically relevant compounds, such as bilirubin or amino acids. In 2006, Tang et al. evaluated the difference in absorption of aromatic amino acids and branched-chain amino acids: the absorption of branched-chain amino acids was negligible whereas NSs absorbed 24% of the aromatic amino acids.
In previous works the same polymer was tested for the absorption of bilirubin, reducing the initial concentration of bilirubin (40 mg/l) up to 92.6% after the addition of the NS [45].
3.2.2 CD-based polycarbonate NSs
Polycarbonate CD-NSs are usually synthesized using active difunctional carbonyl compounds such as 1,1′-carbonyldiimidazole, triphosgene, and diphenylcarbonate (Figure 1, inset b). Since the resulting CD NSs present carbonate bonds between CD monomers, these NSs present short cross-linking bridges and, consequentially, a reduced swelling ability (if compared to CD- based polyesters NSs, for example) and good stability to acidic solutions. The affinity to organic molecules and the surface area are comparable to carbamate NS [46]. The ability of β-CD carbonate NS to remove from wastewater chlorinated persistent organic pollutants (also known as POP) was investigated by Trotta and Cavalli in 2009 [47]: the absorption efficiency was higher than the average of activated carbon. For the specific case of hexachlorobenzene the NS was capable of removing around 99.5% of the pollutant.
An interesting method to evaluate the degree of cross-linking of carbonate β-CD NSs, employing infrared and Raman spectroscopy, was described by Castiglione et al. [48]. Data from spectroscopic analysis and chemical computation demonstrated a correlation between the intensity of carbonyl absorption peak and the degree of cross-linking: the degree of cross-linking increased with the amount of cross-linker, in total agreement with the stoichiometry. Dealing with sugar-based predominantly amorphous materials, the reported method represents a valid and advantageous alternative to x-ray. The crosslinking density or the amount of crosslinker, strongly influences the stiffness and elastic properties of the NSs. Rossi et al. demonstrated in their study that the mechanical features of the NSs can be easily tuned by changing the molar ratio CD/cross-linker, on the other hand, the CD used for the synthesis does not affect the mechanical properties of the final NS [34, 49].
3.2.3 CD-based polyester NSs
Ester CD-based NSs are synthesized using dianhydrides or di/polycarboxylic acids, such as pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA), ethylenediamine- tetraacetic dianhydride (EDTA dianhydride), butanetetracarboxylic dianhydride, citric acid [46, 50].
Dissimilarly from polycarbonate and polyurethane NSs, polyester NSs are generally able to absorb remarkable amounts of water (up to 25 times/g dry sample), and form stable hydrogels. Similarly as seen before with mechanical properties, the swelling capability of the CD-NSs is generally dependent on the degree of cross-linking. The swelling capability is usually inversely proportional to the density of cross-linking: the lower the degree of cross-linking, the higher the water uptake. The structure of the material dramatically influences chemical stability. Ester NSs are subjected to hydrolysis in aqueous media more easily than polycarbonate and polyurethane NSs. The structure is remarkably interesting because of the presence of free carboxyl groups in their chemical structure, moieties that can be exploited for the absorption of cations, using the material as an ionic exchange resin.
There are in literature many examples of the formation of complexes with a metal cation. The metal ions complexation ability of pyromellitic NSs is studied by Berto et al. in for different metal cations, such as Al3+, Mn2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, Zn2+, Cd2+ and Pd2+.
In most cases, pyromellitic NSs were found to be capable of absorbing more than 70% of the tested cation [51].
A similar test of removing heavy metals from wastewaters, crosslinking also CDs with citric acid, is performed by Rubin Pedrazzo et al. in 2019 [52]. At a metal concentration of 500 ppm, the pyromellitic NSs (substituted before absorption with Na+) exhibited a higher retention capacity than the citrate NSs. At lower metal concentrations (≤ 50 ppm) both the citrate and the pyromellitic NSs showed high retention capacities (up to 94% of the total amount of metal). While in the presence of interfering sea water salts, the citrate NSs were able to selectively adsorb a significantly higher amount of heavy metals than the pyromellitic NSs.
For ester NSs, similar studies of the correlation of cross-linking degree with properties are performed. Surprisingly, the highest cross-linking degree was observed in the sample prepared using the molar ratio 1: 6, CD: PMDA [53].
Higher contents of cross-linker, molar ratios like 1:8 and 1:10, led to a decrease of the degree of cross-linking; this is possibly related to the steric hindrance generated by the pyromellitic units linked to CDs. Interestingly, by working under limited dilution conditions during the reaction and with an even lower CD/cross-linker ratio (e.g., 1:2 molar ratio), it is possible to obtain a hyper-branched water-soluble polymer [54]. As already described for carbonate NSs, Raman and Brillouin scattering experiments permitted Rossi et al. to evaluate a relationship between the mechanical characteristics of the polyester pyromellitic β-CD NS and the molar ratios CD/cross-linker: as seen before, stiffness and elasticity of the polymeric structure can be tuned by varying the amount of cross-linker [49].
