Geen technologies for the extraction of antioxidant compounds from natural sources.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8308",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Agricultural Economics - Current Issues",title:"Agricultural Economics",subtitle:"Current Issues",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Agricultural Economics - Current Issues is a review of topics related to the economics of agriculture in various parts of the world. It contains a total of seven chapters. These contributions are related to some of the significant current problems facing these regions. The book is divided into four parts. The first part is simply an introduction to the field of agricultural economics. It charts the development of the field from its origin of farm management economics to the current state of a variety of subjects in various parts of the world. In the second section, an issue related to marketing is discussed. This is followed in the third section by an issue related to water resource economics. In the last section the remaining three chapters are devoted to agricultural environment-related topics. All chapters present guidance for policymaking.",isbn:"978-1-78984-050-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-049-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-637-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78437",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"agricultural-economics-current-issues",numberOfPages:128,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"138b8e4117a40c74fc41ec72d552fa9f",bookSignature:"Surendra N. Kulshreshtha",publishedDate:"October 30th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8308.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10511,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:22,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:39,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 11th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 30th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 29th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 19th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 18th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"37057",title:"Dr.",name:"Surendra N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kulshreshtha",slug:"surendra-n.-kulshreshtha",fullName:"Surendra N. Kulshreshtha",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/37057/images/system/37057.jpeg",biography:"Suren(dra) N. Kulshreshtha is currently a professor of agricultural economics at the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, a position he has held for the past 50 years. He joined the University of Saskatchewan in 1969. He has been a Visiting Scientist at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, at Laxenburg, Austria. He has also served various professional societies in capacities such as Editor of the Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics, and Associate Editor of the Canadian Water Resources Journal. He has also participated in several oversees projects in Indonesia, Zambia and India through the Canadian International Development Agency. On the basis of his contributions to the profession of agricultural economics, the Canadian Society of Agricultural Economics selected him a Fellow of the Canadian Agricultural Economics Society in 2004.",institutionString:"University of Saskatchewan",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Saskatchewan",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"304",title:"Urban Agriculture",slug:"urban-agriculture"}],chapters:[{id:"67079",title:"Introductory Chapter: Agricultural Economics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86343",slug:"introductory-chapter-agricultural-economics",totalDownloads:1272,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Surendra N. Kulshreshtha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67079",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67079",authors:[{id:"37057",title:"Dr.",name:"Surendra N.",surname:"Kulshreshtha",slug:"surendra-n.-kulshreshtha",fullName:"Surendra N. Kulshreshtha"}],corrections:null},{id:"64696",title:"Date Palm Value Chain Analysis and Marketing Opportunities for the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82450",slug:"date-palm-value-chain-analysis-and-marketing-opportunities-for-the-gulf-cooperation-council-gcc-coun",totalDownloads:3577,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In order to develop a sustainable date palm production system in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries of the Arabian Peninsula, an analysis of the date value chain in these countries was undertaken. Through the mapping of the chain, the overall objective was to identify the processes where values are created and how they are distributed among stakeholders along the entire date palm value chain. The method used in this analysis was based on an assessment of the data gathered from the multi-stakeholder surveys implemented in the three case studies of the GCC countries: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), Oman, and Kuwait. The empirical findings reveal several problems and constraints that might affect the future of the GCC date palm sector. Therefore, development of a competitive supply date palm chain (both market and agribusiness development) could provide a greater contribution to the GCC economy if producers paid more attention to marketing of this very important food commodity. Hence, date palm production is no longer a way of life but nowadays is considered as an investment option and source of revenues for many stakeholders if the GCC region.",signatures:"Boubaker Dhehibi, Mohamed Ben Salah and Aymen Frija",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64696",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64696",authors:[{id:"197434",title:"Dr.",name:"Boubaker",surname:"Dhehibi",slug:"boubaker-dhehibi",fullName:"Boubaker Dhehibi"},{id:"268347",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Ben Salah",slug:"mohamed-ben-salah",fullName:"Mohamed Ben Salah"},{id:"268348",title:"Dr.",name:"Aymen",surname:"Frija",slug:"aymen-frija",fullName:"Aymen Frija"}],corrections:null},{id:"65227",title:"Effects of Water Scarcity on the Performances of the Agricultural Sector and Adaptation Strategies in Tunisia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83568",slug:"effects-of-water-scarcity-on-the-performances-of-the-agricultural-sector-and-adaptation-strategies-i",totalDownloads:1299,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The chapter aims to develop a regionally disaggregated agricultural supply model for Tunisia in order to investigate the potential effects of increasing water scarcity on the performances of the agricultural sector in the country, and the structural adaptation strategies needed to face such a challenge. A set of scenarios combining future water availability, water use efficiency, and increasing producer prices were simulated using the developed model. Results show that the agricultural sector in Tunisia, particularly the agricultural employment, would be negatively affected in case of decreasing irrigation water availability, and mostly affected regions would be the north east, central west, and southern areas. However, it is always possible to mitigate such effects through a combination of structural adjustments (changing land use in different regions), enhanced water use efficiency, and support of producer prices. The model also provides recommendations regarding specific crops that should be promoted in specific regions in order to maintain an agricultural sector with high added value in Tunisia.",signatures:"Ali Chebil, Aymen Frija, Mariem Makhlouf, Chokri Thabet and Sihem Jebari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65227",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65227",authors:[{id:"268348",title:"Dr.",name:"Aymen",surname:"Frija",slug:"aymen-frija",fullName:"Aymen Frija"},{id:"282705",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ali",surname:"Chebil",slug:"ali-chebil",fullName:"Ali Chebil"},{id:"283211",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariem",surname:"Makhlouf",slug:"mariem-makhlouf",fullName:"Mariem Makhlouf"},{id:"283212",title:"Dr.",name:"Chokri",surname:"Thabet",slug:"chokri-thabet",fullName:"Chokri Thabet"},{id:"308992",title:"Prof.",name:"Sihem",surname:"Jebari",slug:"sihem-jebari",fullName:"Sihem Jebari"}],corrections:null},{id:"66616",title:"Local Techniques for Crop Conservation in Burkina Faso: Analysis of the Valorization Status and Perception of Tilgr-Baore Technology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85179",slug:"local-techniques-for-crop-conservation-in-burkina-faso-analysis-of-the-valorization-status-and-perce",totalDownloads:853,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Agriculture is the main source of income for the poorest people and the pillar of food security in Burkina Faso. However, the producers face the problem of food insecurity each year, due to the effects of climate change and the difficulty of conserving their produce, because of inadequate storage infrastructure. These situations result in the loss of large quantities of products after harvest. Technological advances can provide solutions to this problem of postharvest losses and help many small producers to reduce poverty. Unfortunately, new product conservation techniques implemented in Burkina Faso are less known and poorly adopted. The objective of this chapter is to identify constraints to the valorization of new postharvest technologies of onion and potato and analyze factors influencing farmers’ perception of these innovations. The results of the surveys conducted using the Tilgr-Baore technology show that many agricultural producers are analphabet and not yet aware of the existence of the new product conservation