\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art on Theileriosis, Babesiosis, and Anaplasmosis, both in humans and domestic animals. Particularly this book aims to permit the researchers to enter into a critical focus on the biology of the parasites, eco-epidemiology of the diseases, clinical manifestations, risk factors, immunology, surveillance, diagnosis, identification, and management of risks as well as the potential economic impact on animal production.
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1. Introduction
Historically, male circumcision has been done for religious/cultural reasons and to a lesser degree, for medical indications. Contemporary discussion of male circumcision relates to its utility as a public health measure – specifically in the prevention of genitourinary and sexually transmitted infections. Male circumcision was suggested to prevent sexually transmitted infection as early as the 1850s [1] and broadly as a “sanitary measure” in 1914 [2]. However, when three large randomized controlled trials in sub-Sahara Africa reported that male circumcision reduced the risk of acquiring HIV infection in males by as much as 60%, [3, 4, 5] attention to its health benefits became a world-wide discussion. In 2007, the World Health Organization (WHO), and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), announced that male circumcision was integral to comprehensive HIV prevention [6, 7].
Most professional organizations in developed nations do not recommended routine use of newborn male circumcision but recognize its use in disease prevention. The American Urological Association, Canadian Paediatric Society, Canadian Urological Association and Royal Australasian College of Physicians recognize a benefit for some boys in high-risk populations [8, 9, 10, 11]. However, the Centers for Disease Control supports infant and later age MC and the American Academy of Pediatrics endorses newborn MC; e.g. “current evidence indicates that the health benefits of newborn male circumcision outweigh the risks, and the benefits of newborn male circumcision justify access to this procedure for those families who choose it” [12, 13].
This chapter will discuss the impact of male circumcision in the context of the health promotion and health prevention specific to genitourinary and sexually transmitted infections.
2. Physiology of the foreskin
Male circumcision involves cutting and removing all or part of the foreskin, or prepuce, from the glans penis. To understand the rationale for the use of male circumcision (MC) in prevention of infections, it is important to understand the function and physiology of the foreskin. At birth, the glans penis and inner foreskin share a common, fused mucosal epithelium called the balano-preputial lamina (BPL). Much like the membrane that fuses the fingernail to the finger, it acts as “living glue”. ‘The extent of this fusion is such that the foreskin can only be retracted in 4% of newborn boys resulting in physiologic phimosis; natural inability to separate the foreskin. As the penis grows in the first 3–4 years of the boy’s life, the foreskin gradually separates from the glans when smegma, epithelial debris produced by sebaceous glands, accumulates under the foreskin [14]. By age 10 most boys have a retractable foreskin, and by age 17, natural separation of the foreskin from the glans penis is complete [15] (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Physiologic changes in the male foreskin and balano-preputial lamina (BPL) over time.
2.1 Uncircumcised
There are divergent viewpoints on the purpose and function of the foreskin. MC opponents view the keratinized squamous epithelium that covers the penile shaft and the foreskin in the uncircumcised penis as having protective functions. Beyond being epithelial debris, smegma is a natural emollient that protects and lubricates the glans. One author’s suggestion that the inner foreskin contains apocrine glands that secrete substances e.g. lysozymes and cytokines with antibacterial properties [16] has not been verified in biochemical research. It is contended that neonatal male circumcision not only removes tissue containing fine-touch receptors but interferes with the natural separation process. This may lead to subsequent sensory imbalance and risk of injury and tears that make the circumcised penis less hygienic and more prone to infection [17].
2.2 Circumcised
The alternate view is that the biochemical and structural properties of the intact foreskin result in increased acquisition of HIV and other STIs. During intercourse, the foreskin slides backward and exposes the inner mucosal surface with its high density of target cells for HIV, Langerhans cells, CD4+ cells, and macrophages - providing an entry point for pathogens. Lymphoid areas of mucosal surfaces are primary sites for HIV infection. Foreskin tissue has been identified as both having abundant HIV target cells and susceptibility to trauma because of its thinly keratinized surface [18]. Structurally, the folding of the foreskin on the non-erect uncircumcised penis creates a sub-preputial space which is eliminated on the erect penis. By removing the foreskin surgically, this space is eliminated thereby removing the reservoir for HIV, human papilloma virus (HPV), and other pathogens [19, 20, 21]. In theory, removal of the foreskin HIV reduces target cells, eliminates the sticky medium for viruses, exposes the more keratinized penile shaft and eliminates the sub-preputial space which collectively diminishes pathogen exposure.