4. Inclusion complex preparation and analysis
4.1 Preparation of inclusion complexes
Once the CD-NS is ready, the inclusion complex can be obtained by several procedures [55] as its summarized in Figure 2. Firstly, it is performed the classical mixing of drug and CD-NS in a solvent, commonly water for 24 h to form the complexes. In this procedure, we should consider the insoluble or soluble nature of our complexes. Depending on this, the desire fraction is purified. Using kneading, the drug and the CD-NS are mixed in a mortar with an appropriate quantity of water or another solvent to form the complexes. At this point, other additional techniques are used to form the powder: The solvent can be removed using lyophilization, co-evaporation, or spray-drying procedures.
Figure 2.
Different methods to prepare inclusion complexes.
4.2 Analysis of inclusion complexes
Different techniques can be employed to characterize not only inclusion complexes but also CD-NS. For information purposes, we will name some of them and briefly explain their possibilities [56, 57]:
4.2.1 Ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy
UV–vis is a simple, easy, and fast method for studying the host-guest complexation when its formation changes any particularity of the spectrum of a guest molecule or to check the solubilization efficacy [14, 16, 58, 59].
4.2.2 Fourier-transform infra-red (FTIR)
This technique is usually used in solid complexes, generally in the range of 400–4000 cm−1, although it depends on the studied drug [58, 60]. Changes in the characteristics bands of the guest molecule or shifts in the wavenumber can indicate the formation of the complex. In addition, the same principle can be used to follow the CD-NS synthesis.
4.2.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy
NMR is one of the most useful procedures to obtain complete analytical information of the CD-NS and the complex formed. An alteration in the chemical shift of the protons occurs when the drug enters the CD-NS providing specific information about the orientation of the guest molecule inside the cavity.
4.2.4 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
TGA determines the changes of weight to temperature increases. The comparison of the weight loss profile of pure components, physical mixture, and the complex shows differences correlatives to the complex formation. A stage on TGA around 300°C is found in CD-NS due to CD decomposition [59].
4.2.5 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
It can provide detailed information about their physical and energetic properties. The comparison of the thermal curves of single components, their physical mixture, and the presumed inclusion compound ought to provide insight into modifications and interactions due to the formation of the inclusion complex. The change that occurs in the fusion point of the guest molecule is usually hiding by the complex formation, while it remains in the physical mixture. This, and several modifications in the shape and temperature peak of the CD dehydration and/or with the disappearance of the drug melting peak among others, are proves of the complexation.
5. Applications in smart drug delivery
5.1 Improving solubility and controlled release of drugs
5.1.1 CD-based polyurethane NSs
Another study showed the capability of CD polyurethane to reduce the levels of natural product contaminants, particularly, Ochratoxin A (OTA) from spiked solutions between 1 and 10 μgL-1 [61]. Following the attracted considerable interest that these polymers have shown in their use for water purification systems [62] and drug delivery [63], there were further done several chemical modifications on the CD NSs. Even though the modified CD NSs were used to enhance the properties and usefulness of CD NSs, their characterization at the molecular level remained a challenge. Therefore, a study described the structural characterization at the molecular level of both, native CD nanosponge polyurethanes and bionanosponge polyurethane cyclodextrin nanocomposite (pMWCNT-CD/Ag-TiO2) showing a great antibacterial and antifungal activity. The greatest antimicrobial activities were in the case of the developed polyurethane nanocomposite (pMWCNT-CD/Ag-TiO2). Consequently, it was concluded that this developed synthesis can be considered an active antimicrobial compound [64]. Another potential application of CD polyurethane polymer is as immobilization supports in enzyme catalysis. The lipase was immobilized into the aforementioned polymers via physisorption. It is observed an improvement in the stability and catalytic activity of lipase, knowing that the enzymes are generally unstable, insoluble in organic solvents, and sensitive. Accordingly, this study presented the chance to prepare immobilized biocatalysts with tunable catalytic activities attributed to the alteration of reaction conditions [65]. Further research was focused on the novel polyurethanes containing simultaneously β-cyclodextrin (β-CD), β-glycerophosphate groups, and hexamethylenediisocyanate (HDI). This polymer developed was used to complex the delivering therapeutic agents such as antibiotic ciprofloxacin. It was observed an improvement of the drug release in the case of the drug-polymers complexation than that of the free drug [63].
5.1.2 CD-based polycarbonate NSs
CD-based polycarbonate NSs synthesized using carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) showed antimicrobial activity against various microorganisms such as E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, S. typhi, C. albicans, and Clostridia, when compared with Ciprofloxacin that was used as a standard drug. The formulations were prepared by polymer condensation, and interfacial phenomenon, and were effective for 6 months at a condition of 40°C and 75% of relative humidity [66]. This type of CD NSs was further used to deliver and increase the activity of several anticancer drugs such as paclitaxel [67], bortezomib [68], flutamide [69], tamoxifen [70], etc. Following their high potential to entrap a variety of molecules, the β-CD/CDI NSs were also used to deliver and improve the solubility and dissolution of paliperidone, an antipsychotic drug for the treatment of schizophrenia [71]. Further, rilpivirine is used for the treatment of HIV infection but has low aqueous solubility. Therefore, the β-CD/CDI NSs presented a strategy to improve this drawback and also the bioavailability and dissolution rate [72]. The antioxidant activity of kynurenic acid, an endogenous substance, was improved by loading it in β-CD/CDI NSs. The higher antioxidant activity was observed because of the increment in solubilization of kynurenic acid [60]. CD-based polycarbonate NSs synthesized using diphenyl carbonate (DPC) were used to overcome the poor solubility and stability of Babchi oil that is known for possessing numerous activities such as antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, antitumor, antioxidant, etc. [73]. Further, the bioactive properties of the piperine, an alkaloid with anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer properties, etc., were protected by the β-CD/DPC NSs [74]. This type of NSs exhibited complexing ability toward nifedipine, as an oral calcium channel blocking agent that is used to treat angina pectoris and hypertension. It was observed an improvement in the oral solubility of nifedipine after its incorporation into NSs [75].