technology. The improvement of the level of education of farmers and the availability of information on innovations are needed to improve the perception of innovations and thus increase the probability of adoption of these innovations.",signatures:"Kala Brigitte Hema, Bienlo Annick Marina Paré and Marie-Thérèse Arcens Somé",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66616",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66616",authors:[{id:"280207",title:"Dr.",name:"Kala Brigitte",surname:"Hema",slug:"kala-brigitte-hema",fullName:"Kala Brigitte Hema"},{id:"289733",title:"MSc.",name:"Bienlo Annick",surname:"Marina Paré",slug:"bienlo-annick-marina-pare",fullName:"Bienlo Annick Marina Paré"},{id:"294842",title:"Dr.",name:"Marie-Thérèse",surname:"Arcens Somé",slug:"marie-therese-arcens-some",fullName:"Marie-Thérèse Arcens Somé"}],corrections:null},{id:"66293",title:"Value Chain-Induced Constraints Limiting Scale of Conservation Agriculture in South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84499",slug:"value-chain-induced-constraints-limiting-scale-of-conservation-agriculture-in-south-africa",totalDownloads:812,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The potential of scaling conservation agriculture (CA), for long-term food security, remains under-investigated within the context of agricultural food value chains in South Africa. To scale the use of CA an understanding of the current agricultural value chains, their functioning, regulatory framework and constraints, is essential and this raises a key question: What are the main shortfalls and deterrents in agricultural value chains and why might CA be faced with challenges to feed into these existing structures, through which it could, the hopes are, create a more inclusive and sustainable farming system for long-term food security? The empirical data from an ethnographic qualitative participant research showed that interviewed value chain participants (VCP) are limited in acting on account of their economic constraints. None of them had products that supported CA, while financial institutions argued that such products would not be necessary, as any risk mitigating farming system would, in any event, result in financial benefits to the farmer.",signatures:"Wolfgang Johann von Loeper, Scott Drimie and James Blignaut",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66293",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66293",authors:[{id:"219859",title:"Mr.",name:"Wolfgang Johann",surname:"von Loeper",slug:"wolfgang-johann-von-loeper",fullName:"Wolfgang Johann von Loeper"},{id:"222873",title:"Prof.",name:"James",surname:"Blignaut",slug:"james-blignaut",fullName:"James Blignaut"},{id:"222874",title:"Dr.",name:"Scott",surname:"Drimie",slug:"scott-drimie",fullName:"Scott Drimie"}],corrections:null},{id:"64186",title:"Coastal Community Adaptation to Climate Change-Induced Salinity Intrusion in Bangladesh",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80418",slug:"coastal-community-adaptation-to-climate-change-induced-salinity-intrusion-in-bangladesh",totalDownloads:1685,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Bangladesh, a country with a size of 147,570 km2, has the largest delta in the world with one-third of the country residing a costal shoreline. The livelihood of the inhabitants is exposed to a series of tribulations causing radical setbacks, of which natural disasters like tropical cyclones bring large-scale salinity intrusion. Occurring due to three main causal factors including climate change, sedimentation, and low water flow, salinity poses challenges in agriculture and overall food security, hence impeding the health and livelihood of marginalized women, children, and elderly and explicably the overall vulnerable population at large. Against that backdrop, this chapter will delineate three broad spectra of Bangladesh’s approach to “living with salt”: (1) the assessment of salt intrusion in water and soil in Bangladesh’s coastal zones due to climate change, (2) understanding the vulnerabilities to salinity within marginalized population, and (3) coping or adapting strategies to combat and live with salt. The chapter also includes the findings of a recent case study conducted on Bangladesh coastal zone to demonstrate the current livelihood conditions under salinity, conditions of the actions taken by the government and nongovernment organizations, gaps, and recommendations for a more resilient coastal community.",signatures:"Golam Rabbani, Sirazoom Munira and Samia Saif",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64186",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64186",authors:[{id:"252937",title:"Mr.",name:"Golam",surname:"Rabbani",slug:"golam-rabbani",fullName:"Golam Rabbani"},{id:"252939",title:"Dr.",name:"Samia",surname:"Saif",slug:"samia-saif",fullName:"Samia Saif"},{id:"252940",title:"Dr.",name:"Sirazoom",surname:"Munira",slug:"sirazoom-munira",fullName:"Sirazoom Munira"}],corrections:null},{id:"69221",title:"Social Value of Urban Rooftop Farming: A Hong Kong Case Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89279",slug:"social-value-of-urban-rooftop-farming-a-hong-kong-case-study",totalDownloads:1015,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"As cities densify, areas available for agriculture within the city become increasingly small and infeasible for mass production. In parallel, many cities have seen a rapid rise in establishing community-based micro-farming, operating within marginal spaces of uncertain ownership or regulations. Prominently in Hong Kong, more than 60 urban rooftop farms have spontaneously appeared in the last 10 years on buildings. High application rates for renting plots in these informal farms suggest a strong demand in the population. Motivations cited by participants of rooftop farms are typically social, although social values have yet to be specifically defined or objectively measured. Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government’s new agricultural policy conceives urban agriculture as a commercially productive practice. In consequence, urban rooftop farming lies awkwardly between formal city planning and informal community practices. A study of five rooftop farms in Hong Kong found, through participant opinion surveys and cost-benefit analysis, that the social benefits to participants were multifaceted with a preference on personal socialization and that they were willing to pay for the experience. The results suggest that if the products of rooftop farming could be conceived as being social, rather than food production, individual motivations and state interests could be aligned and the available roof space activated to achieve a more sustainable city.",signatures:"Ting Wang and Mathew Pryor",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69221",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69221",authors:[{id:"289674",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ting",surname:"Wang",slug:"ting-wang",fullName:"Ting Wang"},{id:"289677",title:"Prof.",name:"Mathew",surname:"Pryor",slug:"mathew-pryor",fullName:"Mathew Pryor"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5502",title:"Current Perspective on Irrigation and Drainage",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f84b58948ba0347cba6ad7d2f1e65fe2",slug:"current-perspective-on-irrigation-and-drainage",bookSignature:"Suren Kulshreshtha and Amin Elshorbagy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5502.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37057",title:"Dr.",name:"Surendra N.",surname:"Kulshreshtha",slug:"surendra-n.-kulshreshtha",fullName:"Surendra N. 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Shields"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"75146",title:"Valorization of Natural Antioxidants for Nutritional and Health Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96111",slug:"valorization-of-natural-antioxidants-for-nutritional-and-health-applications",body:'Nowadays, the awareness for the need to have a healthier lifestyle results in a higher consumption of natural organic food products and nutritionally rich antioxidants rather than synthetic and processed foods. In the past decade, an increased interest in the exploitation of natural ingredients to be used in the food and food products was observed. Researchers from all over the world are focusing on alternative sources of healthy nutrients promoting a safer and convenient diet. There is not clear evidence that synthetic antioxidants have toxic effects, although, consumer’s interest is moving towards the natural products. Moreover, synthetic antioxidants and preservatives in food may lead to lipid peroxidation and deterioration of food flavor and quality [1]. Therefore, organic and sustainable processes, the identification of new phytochemicals with attractive biological activities, such as antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial, among others, are a hot topic among food researchers as well as for food industry aiming to develop new functional and therapeutic products.
Natural antioxidants are mainly derived from food, plants and other living organisms, such as fruits, vegetables, flowers, cereals, mushrooms, macro and micro-algae, spices and traditional medicinal herbs [2]. It is known that exogenous antioxidants have a strong potential to inhibit oxidative stress, preventing the lipid peroxidation process, and restore the cellular homeostasis [3]. Indeed, most of the antioxidant products shown to act as potential therapeutic agents. The consumption of antioxidants is highly important not only in prevention but also as an adjunct in the treatment of various human pathologies associated with oxidative stress, such as diabetes, aging, neurological, cardiovascular, and cancer [4]. In this sense, beneficial health effects of antioxidants are directly linked to regular daily intake and bioavailability.