3. Urinary tract infection
Urinary tract infection (UTI) is one of the more common bacterial infections in children with 1–3% of children experiencing one UTI in early childhood [22, 23]. The strongest risk factors are renal tract abnormalities, which are relatively rare [24]. Common risk factors are female gender, young age, and uncircumcised state in boys [22, 25, 26]. A population study in Australia (N = 2856), conducted over 12.8 years in which most males (80.7%) were uncircumcised, reported the prevalence of UTI as twice (5.3%) in girls than in boys (2.1%) [25]. An epidemiologic study of 596 cases of childhood UTI in Sweden, where circumcision is uncommon, reported the prevalence of UTI by 11 years of age to be 3.0% for girls and 1.1% for boys. [23] Other sex differences observed by were that the prevalence of UTI was highest during the first month of life and then decreased more rapidly in boys than in girls [23, 27]. As the uncircumcised foreskin may support the growth of pathogenic bacteria at the meatus [28], this decline in UTI prevalence in boys likely occurred because of the physiologic retraction of the prepuce over time [16].
3.1 Current research
The associations of MC and UTI in older studies were limited due to having samples with disproportionately larger groups of circumcised boys and generally, because of being single studies of observational, non-experimental design. More robust evidence of the disease prevention potential of MC with respect to UTI has come about from more recent multi-study reviews [26, 29]. One of these, a meta-analysis of 22 studies (21 observational and one randomized controlled trial of 70 participants) examined lack of circumcision as a risk factor for UTI and reported a lifetime relative risk of UTI as 3.7 times higher than that in uncircumcised males. Stratified for age, the risk of UTI was 9.91 greater for those aged 0–1 year; 6.56 greater for those aged 1–16 years; and 3.41 for those older than 16 years, in uncircumcised males [26]. These results are consistent with the known decline of UTIs in males as they mature, but also suggest that the effect of MC in UTI prevention is most evident in infants and younger boys.
3.2 High-risk populations
Recurrent UTIs are the principal cause of permanent kidney tissue scarring in children, so interventions that reduce frequency of UTIs are needed to prevent short and long-term morbidity. Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR), an abnormal retrograde or “back” flow of urine from the bladder to the upper urinary tract, is the most common abnormality of the urinary tract in children and is found in 30–40% of children with UTI [30]. In children with VUR, risk of UTI recurrence increases to 10 and 30% [31]. One review of 12 studies (one RCT, 4 cohort studies, and 7 case-control studies) used a meta-analysis to assess the effect of MC on UTI, and then estimated the degree of benefit in normal boys compared to those with (a) recurrent UTI and (b) VUR, who have increased risk of UTI. Male circumcision was associated with a significantly reduced risk (87%) of UTI [31]. However, given the low risk of UTI in normal boys (1%) they estimated that the number of MC needed to prevent one UTI was 111. However, in higher risk boys, the number of MC needed to treat those with recurrent UTIs was reduced to 11 and for those with VUR to 4 [31]. This suggests that use of MC particularly in higher risk groups of boys is an intervention to reduce UTI, subsequent renal scarring and loss of renal reserve.
Prenatal hydronephrosis (fetal urinary tract dilatation), is one of the most common congenital urological anomalies, and is reported in 1–2% of all pregnancies [32]. Prenatal identification of high-grade hydronephrosis has been associated with VUR and 3-fold increase in UTIs, so such findings may warrant consideration of early infant male circumcision [33]. Genetics has increasing importance in identifying those at risk for recurrent UTI. Genes have been identified that cause inefficient bacterial clearance and greater susceptibility to UTIs [34]. Syndromes in which there are genital tract anomalies, most prominently, vesicoureteral reflux, may increase the risk for recurrent UTI [24, 32, 33]. Early infant male circumcision (EIMC) may be warranted in boys who are at risk for recurrent UTIs based on prenatal findings.