5.1.3 CD-based polyester NSs
CD-based Ester NSs synthesized with pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA) are well known for delivering, enhancing solubility, and preventing the degradation of various drugs such as Curcumin [76], Insulin [20], Resveratrol [77], Erlotinib hydrochloride [78], among others. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic dianhydride (EDTA) is another cross-linker to synthesize ester CD NSs. Based on HRMAS probe-heads in a high-resolution NMR spectrometer on the transport properties of Ibuprofen sodium salt (IP), it was found that these NSs can be utilized for the rational design of smart systems for drug delivery and controlled release [79]. The various applications of CD-based polyester NSs ranging from the environment to pharmacy, chemistry, agriculture, gene delivery, cosmetics, biocatalysis, brought to a detailed study on their cross-linking density. Being a very challenging task, it presented the effect of cross-linking density on β-CD NSs physicochemical properties. Flory-Rehner theory and rheology enabled the authors to understand the correlation between the structural features of NSs and their physicochemical properties, which is a key requirement for future applications [34].
5.2 Last generations of NSs for selected target drug delivery
Stimuli-responsive NSs represent the third generation, polymers that have been designed to modulate their behavior according to the surrounding environment. In this case, changes in the chemical structure of the material were reported to be triggered by pH, temperature gradients, or oxidative/reducing conditions. This feature was exploited for studying the targeted release of drugs, changes in color, and permeability. The use of glutathione (GSH) bioresponsive CD-NS was proposed as the system to deliver anticancer drugs or bioactive compounds [80, 81, 82, 83]. This is because GSH is 100 to 1000 times higher inside cells than that in the extracellular fluids and circulation. Indeed, in cancer cells, this concentration is almost higher being a good system for target drug delivery [84]. Different drugs such as doxorubicin [81] or bioactive compounds such as resveratrol [82] were tested showing a well-targeted drug delivery, and therefore is considered a promising therapy. In addition, the linkage of cholesterol was proposed as a good procedure for increase the targeted drug delivery of doxorubicin-loaded CD-NS [85].
Lastly, molecularly imprinted cyclodextrin-based polymers (Figure 3) define the fourth generation of NSs. Molecular imprinting represents a specific approach of inducing molecular recognition features to a three-dimensional polymer. This property can be achieved as a result of the presence of a template molecule introduced during synthesis. The template molecule after being removed from the polymer matrix leaves size-complementary vacancies, enabling the network to display high selectivity and affinity toward the chosen template. Eventually, molecularly imprinted CD-NSs are studied as suitable material to develop biosensors, drug delivery systems, catalysts, or synthetic antibody mimics [86, 87, 88]. A good example of this application is the L-Dopa as a novel possibility to treat Parkinson’s Disease. The molecularly imprinted CD-NSs showed a slower and more prolonged release profile than the non-imprinted NSs, indicating the good capacity to better complex L-Dopa than non-imprinted NS. The use of CDs in controlled and targeted drug delivery is shown in Table 2.
CD-NSs are demonstrated to be safe, cheap, and biocompatible polymers. Consequently, several authors are focused on this field recently achieving novel applications. This chapter summarized the general information that will guide the advanced research to investigate the CD-NSs. Information about the routes of administration, synthesis protocols, recommendations, classifications, and applications of the novel synthesized materials, with special attention to targeted drug delivery, are mostly collected. It is shown the ability of CD-NSs to entrap drugs and to control their release from the matrix which can be modulated by different physicochemical agents.
As a remark, CD-NS is a good promise to improve the current problems in drug formulations and open novel strategies for drug delivery that identify the light in the future.