The issues created by the increase of the human population, together with a reduction in renewable resources, is reflected in the increase of the global demand for reuse of industrial biowastes, as well as increasing the use of underexploited resources. The growing demand for new or alternative bioactive molecules obtained by green and sustainable processes, and decreasing the quantity of biowastes are premises for the development of conscious approaches for the valorization of phytochemicals from natural sources [5, 6]. Additionally, the development and optimization of efficient and intensified process for the recovery and isolation of high value phytochemicals are important.
The current chapter is focused on appreciation of different green extraction strategies related to the recovery of high value bioactive compounds from natural sources, their potential antioxidant activity, and possible nutritional and health applications.
The recovery of antioxidant biomolecules or extracts is an important step to enable the reuse of natural resources for subsequent application in pharmaceutical, cosmetic products, food enrichment and preservatives, supplements and nutraceuticals.
Usually, bioactive phytochemicals are obtained using solid–liquid extraction, the unit operation, and depends on several factors, including the applied extraction technique, the parameters associated with the technique (such as temperature, time, pH and the extraction solvent), and the raw materials composition [7]. Extraction process is composed by 4 essential steps: (1) raw material pre-treatment (drying, grinding,
The extraction process, when it is not optimized, is often time and energy consuming, induces the use of huge amount of water or petroleum-based solvents (harmful for environment and consumers) and generates large quantity of waste [9]. Moreover, the resulting extract may not be safe for the consumers, as it may contain residual solvents, contaminants from raw material, or denatured compounds due to extreme extraction conditions [5]. In this sense, the extraction processes intensification/optimization is necessary. The goal of an intensified process is to obtain greater extraction efficiency, high-quality and safe extracts while reducing extraction time, energy consumption, number of unit operations, amount of water and organic solvents in the process, environmental impact, economic costs and quantity of waste generated [8].
In the last decades, the growing interest in the global ecological footprint reduction, bioeconomy control and consumer safety, has propel the implementation of innovative and clean alternatives in the food, chemical, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, following the principles of green chemistry and green engineering [10, 11].
Among the various extraction factors, solvents play an important role in extraction efficiency. The reduction of hazardous solvents is also considered one of the priorities of international policies [12]. A suitable solvent is able to obtain safe and high-quality ingredients and to preserve the biological effects of the extracted compounds. Furthermore, it should be recyclable and reusable, preventing negative environmental effects.
Numerous solvents have been used for the extraction of antioxidants from foods, marine sources, medicinal plants and agroindustrial wastes [6]. The selection of solvents must be based on the chemical nature and polarity of the compounds to be extracted, since solvents with different polarities are necessary for the isolation of compounds with different chemical structure [5]. For example, most of the phenolics, flavanoids and anthocyanins are hydrosoluble antioxidants. The polar and medium polar solvents, such as water, ethanol, methanol, propanol, acetone and their aqueous mixtures, are widely used for their extraction [13, 14, 15]. Carotenoids are lipid-soluble antioxidants, and common organic solvents, such as the mixtures of hexane with acetone, ethanol, methanol, or mixtures of ethyl acetate with acetone, ethanol, methanol, have been used for extraction [16, 17, 18].
A number of new alternatives to conventional techniques (Soxhlet, heat reflux, infusion, distillation,
Extraction technology | Concept | Advantages | Disadvantages | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Microwave assisted extraction (MAE) | Microwaves are electromagnetic fields in the range of 300 MHz to 300 GHz. The solvent penetrates into the solid matrix by diffusion leading to cell disruption and releasing the compounds of interest from a matrix to a solvent. | Lower time of extraction; low solvent volume; effective, uniform and selective heating. | High extraction pressure might modify the chemical structures of the compounds; low penetration of radiation in bulk products; equipment more expensive. | [5, 19] |
Ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) | Ultrasound is a sound wave of 20 kHz to 100 MHz. This process produces a phenomenon called cavitation, which means that the production, growth, and collapse of the bubbles to form pores that facilitate the cell wall disruption and increased the release of intracellular compounds into the extraction medium. | Fast; low solvent usage; lower extraction temperatures; preserving heat-sensitive compounds; eco-friendly and cheap process. | Energy intensive; dificult to scale up. | [20, 21] |
Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) | This technology is based on the use of liquid solvents at temperature and pressure values above the atmospheric boiling point and below the critical point values, decreasing the viscosity of the solvent, promoting accelerated dissolution kinetics, and increasing the solutes’ solubility. The process disrupts the matrix, which increases the mass transfer of the analyte from the solvent sample | Rapid extraction; reduced organic solvent consumption. | Requires sophisticated instrumentation; possible degradation of thermolabile compounds. | [22, 23] |
Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) | Supercritical extraction is characterized by changes in temperature and pressure which transform the gas in supercritical fluid. | Fast; selective extraction; no residual solvents. | High cost; energy intensive; low polarity; type of co-solvent affects the efficiency of the extraction of antioxidant compounds. | [23, 24] |
High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) | This technology applys very high pressures (100–1000 MPa) at 0 °C to less than 100 °C for a short period of time. Improves mass transfer rates and increases the secondary metabolite diffusion according to phase transitions. | Time efficient, requires less solvent, convenient, eco-friendly, safe and energy efficient; does not generate waste; pure and microbiologically safe products; absence of heating, avoiding compound denaturation and ensuring the extraction of thermo-sensitive components. | Variable efficiency; high processing costs. | [25, 26, 27, 28] |
Enzyme assisted extraction (EAE) | The matrix and enzyme solution are loaded into an extraction vessel and placed in a thermostated water bath at the certain temperature and time. | Moderate extraction conditions; eco-friendly; selectivity due to the specificity of enzymes. | Expensive cost of enzymes; activity of enzymes varying with the environmental factors; filtration and cleanup step required; time consuming. | [3, 7, 23] |
Pulsed electric field (PEF) | The material is placed between two electrodes. The pulse amplitude varies from 100–300 V/cm to 20–80 kV/cm. The treatment is conducted at room temperature or slightly higher. The principle of PEF extraction is to induce the electroporation of the cell membrane, thereby increasing the extraction yield. | Improves extraction and diffusion; cell permeability; minimize loss of heat sensitive molecules; selectivity of extracted compounds. | High control of parameters associated with the process (energy input, strength, pulses, temperature, and raw material properties, | [5, 9, 29, 30] |
High voltage electrical discharges (HVED) | It is an effective method to damage the cell structure and the extraction of valuable cellular compounds. The first step is the formation and propagation of a coil of a needle electrode and the formation of gaseous cavities. The second stage occurs when the streamer reaches the electrode plate (phase decomposition). | Efficiency of cell destruction; low solvent consumption; low operating temperature and temperature rise. | Free radicals production, which can react with antioxidant compounds, thus decreasing their bioactivy; lower selectivy; scale-up difficulties. | [19, 22, 31] |
Ohmic heating (OH) | Non-pulsed electrotechnology centered on the conversion of electric energy into thermal energy based in the Joule effect (heat is generated inside a conductive matrix). The voltage applied in the OH process normally varies between 400 and 4000 V (electric field from 0.001 to 1 kV/cm). | Fast and homogeneous heating; reduction of energy consumption and times; low water and organic solvents use; low waste generation; selectivity of extracted compounds; improves extraction and diffusion by cell permeability. | High control of parameters associated with the process (similar to PEF and HVED). | [9, 32, 33] |
Geen technologies for the extraction of antioxidant compounds from natural sources.
In the following sections some examples of natural matrices used as sources of antioxidant compounds using clean and innovative processes will be reported.