4. Sexually transmitted infections
Worldwide, more than 1 million sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are acquired daily [35, 36]. Organisms causing STIs are bacterial, protozoal, and viral. Those with bacterial (chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis) or protozoal (trichomonas) causes are treatable while those caused by viruses (herpes simplex, human papilloma, HIV) are not [36, 37]. Each year, 376 million new infections are caused by chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis and trichomonas and more than 500 million persons experience genital infections from herpes simplex virus (HSV) [36, 38] (Figure 2). Most STIs have no symptoms or only mild symptoms that may not be recognized as an STI. Further, STIs such as HSV type 2 and syphilis increase the risk of HIV acquisition. Longer term, STIs can have serious reproductive health consequences beyond the immediate impact of the infection such as infertility, mother-to-child transmission and genitourinary cancers. Moreover, people with sexually transmitted infections often experience stigma, stereotyping, vulnerability, shame and gender-based violence [35].
Figure 2.
Estimated prevalence of chlamydia, gonorrhea, trichomoniasis and active syphilis in women aged 15–49 years by WHO region, 2009–2016 Source: WHO Report on global sexually transmitted infection surveillance, 2018.
4.1 HIV
The health burden of HIV infections is greatest in developing countries where HIV is more prevalent, and treatment is least available. Figure 3 shows geographic extremes ranging from 0.1% to nearly 5% in Africa. Of the 39.3 million persons living with HIV worldwide, nearly 70% live in Sub-Saharan Africa [39]. Of those, adolescent girls and women account for a disproportionate percentage (59%) of new HIV infections among adults aged 15 and older. This contrasts with other parts of the world, where men account for 63% of the new adult HIV infections. Globally, there were almost 90,000 more new HIV infections among men than women in 2017 [40]. Therefore, reaching more men with HIV treatment but more proactively, with preventive measures such as circumcision, is critical to breaking cycles of HIV transmission and reducing HIV incidence among young women. If fewer men acquire HIV because of male circumcision, this will benefit women by reducing exposure to HIV-infected men.
Figure 3.
Prevalence of HIV among adults aged 15 to 49, 2016 by WHO region.
4.1.1 Heterosexual transmission
The potential of male circumcision to protect from heterosexual HIV infection was first suggested in 1986 [41]. Subsequently, a rich body of research done in developing countries has emerged focusing on the relationship between male circumcision and heterosexual HIV acquisition in men. In a review of (1) biological evidence, (2) observational study data supported by high-quality meta-analyses, and the (3) results of three well-recognized randomized clinical trials [3, 4, 5] (Table 1) and high-quality meta-analyses [42, 43] from 1999 to 2011, all of the highest quality studies; Grades 1 and 2 (meta-analyses and randomized control trials) favored MC in terms of reducing HIV risk as did the vast majority of the Grades 3 and 4 (case-control/observational studies and expert opinion) studies [44].
Male circumcision and HIV and STI acquisition in men and transmission to female partners
Ratio (95% confidence interval) by study locationa
Male circumcision and HIV and STI acquisition in men and transmission to female partners.
Data shown are from 3 randomized controlled trials by Gray et al. [5], Auvert et al. [3], and Bailey et al. [4], that presented the effect of male circumcision on HIV/STI acquisition in men, 2 RCTs and a secondary analysis related to the Ugandan study on effect of MC in HIV (−/+) men on female partners by Wawer et al. [46], MC effect on HPV acquisition in female partners by Wawer et al. [60], and a MC effect on female partner STI acquisition by Gray et al. [85]. All ratios are adjusted (except for South African HSV-2 and Kenyan bacterial STIs) and represent an intention-to-treat analysis.
The ratio expressed is an incidence rate ratio.
The ratio expressed is a prevalence risk ratio.
The ratio expressed is a hazard ratio.
The ratio expressed is an odds ratio.
Adapted with permission of John Wiley and Sons.
Abbreviations: GUD, genital ulcer disease; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; HPV, human papillomavirus; HSV-2, herpes simplex virus type 2; STI, sexually transmitted infection.
A more recent meta-analysis evaluated the effect of male circumcision on HIV acquisition for HIV (−/+) males and HIV (−) females during heterosexual behavior. The analysis of fifteen studies (4 RCTs and 11 prospective cohort) reported strong evidence that male circumcision was associated with reduced HIV acquisition for HIV (−) males during sexual intercourse with females (70% protective effect) but no difference was detected in HIV acquisition for HIV (−) females between the circumcised and uncircumcised groups [45]. One of the RCTs that evaluated the effect of MC in HIV (+) and (−) men on their female partners was stopped early in that MC did not prevent female HIV infection in either group [46]. Although the women in the studies did not experience individual protective benefit of HIV from partners with MC, the reduction of HIV in men with MC is important from a population reduction perspective.