Acknowledgments
This work is the result of aid to postdoctoral training and improvement abroad (for Adrián Matencio, number 21229/PD/19) financed by the Fundación Séneca (Región de Murcia, Spain).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Cyclodextrin nanosponges, drug delivery, synthesis, nanocarrier, release",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78619.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78619.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78619",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78619",totalDownloads:129,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"May 13th 2021",dateReviewed:"August 27th 2021",datePrePublished:"September 21st 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"September 16th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In recent years, the development of various cyclodextrin (CD)-based nanosponges (NSs) has gained great importance in the controlled and-or targeted release of drugs due to their versatility and simple preparation. In this chapter, an introduction of different administration routes is explained. Further, different ways to obtain CD-NSs and their classification are shown with a brief explanation of the characterization of the inclusion complexes. Finally, illustrative examples in diverse processes or diseases will be reviewed and explained to demonstrate the potential of CD-NSs. Therefore, this division will serve to compile information on CD-NSs in recent years and to illustrate to readers how to generate and apply different derivatives of interest.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78619",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78619",signatures:"Gjylije Hoti, Silvia Lucia Appleton, Alberto Rubin Pedrazzo, Claudio Cecone, Adrián Matencio, Francesco Trotta and Fabrizio Caldera",book:{id:"10882",type:"book",title:"Smart Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Smart Drug Delivery",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Usama Ahmad, Dr. Md. Faheem Haider and Dr. Juber Akhtar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10882.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-539-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-538-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-540-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Routes of administration, advantages, and disadvantages",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Synthesis and classification of CD-NSs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 General synthesis protocol",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 General classification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.2.1 CD-based polyurethane NSs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.2.2 CD-based polycarbonate NSs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.2.3 CD-based polyester NSs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Inclusion complex preparation and analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Preparation of inclusion complexes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Analysis of inclusion complexes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.2.1 Ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.2.2 Fourier-transform infra-red (FTIR)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.2.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.2.4 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.2.5 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17",title:"5. Applications in smart drug delivery",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.1 Improving solubility and controlled release of drugs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"5.1.1 CD-based polyurethane NSs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"5.1.2 CD-based polycarbonate NSs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"5.1.3 CD-based polyester NSs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.2 Last generations of NSs for selected target drug delivery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Matencio A, Navarro-Orcajada S, García-Carmona F, López-Nicolás JM. Applications of cyclodextrins in food science. A review. Trends Food Sci Technol 2020.'},{id:"B2",body:'Szente L, Szejtli J. Cyclodextrins as food ingredients. Trends in Food Science & Technology 2004; 15: 137-142.'},{id:"B3",body:'Matencio A, Alcaráz-Gómez MA, García-Carmona F, Arias B, López-Nicolás JM. 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Lembo et al., “Encapsulation of Acyclovir in new carboxylated cyclodextrin-based nanosponges improves the agent’s antiviral efficacy,” Int. J. Pharm., vol. 443, pp. 262-272, Feb. 2013.'},{id:"B97",body:'M. Rao, A. Bajaj, I. Khole, G. Munjapara, and F. Trotta, “In vitro and in vivo evaluation of β-cyclodextrin-based nanosponges of telmisartan,” J. Incl. Phenom. Macrocycl. Chem., vol. 77, pp. 135-145, Dec. 2013.'},{id:"B98",body:'S. Kumar, Pooja, F. Trotta, and R. Rao, “Encapsulation of Babchi Oil in Cyclodextrin-Based Nanosponges: Physicochemical Characterization, Photodegradation, and In Vitro Cytotoxicity Studies,” Pharmaceutics, vol. 10, p. 169, Sep. 2018.'},{id:"B99",body:'R. Zainuddin, Z. Zaheer, J. N. Sangshetti, and M. Momin, “Enhancement of oral bioavailability of anti- HIV drug rilpivirine HCl through nanosponge formulation,” Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm., vol. 43, no. 12, pp. 2076-2084, 2017.'},{id:"B100",body:'M. R. P. Rao, J. Chaudhari, F. Trotta, and F. 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Trotta, “Preparation of functionalized cotton fabrics by means of melatonin loaded β-cyclodextrin nanosponges,” Carbohydr. Polym., vol. 142, pp. 24-30, 2016.'},{id:"B105",body:'N. K. Dhakar et al., “Evaluation of solubility enhancement, antioxidant activity, and cytotoxicity studies of kynurenic acid loaded cyclodextrin nanosponge,” Carbohydr. Polym., vol. 224, pp. 1-9, 2019.'},{id:"B106",body:'O. Salehi, S. Masoud, and A. Rezaei, “Limonene loaded cyclodextrin nanosponge: Preparation, characterization, antibacterial activity and controlled release,” Food Biosci., vol. 42, pp. 1-9, 2021.'},{id:"B107",body:'A. Kumar and R. Rao, “Enhancing efficacy and safety of azelaic acid via encapsulation in cyclodextrin nanosponges: development, characterization and evaluation,” Polym. Bull., vol. 78, pp. 5275-5302, 2021.'