Fruits and vegetables are highly recommended dietary contents, widely known for their health-promoting effects and nutritious values. They got an essential place as conventional foods in the history because of their high amount of minerals, specifically electrolytes; vitamins, mainly vitamins C and E. Several studies are also demonstrating their high phytochemical contents eith antioxidant properties. Antioxidants obtained from plants, vegetables and fruits are mostly of terpenes, polyphenols, phytosterols, peptides, vitamins and minerals (Figure 1) [34, 35]. Antioxidant minerals, such as iron, zinc, selenium, copper, and manganese, act as cofactor of many antioxidant enzymes, absence of which may certainly disturb the activity of their enzymatic scavenging activity [2].
Classification of natural antioxidants.
It has been argued that agri-food residues generated by the use of plants and their derivatives might have a negative impact on the environment when they are discarded. In developed countries, 42% of food waste is produced by households, while 39% losses occur in the food manufacturing industry, 14% in food service sector and remaining 5% in retail and distribution [36]. Waste from parts of plants such as peel, leaves, stem, seed, and roots generated from agriculture, to industrial manufacturing and processing [2]. They constitute a low-cost source of antioxidant molecules, which exhibit other biological activities, like antidiabetic, anti-obesity, antihypertensive, anticancer, and antimicrobial [13, 37, 38].
Marine biodiversity is another underexploited source of natural products. Marine resources are gaining the attention of industries such as foods, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, and cosmetics because they have several interesting antioxidant molecules and other attractive biotechnological compounds (
Algae are considered the richest source of active compounds with antioxidant activity (and other biological activities). They can be used as nutraceuticals, food additives and cosmetics. Algae are composed by a complex group of photosynthetic organisms with simple reproductive organs, which can be multicellular, known as macroalgae or seaweeds, and unicellular named as microalgae [40]. Algae produce various secondary metabolites with many antioxidant activities such as pigments (phycobiliproteins, chlorophylls and carotenoids), polyphenols (bromophenols, flavonoids, phlorotannins and phenolic acids), vitamins (β-carotene and other carotenoids), a complex of B vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7 and B12), vitamin C (ascorbic acid), vitamin D and vitamin E (α-tocopherol) [40, 41]. Sulfated polysaccharides are nonanimal compounds reported to have antioxidant activities, which can be obtained from marine algae and other marine organisms from the phaeophyta group [42]. These compounds may be used as hydrocolloids and as nutraceuticals in the food industry.
Iodine (an important mineral from seaweeds), is a key element for hormones related with the thyroid, helping in the metabolism regulation [43].
Marine sponges (family Aplysinellidae) are recognized as producers of bromotyrosine derivatives, displaying a myriad of biological and pharmacological potentialities [39]. Many biological compounds previously isolated from some other marine organisms such as fish, crustaceans, and their by-products present bioactive potential.
For the past few decades, researchers and industry have been focusing their work on the use of by-products or biowastes to obtain products with high added value, using innovative and environmentally friendly processes. These products can be used as (bio)functional additives, or as a therapeutic alternative in the prevention or treatment of cardiometabolic, cancer and neurodegenerative diseases [40, 42, 44, 45].
Table 2 shows some examples of bioactive molecules from natural sources (plants and their by-products and algae), as well as the type of technologies and solvents used in the extraction process.
Sources | Compounds | Technologies (Solvents) | Bioactivities | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Passion fruit peel | Carotenoids Pectin | MAE,UAE (water, 0live oil sun flower oil) | Antioxidant Antimicrobial Anticancer | [46, 47] |
Vine pruning | Polyphenols | OH, MAE, (water, ethanol) | Antioxidant Anticancer | [48, 49] |
Grape skins | Anthocyanins Polyphenols | OH, MAE, UAE, EAE, PLE (water, eutectic solvents) | Antioxidant | [50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55] |
Colored potato | Anthocyanins | OH (water) | Antioxidant Antimicrobial Anticancer Neuroprotective | [15] |
Pine bark | Polyphenols | OH, MAE, UAE, SFE (CO2, water, ethanol) | Antioxidant Anticancer Antimicrobial Antihyperglycemic | [13, 56, 57, 58] |
Pine nuts | Polyphenols | PLE, UAE, MAE (water) | Antioxidant | [59] |
Soy beans | Proteins Isoflavones | EAE, UAE, PLE (eutectic solvents, ionic liquid, water, methanol) | Antioxidant Cardioprotective Anticancer | [60, 61, 62, 63] |
Mentha | Polyphenols Essential oil | UAE, SFE, MAE, OH (water, ethanol, methanol) | Antioxidant | [64, 65, 66] |
Tomato by-products | Polyphenols Pectin Fatty acids Carotenoids | MAE, HHP, UAE, PEF, SFE, EAE (hexane, methanol, acetone, ethyl lactate) | Antioxidant Cardioprotective Antihypertensive Antidiabetic Anticancer | [67, 68, 69, 70, 71] |
Apple peels | Pectin Polyphenols | UAE, SFE (water) | Antioxidant | [72, 73] |
Apple seeds | Essential oils polyphenols | PFE, UAE, SFE (CO2, water) | Antioxidant | [74, 75, 76] |
Brewer’s spent grains | Polyphenols, proteins | PEF, UAE, SFE (water, ethanol) | Antioxidant | [77, 78, 79] |
Orange peel | Pectin Polyphenols | PEF, MAE (citric acid) | Antioxidant | [37, 80] |
Moringa leaves | Polyphenols Vitamin C | PLE (water) | Antioxidant | [81] |
Rapeseed oil Guava oil, | Phytosterols, Polyphenols Tocopherols | SFE (CO2, Euctetic solvents) | Anticholesterolemic Antioxidant | [82, 83] |
Roselle seeds Black sesame seeds | Phytosterols | SFE (CO2, ethanol) | Anticholesterolemic Antioxidant | [84, 85] |
Polyphenols Carotenoids Phycobiliproteins | OH; MAE; PEF; UAS; EAE (water, ethanol) | Antioxidant Antimicrobial Anticancer Anti-inflammatory | [86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95] | |
Carotenoids Lipids | OH; UAE (ethanol) | Antioxidant Anti-inflammatory | [96, 97] | |
Carotenoids Polyphenols | PEF; SFE (CO2, Water, water: ethanol) | Antioxidant Antimicrobial Anticancer Anti-inflammatory | [98, 99, 100, 101] | |
Carotenoids Chlorophylls Polyphenols Proteins Lipids | UAE; PEF; PLE (water, ethanol, dimethyl sulfoxide) | Antioxidant UV-protective Anti-inflammatory Anticancer | [102, 103, 104] | |
Proteins Pigments Lipids Carotenoids Chlorophylls Polyphenols | HVED; HHP; PLE, MAE (water, ethanol, chloroform: methanol) | Antioxidant | [17, 105] | |
Carotenoids | PLE (ethanol) | Antioxidant | [106] | |
Sulfated polysaccharides | Maceration by liquid nitrogen (sodium acetate buffer) | Antioxidant | [42] | |
Fatty acids Polyphenols | PLE (hexane, ethyl acetate, ethanol and ethanol:water) | Antioxidant Anti-atherogenic | [107] | |
Polyphenols | MAE (70% methanol) | Antioxidant Anti-hyperglycemic | [108] | |
Polyphenols | PLE (water, ethanol/water, and methanol/water) | Antioxidant Antiproliferative | [40, 109] | |
Proteins Peptides | EAE (water) | Antioxidant Cardioprotective Anti-inflammatory Anti-diabetic | [110, 111] | |
Phycobiliproteins | UAE (phosphate buffer) | Antioxidant Anticancer Anti-inflammatory | [112, 113] |
Green processes for antioxidants recovery from some plants, algae and by-products.