A study of heterosexual men in a Baltimore, Maryland (United States) reported that 1096 (2.7%) of clinic visits yielded positive HIV test results. Among 394 visits by patients with known HIV exposure, circumcision was significantly associated with lower HIV prevalence (10.2 vs. 22.0%) [87]. This suggests that MC may have a role in HIV prevention in resource rich countries as well.
The optimal time for MC is when the man is HIV (−) but there may be benefit in HIV (+) men as well. WHO/UNAIDS have recommended that MC not be denied to HIV-infected men who request the procedure (unless there are medical contraindications) to reduce stigma but also as MC can reduce acquisition of HPV in men and syphilis and herpes in their female partners [47, 48, 49]. Further, including all males in voluntary medical male circumcision programs, irrespective of HIV status, results in greater population uptake as higher risk HIV (−) males who may otherwise avoid programs due to fear of being tested for HIV will be more likely to participate [50]. In an RCT of HIV-positive men in Uganda, MC did not reduce HIV transmission to women over a period of 2 years [48]. However, the higher rate of HIV transmission in couples who initiated intercourse soon after MC compared to those who waited until healing occurred, underscores the importance of delaying intercourse until the MC wound is healed.
Therefore, MC protects men from HIV infection in areas where prevalence of HIV (e.g. sub-Saharan Africa) is high, is largely due to heterosexual transmission, and where access to antivirals is low. Male circumcision does not appear to decrease HIV acquisition in their female partners on an individual level but decreasing new HIV infections overall will ultimately reduce the HIV burden in the population overall.
4.1.2 Homosexual transmission
The case for MC as a preventive measure is less compelling in areas where HIV acquisition is largely due to men who have sex with men. In developed countries, where HIV prevalence overall is low, most HIV are cases are related to homosexual transmission e.g. in the United States, 66%, [51, 52]. Further, developed countries have access to antivirals for prevention as well as for treatment of HIV infection which keep prevalence of new infections and AIDs mortality low. One review of 20 observational studies (N = 71,693), reported that the pooled effect estimate for HIV acquisition in homosexual men was not statistically significant. However, when subgroups were analyzed, the results of 7 studies of men reporting an insertive role were statistically significant for a 27% reduction in HIV acquisition in contrast to the 3 studies of men reporting a receptive role [53]. However, a more recent meta-analysis by Sharma et al. that examined the impact of sexual roles among homosexual men reported that MC did not definitively have a protective effect among predominantly insertive homosexual men or receptive men but acknowledged that there were a small number of studies reporting the effect of sexual role on HIV acquisition [54].
More broadly, the Sharma et al. meta-analysis of 49 studies was conducted to assess MC as a method to prevent HIV acquisition in homosexual and/or heterosexual men. The overall pooled risk ratio (RR) for both homosexual and heterosexual men was 0.58 (95% CI 0.48–0.70), suggesting that MC was associated with a reduction in HIV risk. Heterosexual men had a greater risk reduction (72%) compared with 20% for homosexual men. However, there was significant heterogeneity among the studies and less than 6% of total subject count was from randomized controlled trials [54]. Although the study suggests that MC was effective in reducing HIV risk for both heterosexual and homosexual men, the effect was dramatically lower in homosexual men.
Male circumcision represents one of very few proven HIV prevention strategies particularly in high prevalence areas, such as sub-Saharan Africa where transmission is largely related to heterosexual contact. It is less clear whether voluntary male medical circumcision programs, such as those employed in Africa would be as beneficial in developed nations. In the United States, HIV prevalence is comparatively low and most new HIV infections are attributed to men having sex with men. Theoretically, certain groups in the United States, e.g. African-American and Hispanic men with higher risk of HIV infections could benefit but this impact would be much less profound [12]. In addition, the reality that individuals may identify as either homosexual or heterosexual but are bisexually active further confounds the potential effect of MC on homosexual transmission of HIV.
4.2 Human papilloma virus
Human papillomavirus (HPV) has been established as the leading cause of invasive cervical cancer in women and is associated with anogenital warts and cancers in men and women [55]. Of the 100+ strains of HPV; about 40 affect the anogenital areas. HPV strains are classified as either low-risk (causes benign lesions) or high-risk (causes malignancies). Oncogenic high-risk strains (e.g. HPV types 16 and 18) cause most of the HPV-related cancers and pre-cancers, while the low-risk strains cause genital warts or mild Pap test abnormalities. Most sexually active persons will contract HPV infection at some time in their lives but in most cases, the infection will be asymptomatic and clear spontaneously. Risk factors associated with HPV infection include, increased exposure to the virus via multiple partners, decreased condom usage, history of other STIs, tobacco usage, and for women, having sex with an uncircumcised partner [56].