},{id:"B108",body:'M. Sundararajan, P. A. Thomas, K. Venkadeswaran, K. Jeganathan, and P. Geraldine, “Synthesis and Characterization of Chrysin-Loaded β-Cyclodextrin-Based Nanosponges to Enhance In-Vitro Solubility, Photostability, Drug Release, Antioxidant Effects and Antitumorous Efficacy,” J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., vol. 17, p. 10, 2017.'},{id:"B109",body:'A. P. Sherje, A. Surve, and P. Shende, “CDI cross-linked β -cyclodextrin nanosponges of paliperidone : synthesis and physicochemical characterization,” Journal, 2019.'},{id:"B110",body:'A. Rezaei, J. Varshosaz, M. Fesharaki, A. Farhang, and S. M. Jafari, “Improving the solubility and in vitro cytotoxicity (anticancer activity) of ferulic acid by loading it into cyclodextrin nanosponges,” pp. 4589-4599, 2019.'},{id:"B111",body:'S. Allahyari et al., “In-vitro characterization and cytotoxicity study of flutamide loaded cyclodextrin nanosponges,” J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol., vol. 61, pp. 1-7, 2021.'},{id:"B112",body:'S. M. Omar, F. Ibrahim, and A. Ismail, “Formulation and evaluation of cyclodextrin-based nanosponges of griseofulvin as pediatric oral liquid dosage form for enhancing bioavailability and masking bitter taste,” Saudi Pharm. J., vol. 28, pp. 349-361, 2020.'},{id:"B113",body:'S. Lucia Appleton et al., “Nanosponges as protein delivery systems : Insulin, a case study,” Int. J. Pharm., vol. 590, pp. 1-11, 2020.'},{id:"B114",body:'M. Argenziano et al., “In Vitro Enhanced Skin Permeation and Retention of Imiquimod Loaded in β -Cyclodextrin Nanosponge Hydrogel,” Pharmaceutics, vol. 11, no. 138, pp. 1-17, 2019.'},{id:"B115",body:'P. K. Shende, F. Trotta, R. S. Gaud, K. Deshmukh, R. Cavalli, and M. Biasizzo, “Influence of different techniques on formulation and comparative characterization of inclusion complexes of ASA with β-cyclodextrin and inclusion complexes of ASA with PMDA cross-linked β-cyclodextrin nanosponges,” J. Incl. Phenom. Macrocycl. Chem., vol. 74, pp. 447-454, 2012.'},{id:"B116",body:'M. Argenziano et al., “Improvement in the Anti-Tumor Efficacy of Doxorubicin Nanosponges in In Vitro and in Mice Bearing Breast Tumor Models,” Cancers (Basel)., vol. 12, no. 162, pp. 1-19, 2020.'},{id:"B117",body:'P. K. Shende, R. S. Gaud, R. Bakal, and D. Patil, “Effect of inclusion complexation of meloxicam with β-cyclodextrin-and β-cyclodextrin-based nanosponges on solubility, in vitro release and stability studies,” Colloids Surfaces B Biointerfaces, vol. 136, pp. 105-110, 2015.'},{id:"B118",body:'V. Coviello, S. Sartini, L. Quattrini, C. Baraldi, M. C. Gamberini, and C. La Motta, “Cyclodextrin-based nanosponges for the targeted delivery of the anti-restenotic agent DB103: A novel opportunity for the local therapy of vessels wall subjected to percutaneous intervention,” Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm., vol. 117, pp. 276-285, 2017.'},{id:"B119",body:'F. Trotta et al., “Molecularly imprinted cyclodextrin nanosponges for the controlled delivery of L-DOPA: perspectives for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease,” Expert Opin. Drug Deliv., vol. 13, no. 12, pp. 1671-1680, 2016.'},{id:"B120",body:'M. Daga et al., “GSH-targeted nanosponges increase doxorubicin-induced toxicity ‘in vitro’ and ‘in vivo’ in cancer cells with high antioxidant defenses,” Free Radic. Biol. Med., vol. 97, pp. 24-37, 2016.'},{id:"B121",body:'M. Argenziano et al., “Glutathione/pH-responsive nanosponges enhance strigolactone delivery to prostate cancer cells,” Oncotarget, vol. 9, no. 88, pp. 35813-35829, 2018.'},{id:"B122",body:'M. M. Momin, Z. Zaheer, R. Zainuddin, and J. N. Sangshetti, “Extended release delivery of erlotinib glutathione nanosponge for targeting lung cancer,” Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine and Biotechnology, vol. 46, no. 5. pp. 1064-1075, 2018.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Gjylije Hoti",address:null,affiliation:'
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
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Rahimi",authors:[{id:"38310",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Carruba",slug:"stefano-carruba",fullName:"Stefano Carruba"},{id:"42459",title:"Prof.",name:"Cesare",middleName:null,surname:"Perotti",slug:"cesare-perotti",fullName:"Cesare Perotti"},{id:"42460",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Rinaldi",slug:"marco-rinaldi",fullName:"Marco Rinaldi"},{id:"42465",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Bertozzi",slug:"giuseppe-bertozzi",fullName:"Giuseppe Bertozzi"},{id:"42466",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Feltre",slug:"luca-feltre",fullName:"Luca Feltre"},{id:"42467",title:"Dr.",name:"Mashallah",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi",slug:"mashallah-rahimi",fullName:"Mashallah Rahimi"}]},{id:"9498",doi:"10.5772/8283",title:"Remote Sensing of Forest Health",slug:"remote-sensing-of-forest-health",totalDownloads:5355,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:null,book:{id:"3345",slug:"geoscience-and-remote-sensing",title:"Geoscience and Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Geoscience and Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Jyrki Tuominen, Tarmo Lipping, Viljo Kuosmanen and Reija Haapanen",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71931",title:"Open Pit Mining",slug:"open-pit-mining",totalDownloads:1625,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Open pit mining method is one of the surface mining methods that has a traditional cone-shaped excavation and is usually employed to exploit a near-surface, nonselective and low-grade zones deposits. It often results in high productivity and requires large capital investments, low operating costs, and good safety conditions. The main topics that will be discussed in this chapter will include an introduction into the general features of open pit mining, ore body characteristics and configurations, stripping ratios and stripping overburden methods, mine elements and parameters, open pit operation cycle, pit slope angle, stability of mine slopes, types of highwall failures, mine closure and reclamation, and different variants of surface mining methods including opencast mining, mountainous mining, and artisan mining.",book:{id:"8620",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",title:"Mining Techniques",fullTitle:"Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future"},signatures:"Awwad H. Altiti, Rami O. Alrawashdeh and Hani M. Alnawafleh",authors:[{id:"313182",title:"Prof.",name:"Rami",middleName:null,surname:"Alrawashdeh",slug:"rami-alrawashdeh",fullName:"Rami