MAE, Microwave assisted extraction; UAE, Ultrasound assisted extraction; PLE, Pressurized liquid extraction; SFE, Supercritical fluid extraction; HHP, High hydrostatic pressure; EAE, Enzyme assisted extraction; PEF, Pulsed electric field; HVED, High voltage electrical discharges; OH, Ohmic heating.
Currently, phytochemicals are being used in several commercial applications, like nutraceuticals, food supplements, cosmetic products, food coloring agents, among others. As an example
Multiple cosmetics companies use algae extracts and compounds in their formulations, as an active agent, or a moisturizer, excipient, gelling, thickening, dyes, pigments, preservatives, additives, aroma or fragrance agents. For example,
β-Carotene was the first high-value product commercially produced from a microalga
Antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), are considered to be, the first line defense in the cells against reactive species like superoxide radical (·O2). SOD, CAT and GPx are indispensable in the antioxidant defense of the body [118]. SOD is an endogenous enzyme and the most powerful antioxidant in the cell. As a metalloenzyme SOD requires a metal cofactor for its activity (iron,zinc or copper). It catalyzes the conversion of two molecules of ·O2 to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The level of superoxide dismutase decrease with the age. Moreover, the SOD deficiency was connected to a number of pathologies in both animals and humans. The daily intake of SOD supplement protect the immune system and slow down aging process. CAT is highly efficient antioxidant enzyme, located primarily in the peroxisomes but absent in mitochondria of mammalian cells. It catalyzes the reduction of H2O2 to water and molecular oxygen, completing the process initiated by SOD. In the mammalian mitochondria cells, where the catalase is absent, the breakdown of the hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen is carried out by another enzyme the GPx. GPx is an intracellular enzyme, and its activity depends on the micronutrient cofactor selenium [118]. Cabbage, brussels sprouts, and broccoli are natural sources of these enzymes [118].
The protein role in the antioxidant defense system is a result of their direct action as precursors of intracellular formation of glutathione [119]. The antioxidant potential of fruit and vegetable juices and grain products is comparable to the antioxidant potential of milk [119]. Plant proteins are considered the new source of antioxidant peptides [120]. Soy milk is soybean-derived product rich in bioactive peptides and isoflavones. It is one of the most popular milk-substitutes for individuals with lactose-intolerance [121]. Other known plant protein drinks substitutes of caw milk are rice milk and almond milk.
Bioactive peptides are present in many fermented and functional foods. The bioactive peptides usually have between 2 and 20 amino acids residues and exercise their activities only after being released from the main protein. Bioactive peptides can display different activities, e.g. antihypertensive, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory or antimicrobial, depending on the sequence and amino acid composition [122]. Agroindustrial by-products and wastes are being used as a source of bioactive peptides. Tomato seeds, containing 28% of protein, were subjected to fermentation to obtain different size of peptides [122]. Many times in fruit processing the main generated waste is the fruit stone. The alternatives for reutilization of these type of waste are few (as fertilizers or fuels). The cherry fruit stone contain high values of protein (up to 39%), and is considered a cheap source for production of bioactive peptides [123]. The obtained peptide fractions had high antioxidant or antihypertensive activities [123]. Phycobiliproteins are water soluble protein found in Rhodophyta (red algae), Cyanobacteria (
Other wastes like, peel, leaves, stem, seeds and roots are generated during harvesting, post-harvesting or processing of plants. These wastes are low-cost source of antioxidant molecules like terpenes, polyphenols, phytosterols and peptides that can exhibit different biological activities including antidiabetic, anti-obesity, antihypertensive, anticancer, antiviral and antibacterial [126].
Terpenes also known as terpenoids or isoprenoids are antioxidant molecules formed by the condensation of two subunits of isoprene (C5H8). Moreover, the terpenes are classified on the basis of the number of isoprene units (Figure 1). Terpenes are the main constituents of essential oils (up to 90%) and are very diverse in structure and compounds. Carotenoids are a class of natural lipid-soluble pigments that are responsible for the red, yellow, and orange colors found in various plants and microorganisms. Carotenoids are tetraterpenes (C-40) classified in two groups xanthophylls (lutein, zeaxanthin, and β-cryptoxanthin) and carotenes (α-carotene, β-carotene, and lycopene). Carotenoids are beneficial for humans and animals demonstrating antioxidant, antidibetic, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities [33, 127, 128, 129].
Polyphenol compounds are secondary metabolites produced in plants as a response to different stress conditions. Nowadays more than 8,000 polyphenols are known and more than a half correspond to the group of flavonoids. The main structure of the phenols is the benzene ring with different OH radicals. According to their chemical structure phenolic compounds can be divided in two major groups flavonoid and non-flavonoid. The non-flavonoid group includes the phenolic acids (hydroxybenzoic acids and hydroxycinnamic acids), stilbenes and lignans. The anthocyanins, flavanols, flavonols, flavones, flavanones, isoflavones and tannins are flavonoids [5].
Flavonoid consumption is associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease, stroke and cancer. Rich sources of polyphenol compounds in nature are fruits and vegetables, cereals, chocolate, olive oils and beverages such as tea and wine (Table 2). Polyphenols are known for their strong antioxidant properties [5]. The strength of their antioxidant activity depends on their interaction with other molecules. For example the absorption of polyphenols in human body is enchased when there is no sugar molecules attached with them. This means that tea polyphenol have higher absorption than fruit polyphenols because of the high sugar content. Normally from the total consumed amount of polyphenol only 15% -20% are absorbed in the human blood [2]. Moreover, studies demonstrated that the addition of milk to tea, a habit common in the United Kingdom, reduces the absorption of flavonols and diminish their antioxidant effect [130].
Vitamins obtained from fruit and vegetables also act as antioxidants. Examples are vitamin C and vitamin E. Vitamin C, that is ascorbic acid is powerful antioxidant found in citrus fruits and vegetables such as oranges, lemons, as well as tomatoes. Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin found naturally in lipid-rich fruits and vegetables, such as olives, sun flower, and nuts [2].
Phytosterols are natural bioactive compounds belonging to the group of triterpens. Humans must obtain phytosterols from plant-derived foods, such as nuts, seeds, cereals and legumes, vegetable oils, soybean oil, and sunflower oil (examples in Table 2) [126]. The most important and abundant phytosterols are β-sitosterol (carbon structure C-29), campesterol (C-28), and stigmasterol (C-29) [126, 131]. Phytosterols have chemical structures and functions similar to cholesterol, but differ from it by an extra methyl or ethyl group at C-24 or a double bond at the C-22 position [132]. Because of the similarity in the structure, phytosterols can reduce cholesterol absorption in the small intestine and thus decreasing blood cholesterol levels. Additional known bioactivities of the phytosterols are anticholesterolemic, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, anticancer, antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory [131, 133].