4.2.1 HPV in women
More than 290 million women have human papillomavirus (HPV) infection [57]. Worldwide, cervical cancer is the fourth most frequent cancer in women and fourth leading cause of death in women. In developing countries, cervical cancer ranks second (breast cancer is first) in incidence and mortality. Approximately 90% of deaths from cervical cancer occur in low- and middle-income countries where women do not have access to pap testing and HPV vaccine [58, 59]. Absent of such health resources, MC in their partners provides a means of HPV prevention and exposure reduction for women.
A challenge to ascertaining associations between a woman’s HPV risk and her partner’s circumcision status is the reality that she may have numerous partners in her lifetime. A study of HPV and cervical cancer in women with only one male partner demonstrated HPV infection of 5.5% in circumcised versus 19.6% of uncircumcised men [19]. Therefore, the procedure of MC itself removes a reservoir for viruses, such as HPV, thus reducing exposure over the long-term.
As the precursor of cervical cancer, reducing high-risk HPV transmission is a critical part of disease prevention. Decreased prevalence of high-risk HPV was found in an RCT of Ugandan women whose long-term partners were circumcised immediately compared with women with partners who were circumcised 24 months after enrollment [60] (Table 1). The significant reduction (28%) in high-risk HPV that was observed in women whose partners were circumcised earlier suggests that MC has a role in reducing HPV exposure to women in areas where HPV vaccine is not readily available.
A systematic review by Grund et al. analyzed data from 60 studies on the influence MC on women’s health outcomes [47]. In the cervical cancer and cervical dysplasia groups, there were no RCTs, but the quality of the studies was graded using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale for non-randomized studies. All but one of the studies reported a highly protective effect of MC related to cervical cancer (in the exception study only 11% of the men were circumcised) [61]. In the same review, four of the five cases reviewed also showed that MC was highly protective of cervical dysplasia and moderately protective of HPV infection. In developed countries, access to HPV vaccination along with early identification and treatment of cervical dysplasia is a well-established part of preventive health care for women. In resource poor countries without such preventive care programs, the protective effect of MC on cervical dysplasia and cancer offers a critical means of preventing morbidity and mortality in women.
4.2.2 HPV in men
HPV is the most common STI in the world. More attention has been on HPV infection in women because of its association with cervical cancer. In men, manifestations of HPV infection range from genital warts and mild dysplasia (low-risk strains) to rarely, anogenital cancers (high-risk strains). Two of the African trials [3, 5] (Table 1) reported that MC was associated with an estimated 33% reduced occurrence of high-risk HPV virus in men. Two reviews and meta-analyses analyzed the effect of male circumcision on genital HPV infection in men. Albero et al. (21 studies; N = 14,382) reported that MC was associated with a 43% reduction in both low- and high-risk strains of HPV and in two studies (RCTs), 33% reduction in high-risk HPV. However, no associations were found in the acquisition of new HPV infections, genital HPV clearance, or genital warts [62]. Larke et al. (27 studies; N = 10,779) also reported that MC was associated with modest (25%) HPV reduction but no evidence of an association with genital warts [63]. However, Larke et al. reported 33% increased HPV clearance after MC which is important when considering that diminishing viral load in men reduces exposure to their female partners.
Penile cancer is rare—globally with 0.84 cases per 100,000 person-years [64]. High-risk HPV infection has a considerable role in penile cancer, but with less consistency than in cervical cancer. In contrast to cervical cancer, in which HPV is responsible for nearly all cases, HPV infection is associated with penile cancer from 55 to 82% of the time [65]. In a study of HIV-positive men in Uganda, MC reduced the prevalence and incidence of multiple HR-HPV infections. Multiple HR-HPV infections were found in 22.4% of subjects in the intervention (MC) group and in 42.5% of those in the control (no MC) group demonstrating 47% efficacy [48]. Therefore, male circumcision may provide a direct benefit for HIV-positive men by preventing penile HR-HPV infection and thus potentially averting penile cancer. In addition, it is possible that circumcision of HIV-infected men may protect female partners from infection and potentially from cervical neoplasia.