Alrawashdeh"},{id:"313522",title:"Dr.",name:"Awwad",middleName:null,surname:"Altiti",slug:"awwad-altiti",fullName:"Awwad Altiti"},{id:"313523",title:"Prof.",name:"Hani",middleName:null,surname:"Alnawafleh",slug:"hani-alnawafleh",fullName:"Hani Alnawafleh"}]},{id:"64027",title:"Stages of a Integrated Geothermal Project",slug:"stages-of-a-integrated-geothermal-project",totalDownloads:4341,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"A geothermal project constitutes two big stages: the exploration and the exploitation. Each one has a single task whose results allow defining the feasibility of a geothermal project, until achieving the construction and operation stage of the power generation plant. The first stage contains the area recognition, its limitation to the target, and elimination of external factors until defining a geothermal zone with characteristics to be commercially exploited. The main studies and analysis that can be applied during the exploration stage are listed, and the major indicator to continue with the project or suspend is the prefeasibility report. The major risks in the exploration stage are due to studies that are carried out on the surface; at this stage, the costs can be considered low. The main results of the exploration are the selection of sites to drill three or four initial wells. Each well provides a direct overview of the reservoir: depth, production thicknesses, thermodynamic parameters, and production characteristics. The drilling of three to four exploratory wells is recommended, as far as there is certainty of the feasibility of the project, and the development of the field begins with drilling of sufficient wells to feed the plant. In this stage, the cost increases, but the risks decrease.",book:{id:"7504",slug:"renewable-geothermal-energy-explorations",title:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations",fullTitle:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations"},signatures:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar, Georgina Izquierdo-Montalvo,\nDaniel Octavio Aragón-Gaspar and Denise N. Barreto-Rivera",authors:[{id:"258358",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Aragón-Aguilar",slug:"alfonso-aragon-aguilar",fullName:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar"}]},{id:"63059",title:"Generation, Evolution, and Characterization of Turbulence Coherent Structures",slug:"generation-evolution-and-characterization-of-turbulence-coherent-structures",totalDownloads:3618,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Turbulence stands as one of the most complicated and attractive physical phenomena. The accumulated knowledge has shown turbulent flow to be composed of islands of vortices and uniform-momentum regions, which are coherent in both time and space. Research has been concentrated on these structures, their generation, evolution, and interaction with the mean flow. Different theories and conceptual models were proposed with the aim of controlling the boundary layer flow and improving numerical simulations. Here, we review the different classes of turbulence coherent structures and the presumable generation mechanisms for each. The conceptual models describing the generation of turbulence coherent structures are generally classified under two categories, namely, the bottom-up mechanisms and the top-down mechanisms. The first assumes turbulence to be generated near the surface by some sort of instabilities, whereas the second assigns an active role to the large outer layer structures, perhaps the turbulent bulges. Both categories of models coexist in the flow with the first dominating turbulence generation at low Reynolds number and the second at high Reynolds number, such as the case in the atmospheric boundary layer.",book:{id:"7214",slug:"turbulence-and-related-phenomena",title:"Turbulence and Related Phenomena",fullTitle:"Turbulence and Related Phenomena"},signatures:"Zambri Harun and Eslam Reda Lotfy",authors:[{id:"243152",title:"Dr.",name:"Zambri",middleName:null,surname:"Harun",slug:"zambri-harun",fullName:"Zambri Harun"},{id:"252195",title:"Dr.",name:"Eslam",middleName:null,surname:"Reda",slug:"eslam-reda",fullName:"Eslam Reda"}]},{id:"64562",title:"Electrical Resistivity Tomography: A Subsurface-Imaging Technique",slug:"electrical-resistivity-tomography-a-subsurface-imaging-technique",totalDownloads:3182,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is a popular geophysical subsurface-imaging technique and widely applied to mineral prospecting, hydrological exploration, environmental investigation and civil engineering, as well as archaeological mapping. This chapter offers an overall review of technical aspects of ERT, which includes the fundamental theory of direct-current (DC) resistivity exploration, electrode arrays for data acquisition, numerical modelling methods and tomographic inversion algorithms. The section of fundamental theory shows basic formulae and principle of DC resistivity exploration. The section of electrode arrays summarises the previous study on all traditional-electrode arrays and recommends 4 electrode arrays for data acquisition of surface ERT and 3 electrode arrays for cross-hole ERT. The section of numerical modelling demonstrates an advanced version of finite-element method, called Gaussian quadrature grid approach, which is advantageous to a numerical simulation of ERT for complex geological models. The section of tomographic inversion presents the generalised standard conjugate gradient algorithms for both the l1- and l2-normed inversions. After that, some synthetic and real imaging examples are given to show the near-surface imaging capabilities of ERT.",book:{id:"8361",slug:"applied-geophysics-with-case-studies-on-environmental-exploration-and-engineering-geophysics",title:"Applied Geophysics with Case Studies on Environmental, Exploration and Engineering Geophysics",fullTitle:"Applied Geophysics with Case Studies on Environmental, Exploration and Engineering Geophysics"},signatures:"Bing Zhou",authors:null},{id:"17670",title:"The Qatar–South Fars Arch Development (Arabian Platform, Persian Gulf): Insights from Seismic Interpretation and Analogue Modelling",slug:"the-qatar-south-fars-arch-development-arabian-platform-persian-gulf-insights-from-seismic-interpreta",totalDownloads:8964,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:null,book:{id:"1297",slug:"new-frontiers-in-tectonic-research-at-the-midst-of-plate-convergence",title:"New