Oxidation is a natural phenomenon of human cells. Several important biological processes need reactive oxygen species (ROS) like superoxide radicals, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals and singlet oxygen [134, 135]. Without them, protein phosphorylation, activation of transcriptional factors, apoptosis or cell differentiation would not occur. The problem lays on the formation/degradation imbalance of ROS and/or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) [134, 135]. The cell has intrinsic mechanisms to protect itself from excess of ROS/RNS, but only to an extent. If the threshold levels are overcome, cellular structures can be damaged like protein [134, 135, 136], lipids [134, 135, 137], polysaccharides [134, 135, 138] and nucleic acids [134, 135, 139]. Several cell mechanisms of defense against oxidative stress have been described in the literature [140, 141]. These mechanisms can be divided into enzymatic and non-enzymatic. SOD, CAT, GPx, Thioredoxin (TRX), Peroxiredoxin (PRX), Glutathione transferase (GST) are endogenous enzymatic mechanisms, while All trans retinol 2 (Vitamin A), Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) and α-Tocopherol (Vitamin E) are non-enzymatic endogenous antioxidant mechanism [141]. SOD catalyzes de dismutation of the superoxide anion free radical into molecular oxygen and hydrogen peroxide [141, 142] (Eqs. (1) and (2)). As described by Younus [142] this reaction is accompanied by an alternate oxidation–reduction of the metal ions present in the active site of SOD.
CAT can use iron or even manganese as a cofactor for its enzymatic reactions that will lead to the degradation or reduction of hydrogen peroxide to water molecules and oxygen. This enzyme competes the detoxification process that SOD initiated (Eqs. (3)-(5))[118, 143, 144].
GTPx encompasses two independent reactions, the first one is the reduction of the enzyme by a hydroperoxide (Eq. (6)) followed by the oxidation to GSH [145].
Trx system is composed by Trx and thioredoxin reductase and NADPH. It is described that Trx uses cysteines at position 32 and 35 for the enzymatic reaction. In the first reaction (Adenosine monophosphate + sulfite + thioredoxin disulphide = 5′-adenylyl+thioredoxin) [141, 146] the N-terminal cysteine of Trx acts on the disulphide bond of the substrate protein, leading to the formation a mixed disulphide bond between Trx and the substrate protein. Following the reaction to the C-terminal cysteine of Trx on the intermediate intermolecular disulphide bond, which will form in a disulphide bond in the oxidized Trx and the breakdown of the disulphide bond in the reduce substrate (Adenosine 3′,5′-bisphosphate + sulfite + thioredoxin disulphide = 3′-phosphoadenylyl sulphate+thioredoxin) [141, 146]. PRX are antioxidant enzyme with the ability to reduce hydroperoxides, organic hydroperoxides and peroxynitrite using Trx as electrons donor (Eq. 8) [141, 147].
The presence of ROS initiates an autocatalytic chain lipid peroxidation of polyunsaturated acids, which leads to the formation of toxic electrophilic species and free radicals. This reaction may lead to the increase of 4-Hydroxynonenal (4HNE). GST catalyze conjugation of lipid aldehydes like 4HNE, with GSH are the major defense against oxidative stress-induced cytotoxicity (Eq. (9)) [141, 148].
It is not clear if oxidative stress is the onset of degenerative diseases [149], but it is well known that it plays a significant role in their progression, like in the case of Alzheimer’s disease or vascular dementia [150]. Oxidative stress is also involved in other diseases like cancer [151, 152], cardiovascular diseases [153], metabolic disorders [154], and even on aging [149, 155]. Therefore, it is necessary to lower the ROS/RNS concentration inside the cell to minimize the effect. Antioxidants can act by different chemical mechanism: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer (SET) and the ability to chelate transition metals.
Most of the commercially available anti-inflammatory and antioxidant medication present side effects [156], therefore the interest in natural antioxidants has grown considerably for the past years, being the phytochemicals a group of interest.
The characterization of molecules with antioxidant potential is complex, due to the inherent complexity of the oxidative reactions that occurs in cells [156]. There are several methods to determine the antioxidant potential of a particular substrate. Table 3 describes some of the chemical
Method | Description | Determination | References |
---|---|---|---|
2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) | DPPH is a stable free radical that in contact with a substrate that can donate a hydrogen bond forms a non-radical molecule Diphenylpicrylhhydrazine. Scavenging activity mechanism. | Colorimetric | [1] |
2,2`-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS) | In the presence of antioxidant ABTS.+ is reduce to ABTS resulting in a decrease in color. Scavenging activity mechanism. | Colorimetric | [157, 158] |
O2−· scavenging activity | This assay is optimized for enzymatic antioxidants and relies on the competition kinetics of O2−· reduction of cytochrome C (probe) and O2−· scavenger (sample). Not suitable for non-enzymatic antioxidants. Scavenging activity mechanism. | Fluorescence | [1] |
H2O2 scavenging activity | A common assay that claims to measure H2O2 scavenging capacity of dietary antioxidants uses horseradish peroxidase to oxidize scopoletin to a nonfluorescent product. In the presence of antioxidants the oxidation is inhibited. Scavenging activity mechanism. | Fluorescence | [1] |
Ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) | It is based on the ability of antioxidants to reduce ferric iron. The molecule 2,3,5-triphenyl-1,3,4-triaza-2-azoniacyclopenta-1,4-diene chloride (TPTZ) is reduce to the ferrous form at a low pH. This reduction will result in a color change. Reducing power mechanism. | Colorimetric | [158, 159] |
Cupric ion reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC) | bis(neocuproine)copper(II) chloride (Cu(II)-Nc) chromogenic oxidizing agent can react with a polyphenol. The reactive Ar-OH from the polyphenol are oxidized to quinones and Cu (II)-Nc reduced to a highly colored Cu (I)-Nc chelate. | Colorimetric | [158, 160] |
Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) | Assay is based on the oxidation of a fluorescent probe by peroxyl radicals by way of a hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) process. Peroxyl radicals are produced by a free radical initiator, which quenches the fluorescent probe over time. Antioxidants present in the assay work to block the peroxyl radical oxidation of the fluorescent probe until the antioxidant activity in the sample is depleted. The remaining peroxyl radicals destroy the fluorescence of the fluorescent probe. | Fluorescence | [161, 162] |
Total radical-trapping antioxidant potential (TRAP) | It is based on the measurement of the fluorescence decay of R-phytocoerythrin during an oxidation reaction. Antioxidant activity mechanism. | Chemiluminescence quenching | [163, 164] |
Thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS) | Lipid peroxidation inhibition. | Colorimetric Fluorescence | [1] |
In vitro assays to evaluate natural substrates antioxidant potential.
The chemical characterization of phytochemicals in terms of their antioxidant capacity is only the first step. It is necessary to perform a second screening using
Several studies have been made regarding the antioxidative properties of phytochemicals, as an example Ferreira-Santos
The third step is to evaluate these molecules
In the literature there are extensive studies regarding phytochemicals impact human health, particularly on the prevention of cardiovascular, metabolic, neurodegenerative and cancer diseases.
Cardiovascular diseases are associated with a multiple risk factors like hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, smoking, diabetes, poor diet, stress and physical inactivity. Usually, vegetables like spinach, citrus fruits, soybean oil, sprouts, peppers, cereals, spices, whole grain, honey, walnuts and black tea can significantly increase the hepatic antioxidant enzymes reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Some specific fruits, vegetables or legumes can prevent cardiovascular disease induced by oxidative stress, due to presence of unique dietary antioxidant components [34].