Frontiers in Tectonic Research",fullTitle:"New Frontiers in Tectonic Research - At the Midst of Plate Convergence"},signatures:"C.R. Perotti, S. Carruba, M. Rinaldi, G. Bertozzi, L. Feltre and M. Rahimi",authors:[{id:"38310",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Carruba",slug:"stefano-carruba",fullName:"Stefano Carruba"},{id:"42459",title:"Prof.",name:"Cesare",middleName:null,surname:"Perotti",slug:"cesare-perotti",fullName:"Cesare Perotti"},{id:"42460",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Rinaldi",slug:"marco-rinaldi",fullName:"Marco Rinaldi"},{id:"42465",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Bertozzi",slug:"giuseppe-bertozzi",fullName:"Giuseppe Bertozzi"},{id:"42466",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Feltre",slug:"luca-feltre",fullName:"Luca Feltre"},{id:"42467",title:"Dr.",name:"Mashallah",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi",slug:"mashallah-rahimi",fullName:"Mashallah Rahimi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"104",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81626",title:"Use of Natural Safiot Clay for the Removal of Chemical Substances from Aqueous Solutions by Adsorption: A Combined Experimental and Theoretical Study",slug:"use-of-natural-safiot-clay-for-the-removal-of-chemical-substances-from-aqueous-solutions-by-adsorpti",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101605",abstract:"The main objective of this work was to investigate the potential of Natural Safiot Clay (NSC), as an adsorbent for the removal of two cationic dyes such as Basic Blue 9 (BB9) and Basic Yellow 28 (BY28) from single and binary systems in aqueous solutions. For this, the effects of three factors controlling the adsorption process, such as initial dye concentration, adsorbent dose, and initial pH on the adsorption extent, were investigated and examined. The natural safiot clay was characterized using the following technique: energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), DRX, and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and pH of the point of zero charge (pHZPC). Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy results indicate high percentages of Silica and Alumina. FT-IR spectrum identified kaolinite as the major mineral phase in the presence of quartz, calcite, and dolomite. The quantum theoretical study confirms the experimental results, through the study of the global and local reactivity and the electrophilicity power of the dyes. The electrophilicity power of dyes affects the removal efficiency. The theoretical study proves that BB9 (ω = 6.178) is more electrophilic than BY28 (ω = 2.480) and more interactions with surface sites. The results of the molecular dynamics simulation indicate that the dyes are adsorbed parallel to the surface of natural Safi clay (kaolinite), implying the strong interaction with the kaolinite atoms. All the results of quantum chemistry calculations and simulations of molecular dynamics are in perfect agreement with the results of the experimental study.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Aziz El Kassimi, Mohammadine El Haddad, Rachid Laamari, Mamoune El Himri, Youness Achour and Hicham Yazid"},{id:"80866",title:"Normative Mineralogy Especially for Shales, Slates, and Phyllites",slug:"normative-mineralogy-especially-for-shales-slates-and-phyllites",totalDownloads:44,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102346",abstract:"First, an insight into normative mineralogy and the most important methods for calculating the standard or norm minerals, such as the CIPW norm, is given. This is followed by a more detailed explanation of “slatenorm” and “slatecalculation” for low and very low metamorphic rocks, such as phyllites, slates, and shales. They are particularly suitable for fine-grained rocks where the mineral content is difficult to determine. They enable the determination of a virtual mineral inventory from full chemical analysis, including the values of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon (C), and sulfur (S). The determined norm or standard minerals include the minerals—feldspars, carbonates, micas, hydro-micas, chlorites, ore minerals, and quartz. The advantages of slatenorm and slatecalculation compared to other methods for calculating normal minerals of sedimentary rocks are discussed.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Hans Wolfgang Wagner"},{id:"80770",title:"Mg-Ilmenite from Kimberlites, Its Origin",slug:"mg-ilmenite-from-kimberlites-its-origin",totalDownloads:57,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102676",abstract:"The main regularities of the saturation of kimberlite rocks with the accessory mineral Mg-ilmenite (Ilm), the peculiarities of the distribution of Ilm compositions in individual pipes, in different clusters of pipes, in diamondiferous kimberlite fields, are considered as the example of studies carried out within the Yakutian kimberlite province (Siberian Craton). Interpretation of different crystallization trends in MgO-Cr2O3 coordinates (conventionally named “Haggerty’s parabola”, “Steplike”, “Hockey stick”, as well as the peculiarities of heterogeneity of individual zonal and polygranular Ilm macrocrysts made it possible to propose a three-stage model of crystallization Ilm: (1) Mg-Cr poor ilmenite crystallizing from a primitive asthenospheric melt; (2) Continuing crystallization in the lithospheric contaminated melt by MgO and Cr2O3; (3) Ilmenite subsequently underwent sub-solidus recrystallization in the presence of an evolved kimberlite melt under increasing oxygen fugacity (ƒO2) conditions.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Sergey I. Kostrovitsky"},{id:"80553",title:"Investigation of Accessory Minerals from the Blatná Granodiorite Suite, Bohemian Massif, Czech Republic",slug:"investigation-of-accessory-minerals-from-the-blatn-granodiorite-suite-bohemian-massif-czech-republic",totalDownloads:48,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102628",abstract:"The Central Bohemian magmatic complex belongs to the Central European Variscan belt. The granitic rocks of this plutonic complex are formed by several suites of granites, granodiorites, and tonalites, together with small bodies of gabbros, gabbro diorites, and diorites. The granodiorites of the Blatná suite are high-K, calc-alkaline to shoshonitic, and metaluminous to slightly peraluminous granitic rocks. Compared to the common I-type granites, granodiorites of the Blatná suite are enriched in Mg (1.0–3.4 wt.