Already in 1999, a study comprising approximately 100 000 patients in the US evaluated over a period of 7 years the outcome of flavonoid intake. The results demonstrated that flavonoid consumption was associated with lower risk of death with cardiovascular disease [172]. Patel
Hypertension is characterized by high blood pressure leading to cardiac and vascular problems. A study performed in hypertensive rats demonstrated that the intake of
Diabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disease, characterized by elevated levels of blood glucose and insufficiency in production and action of insulin is the seventh leading cause of death worldwide. Phytochemicals with antioxidant activity like cinnamic acids, coumarins, diterpenes, flavonoids, lignans, prophenylphenols, monoterpenes, tannins, triterpenes,
Similarly to cardiovascular diseases, the number of reports regarding the benefices of phytochemicals and cancer prevention and treatment are immense. Briefly, it has been reported that curcumin, a polyphenol compound that has anticancer properties, acting on cell cycle regulation, apoptosis, oncogene expression and metastasis [177]. The intake of green tea seem to help in the treatment of patients with low grade B-cell tumors [178, 179]. Another phytochemical that demonstrated positive results is
Neurodegenerative diseases are highly debilitating diseases associated to oxidative stress and inflammatory processes. Several studies have been performed to validate the benefices of phytochemicals on the several neurodegenerative diseases, like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and multiple sclerosis. Flavonoids have a specific role in central nervous system maintaining homeostasis by effecting as antianxiety, anticonvulsant, by modulating neuronal oxidative metabolism, and neurotransmitters [183]. Epigallocatechin-3-galate, a polyphenol present in the tea leaves seems to delay neurons degeneration [184]. A commercial drug which has in its composition Epigallocatechin-3-galate demonstrated to reduce amyloid plaques on an Alzheimer disease model [185, 186]. Another study demonstrated that epigallocatechin-3-galate and tea prevented the loss of cells in substantia nigra in a Parkinson Disease model [187]. In a neuronal cell culture model SH-SY5Y cells, the presence of epigallocatechin-3-galate has a protective effect [187].
In vitro studies for Parkinson’s, quercetin markedly reduced the apoptosis of pheochromocytoma (PC-12) cells and hippocampal neurons. It showed increased cell viability and inhibited ROS and MDA production in H2O2-induced toxicity in PC-12 cells [183].
Once again curcumin demonstrates to have a positive effect in Alzheimer’s disease, as it can bind to amyloid plaques by inhibiting NF-κβ [188]. A different study demonstrated that ethanolic turmeric extract (
Yang
As an example of a carotenoid action, astaxanthin has potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. Wu and coworkers [191] suggested that astaxanthin could alleviate brain aging, which may be due to attenuating oxidative stress, ameliorating hippocampus damage and increasing brain derived neurotrophic factor levels, preventing age-related neurodegenerative diseases.
The use of green methodologies and extraction process optimization to obtain highly value molecules with antioxidant properties, like terpenes, polyphenolic, phytosterols, and bioactive peptides, has increased for the past years. The reduction of the environmental footprint and the ability to obtain safe products with high industrial interest is fundamental for the future.
Upon extraction and purification of the added value compounds it is possible to determine their antioxidant potential by several chemical and biological processes.
Plants, algae and by-products or waste products of the food industry are an invaluable source of active molecules with antioxidant properties. It is of upmost interest the discovery/development of new therapeutical molecules for the application in several diseases. Computer-aided drug screening techniques, animal models and clinical trials should be taken into account to further develop this field of research.
There are several natural bioactive compounds already used for the treatment of different diseases (in combination with the conventional drugs), demonstrating good results.
Overall, natural antioxidant obtained from plants and marine resources have high nutritional potential and reveal a fundamental role in promoting human health, as an alternative to synthetic products.
This chapter was funded by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) under the scope of the strategic funding of UIDB/04469/2020 unit and BioTecNorte operation (NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000004) funded by the European Regional Development Fund under the scope of Norte2020 - Programa Operacional Regional do Norte. The chapter was also supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant (MSCA-RISE; FODIAC; 778388). Pedro Santos is supported by a doctoral advanced training fellowship (call NORTE-69-2015-2015), funded under the scope of Norte2020 (NORTE-08-5369-FSE-000036).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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The first section presents various knowledge concepts, KM perspectives and KM strategies. This section ends up by linking these topics in a KM sequential model which helps us to track the philosophical underpinnings and perspectives of each KM strategy. The second section investigates various HR orientations and HR practices and situates their differing contextual characteristics under each KM strategy. It aligns various HR practices with different KM strategies; suggesting that HRM is most effective as a combination of practices that are consistent and sharpened in supporting each KM strategy, which is part of the organizational strategy. The debated practices are recruitment and selection, compensation management, training and development, performance management, retention management and career management. Each of those practices is speculated to alter based on the chosen KM strategy; presenting a framework that is useful for practitioners and academics alike. The review ends up by identifying some research gaps and opportunities to be carried out in future studies. Those research gaps, if addressed, will extend our understanding of KM and the supporting role HRM.",book:{id:"7808",slug:"current-issues-in-knowledge-management",title:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management",fullTitle:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management"},signatures:"Hadi El-Farr and Rezvan Hosseingholizadeh",authors:[{id:"293827",title:"Dr.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"El-Farr",slug:"hadi-el-farr",fullName:"Hadi El-Farr"},{id:"293834",title:"Dr.",name:"Rezvan",middleName:null,surname:"Hosseingholizadeh",slug:"rezvan-hosseingholizadeh",fullName:"Rezvan Hosseingholizadeh"}]},{id:"59135",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73540",title:"The Relationship between Parenting and Internalizing Problems in Childhood",slug:"the-relationship-between-parenting-and-internalizing-problems-in-childhood",totalDownloads:1480,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Several types of stress factors are likely to be implied in the development, maintenance, and transmission of internalizing symptomatology: genetic/temperamental factors, cognitive factors, family factors, and societal/cultural factors. Nonetheless, family factors—especially those related to parenting—seem to be crucial during childhood, because children are nested within their families and family factors are able to indirectly influence other factors as well. The current chapter focuses on the relationship between parental style and internalizing symptoms in childhood. In the first part of the chapter, the most important studies on the topic are reviewed in detail and differences in parenting behaviors between mothers and fathers are illustrated. A discussion on the cognitive and metacognitive factors as possible pathways of the relation between parenting and childhood symptoms is also proposed. The last part of the chapter reviews studies investigating the efficacy of parental involvement in cognitive behavior therapy for children who exhibit internalizing symptoms.",book:{id:"5605",slug:"parenting-empirical-advances-and-intervention-resources",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources"},signatures:"Simona Scaini, Sara Palmieri and Marcella Caputi",authors:[{id:"240074",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Scaini",slug:"simona-scaini",fullName:"Simona Scaini"},{id:"240906",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcella",middleName:null,surname:"Caputi",slug:"marcella-caputi",fullName:"Marcella Caputi"}]},{id:"67575",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86757",title:"Toward Management Based on Knowledge",slug:"toward-management-based-on-knowledge",totalDownloads:1128,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In a world overwhelmed with pervasive digital technologies, the organization is transformed and becomes a socio-technical system which is constantly renewed. Organization needs specific skills, adapted to the values and to the cultures peculiar to each location. The cooperation and the mobility become a shape of inescapable work which rests on a permanent personal and collective learning. Beyond the information handled in the digital information systems, the role of the tacit knowledge, which is in each individual’s head, cannot be ignored. A constructivist attitude replaces a determinist attitude strongly deep-rooted in our educational modes. The managers have to pass from a posture of authority and of control to a posture of incitation, of support, and of accompaniment. The notions that are introduced in this chapter result from a managerial and socio-technical vision of knowledge management. They arouse essential reflections to develop a mode of management adapted to the digital transformation of the organizations called management based on knowledge.",book:{id:"7808",slug:"current-issues-in-knowledge-management",title:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management",fullTitle:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management"},signatures:"Michel Grundstein",authors:[{id:"292425",title:"Mr.",name:"Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Grundstein",slug:"michel-grundstein",fullName:"Michel Grundstein"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55633",title:"Parental Self-efficacy in Promoting Children Care and Parenting Quality",slug:"parental-self-efficacy-in-promoting-children-care-and-parenting-quality",totalDownloads:2099,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Parental self-efficacy (PSE) emerges as a crucial variable into exploring variability in parenting quality. After introducing the link between PSE and parental competence, the role of PSE on parenting quality, its multiple influences, and transactional effects connected to contextual or cultural variables are discussed. The chapter addresses some key issues: (a) the levels of PSE measurement (i.e., domain- or task-specific approach), their interrelationship and magnitude as mutual predictors (study 1); (b) infant-caring, parent’s adjustment, and PSE development in the transition to parenthood (study 2); (c) parenting difficult children and the role of PSE as a “buffer” variable moderating the effects of negative child’s characteristics on parenting skills; and (d) PSE beliefs in family context, the relationships with other family measures (marital self-efficacy and stress), and their associations with children’s adjustments (study 3). Finally, in the study 4, PSE is presented as an outcome variable in a parent training. In all summarized studies, a special attention was devoted to father’s PSE as a specific factor affecting childrearing and parent’s well-being. As Bandura says, PSE is not a personality trait, but a learnable set of beliefs producing positive effects on parenting quality. Suggestions for family-based interventions enhancing PSE are discussed.",book:{id:"5605",slug:"parenting-empirical-advances-and-intervention-resources",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources"},signatures:"Loredana Benedetto and Massimo Ingrassia",authors:[{id:"193200",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetto",slug:"loredana-benedetto",fullName:"Loredana Benedetto"},{id:"193901",title:"Prof.",name:"Massimo",middleName:null,surname:"Ingrassia",slug:"massimo-ingrassia",fullName:"Massimo Ingrassia"}]},{id:"67528",title:"The Management, Sharing and Transfer of Knowledge in the Oil Districts - The Case Study of An Italian District",slug:"the-management-sharing-and-transfer-of-knowledge-in-the-oil-districts-the-case-study-of-an-italian-d",totalDownloads:1172,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Knowledge management is one of the most innovative and effective tools available to companies to manage an economic and organizational ever-changing environment. The chapter is based on an empirical study starting from the classification of oil district and aims to understand how firms’ position affect knowledge transfer process within the district. We support the idea that knowledge transfer is deeply affected by firms’ contractual power as well as by their position within the district. The companies of the industrial districts have the advantage of exploiting and sharing knowledge with each other. The literature generally holds that knowledge transfer requires a sense of equality and fairness among the firms, to create conditions in which firms will share their own knowledge for joint competitive advantage. However, empirical evidence shows that the value chains are often characterized by hierarchical relations and asymmetry between the parties: this feature is particularly evident in the oil districts. For companies attempting to acquire new information, the typologies of their intercompany collaboration and their cultural relationships are crucial.",book:{id:"7808",slug:"current-issues-in-knowledge-management",title:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management",fullTitle:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management"},signatures:"Giovanna Testa",authors:[{id:"293404",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Testa",slug:"giovanna-testa",fullName:"Giovanna Testa"}]},{id:"67167",title:"Aligning Human Resource Management with Knowledge Management for Better Organizational Performance: How Human Resource Practices Support Knowledge Management Strategies?",slug:"aligning-human-resource-management-with-knowledge-management-for-better-organizational-performance-h",totalDownloads:1961,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Contributing to the HR-approach to knowledge management (KM), this chapter aims at outlining the role of human resource management (HRM) in supporting KM through utilizing the theoretical and empirical literature. The article is divided into two sections. The first section presents various knowledge concepts, KM perspectives and KM strategies. This section ends up by linking these topics in a KM sequential model which helps us to track the philosophical underpinnings and perspectives of each KM strategy. The second section investigates various HR orientations and HR practices and situates their differing contextual characteristics under each KM strategy. It aligns various HR practices with different KM strategies; suggesting that HRM is most effective as a combination of practices that are consistent and sharpened in supporting each KM strategy, which is part of the organizational strategy. The debated practices are recruitment and selection, compensation management, training and development, performance management, retention management and career management. Each of those practices is speculated to alter based on the chosen KM strategy; presenting a framework that is useful for practitioners and academics alike. The review ends up by identifying some research gaps and opportunities to be carried out in future studies. Those research gaps, if addressed, will extend our understanding of KM and the supporting role HRM.",book:{id:"7808",slug:"current-issues-in-knowledge-management",title:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management",fullTitle:"Current Issues in Knowledge Management"},signatures:"Hadi El-Farr and Rezvan Hosseingholizadeh",authors:[{id:"293827",title:"Dr.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"El-Farr",slug:"hadi-el-farr",fullName:"Hadi El-Farr"},{id:"293834",title:"Dr.",name:"Rezvan",middleName:null,surname:"Hosseingholizadeh",slug:"rezvan-hosseingholizadeh",fullName:"Rezvan Hosseingholizadeh"}]},{id:"53767",title:"Parenting Practices and the Development of Internalizing/ Externalizing Problems in Adolescence",slug:"parenting-practices-and-the-development-of-internalizing-externalizing-problems-in-adolescence",totalDownloads:1708,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"This chapter examines the existing relationship between different types of parental practices and the development of internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems in adolescence. Parental involvement and parenting styles are defined and analyzed as possible parameters of adolescent problems, including bullying and victimization. Special emphasis is given to the distinction between behavioral and psychological parental control. Furthermore, issues such as parent‐adolescent conflict, locus of control, and parental values are discussed as correlates of these problems, since prior research has identified them as either risk or protective factors for child and adolescent social and emotional adaptation.",book:{id:"5605",slug:"parenting-empirical-advances-and-intervention-resources",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources"},signatures:"Stelios N. Georgiou and Maria Symeou",authors:[{id:"193345",title:"Prof.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Georgiou",slug:"stelios-georgiou",fullName:"Stelios Georgiou"},{id:"197682",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Symeou",slug:"maria-symeou",fullName:"Maria Symeou"}]},{id:"59028",title:"Parent Training Interventions for Children and Adolescents with Aggressive Behavioral Problems",slug:"parent-training-interventions-for-children-and-adolescents-with-aggressive-behavioral-problems",totalDownloads:1630,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Children who display early disruptive and aggressive behavior are also at greater risk for delinquency, mood and anxiety disorders, and substance use in the long term. As is the case for many forms of childhood psychopathology, a number of factors are associated with the emergence of aggressive and disruptive behavior, including family factors. Indeed, conduct problems during childhood are usually associated with peculiar parenting practices, such as increasingly coercive cycles of harsh parenting and noncompliance exhibited by child; insensitive and nonresponsive parenting; inconsistent, severe discipline and vague commands and directions; lack of parental warmth and involvement; and absence of parental monitoring and supervision. That is why behavioral parent trainings (BPTs) represent one of the gold standard interventions for conduct problems. The main goal of BPT is to decrease coercive interchanges and, consequently, children aggressive problems by teaching parents strategies in order to apply a more effective discipline. Therefore, the putative mechanism for change in youth behavior in BPT is change in parent behavior. Some of the most employed parent training interventions for aggressive behavior problems are presented.",book:{id:"5605",slug:"parenting-empirical-advances-and-intervention-resources",title:"Parenting",fullTitle:"Parenting - Empirical Advances and Intervention Resources"},signatures:"Pietro Muratori, Valentina Levantini, Azzurra Manfredi, Laura\nRuglioni and Furio Lambruschi",authors:[{id:"238556",title:"Dr.",name:"Pietro",middleName:null,surname:"Muratori",slug:"pietro-muratori",fullName:"Pietro Muratori"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1388",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. 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He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"