% MgO), Ba (838–2560 ppm), Sr. (257–506 ppm), and Zr (81–236 ppm). For granodiorites of the Blatná suite is assemblage of apatite, zircon, titanite, and allanite significant. Zircon contains low Hf concentrations (1.1–1.7 wt.% HfO2). The composition of titanite ranges from 83 to 92 mol.% titanite end-member. Allanite is relatively Al-poor and displays Feox. ratio 0.2–0.5.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Miloš René"},{id:"80423",title:"Minerals as Prebiotic Catalysts for Chemical Evolution towards the Origin of Life",slug:"minerals-as-prebiotic-catalysts-for-chemical-evolution-towards-the-origin-of-life",totalDownloads:106,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102389",abstract:"A transition from geochemistry to biochemistry has been considered as a necessary step towards the emergence of primordial life. Nevertheless, how did this transition occur is still elusive. The chemistry underlying this transition is likely not a single event, but involves many levels of creation and reconstruction, finally reaching the molecular, structural, and functional buildup of complexity. Among them, one apparent question is: how the biochemical catalytic system emerged from the mineral-based geochemical system? Inspired by the metal–ligand structures in metalloenzymes, many researchers have proposed that transition metal sulfide minerals could have served as structural analogs of metalloenzymes for catalyzing prebiotic redox conversions. This assumption has been tested and verified to some extent by several studies, which focused on using Earth-abundant transition metal sulfides as catalysts for multi-electron C and N conversions. The progress in this field will be introduced, with a focus on the CO2 fixation and ammonia synthesis from nitrate/nitrite reduction and N2 reduction. Recently developed methods for screening effective mineral catalysts were also reviewed.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Yamei Li"},{id:"80338",title:"Ionic Conductivity of Strontium Fluoroapatites Co-doped with Lanthanides",slug:"ionic-conductivity-of-strontium-fluoroapatites-co-doped-with-lanthanides",totalDownloads:54,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102410",abstract:"Britholites derivatives of apatite’s that contain lanthanium and neodymium in the serial compounds Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 were subject of the present investigation. The solid state reaction was the route of preparing these materials. Several techniques were employed for the analysis and characterization of the synthesized powders. The chemical analysis results indicated that molar ratio Sr+La+NdP+Si was of about 1.67 value of a stoichiometric powder. The X-ray diffraction data showed single-phase apatites crystallizing in hexagonal structure with P63/m space group were successively obtained. Moreover, the substitution of lanthanium by neodymium in strontium phosphosilicated fluorapatite was total. This was confirmed by the a and c lattice parameters contraction when (x) varies coherently to the sizes of the two cations. The infrared spectroscopy and the 31P NMR (MAS) exhibited the characteristic bands of phosphosilicated fluorapatite. The pressureless sintering of the material achieved a maximum of 89% relative density. The sintered specimens indicated that the Nd content as well as the heating temperature affected the ionic conduction of the materials and the maximum was 1.73 × 10−6 S cm−1 obtained at 1052 K for x = 2.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Khouloud Kthiri, Mohammed Mehnaoui, Samira Jebahi, Khaled Boughzala and Mustapha Hidouri"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:10},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. 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Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9759",title:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease",subtitle:"Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9759.jpg",slug:"vitamin-e-in-health-and-disease-interactions-diseases-and-health-aspects",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Júlia Scherer Santos",hash:"6c3ddcc13626110de289b57f2516ac8f",volumeInSeries:22,fullTitle:"Vitamin E in Health and Disease - Interactions, Diseases and Health Aspects",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoğlu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109978/images/system/109978.jpg",institutionString:"Hacettepe University",institution:{name:"Hacettepe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:13}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:8},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:250,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"2",type:"subseries",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",keywords:"Osseointegration, Hard tissue, Peri-implant soft tissue, Restorative materials, Prosthesis design, Prosthesis, Patient satisfaction, Rehabilitation",scope:"
\r\n\tThe success of dental implant treatment is not solely dependent on the osseointegration around the implant. Aside from the criteria used to describe the hard tissue response at the implant level, the success criteria in implant dentistry include three additional aspects: peri-implant soft tissue, prosthesis, and patient’s satisfaction.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry topic will provide readers with up-to-date resources on the prosthodontics factors such as aesthetics, restorative materials, the design of prosthesis, case selection, occlusion, oral rehabilitation, among others, all of which play an important role in determining the success of a well osseointegrated implant. With the help of digital dental technology, these can now be accomplished more predictably.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe end goal of prosthesis is always considered when planning successful implant placement. The readers in this field will be able to learn more about taking a holistic approach when treating their dental implant cases.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11398,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. His main interest is in prosthodontics, dental material, TMD and regenerative dentistry.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218"},editorialBoard:null},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. 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