5. Other sexually transmitted infections
Male circumcision has a role in the acquisition of other sexually transmitted infections. Although MC has not been directly associated with decreases in HIV transmission to female partners [5] (Table 1) it is still important to understand whether MC affects ulcerative sexually transmitted infections such as HSV type 2 [66, 67, 68] and syphilis [67, 69] both of which are associated with an increased risk of HIV.
5.1 Herpes simplex virus
Infection with the herpes simplex virus (HSV) is due to herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) or herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2). HSV-1 is mainly transmitted by oral contact to cause infection in or around the mouth (oral herpes). HSV-2 is almost exclusively sexually transmitted, causing infection in the genital or anal area (genital herpes) [70]. HSV infection is highly stigmatized and negatively impacts relationships. However, more critical is its potential for perinatal transmission, resulting newborn morbidity and mortality [71, 72, 73] and its well-documented relationship with HIV.
Perinatal transmission mostly occurs during delivery from mothers with herpes simplex virus HSV-1 or HSV-2 genital infection. If contracted, 60% of newborns will die without treatment [73]. In a first estimate of global neonatal herpes infection, Looker et al. reported 14,000 neonatal herpes cases annually and that most neonatal herpes cases occurred in Africa, due to high maternal HSV-2 infection and high birth rates. HSV-1 contributed more cases than HSV-2 in the Americas, Europe, and Western Pacific [72]. Therefore, understanding the relationship between MC and HSV transmission is important as circumcision may afford important benefit in terms of reductions in HSV infections, particularly in female partners in their childbearing years.
HSV-2 is a leading cause of genital ulcer disease worldwide, but prevalence by global region differs [71]. Looker et al. reported that Africa had the highest prevalence (32%), followed by the Americas (14%), with Africa contributing most to the global totals due to combined large population and high prevalence. Despite their lower prevalence, South-East Asia (8%) and Western Pacific (8%) also contributed large numbers infected to the global totals due to their large population numbers [38].
Women are more likely to acquire HSV-2 than men and certain ethnicities are at greater risk. For instance in the United States, the prevalence of HSV-2 in adults is 12.1%; but affects women (15.9%) more so than men (8.2%) and is highest among non-Hispanic black persons (34.6%) [74]. In Africa, HSV-2 prevalence in men ranged from 5.9 to 39.8% while in women, from 29.2% (rural women) to 79.9% (sex workers) [75].
Two of the African RCTs reported that MC was associated with HSV-2 reductions of 28 and 34% in men [3, 5] (Table 1). Subsequently, a large meta-analysis (N = 49) supported this original finding with respect to HSV reductions in men in that MC diminished risk of HSV-2 by 15% and genital ulcers (often due to HSV-2) by 20% [54]. There are fewer reports of the relationship between MC and HSV infections in the female partners. However, in the Grund et al. systematic review of MC and women’s health outcomes, the direction of the evidence in the six studies (including one RCT) was highly protective of HSV-2 [47]. Five of the studies were in developing countries and one was in the U.S. suggesting greater global generalizability.
The HIV epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa is known to be fueled by HSV-2 consequently directing attention on the prevalence and transmission of HSV-2 in in recent years [68, 75]. Abu-Rabbad et al. estimated that in areas of high HSV-2 prevalence, such as Kisumu, Kenya, more than a quarter of incident HIV infections may have been attributed directly to HSV-2 [68]. Therefore, the role of MC in reducing HSV-2 transmission has the potential for short-term benefit along with long-term influence in perinatal health promotion and disease prevention.
5.2 Syphilis
Syphilis can cause neurological, cardiovascular and dermatological disease in adults, and stillbirth, neonatal death, premature delivery or severe disability in infants [36]. Women of childbearing age are a particularly vulnerable population. During pregnancy, the immunosuppression of pregnancy increases risk of syphilis acquisition and if untreated or undertreated, there is great risk for adverse infant consequences. In 2016, 988,000 pregnant women worldwide were infected with syphilis, resulting in over 350,000 such adverse outcomes including 200,000 stillbirths and newborn deaths [76].
The interaction between syphilis and HIV is complex and continues to be studied [69]. The World Health Organization has identified dual elimination of HIV and syphilis as a global health priority [77]. In the early stages of syphilis, painless genital sores (chancres or ulcers) facilitate transmission of HIV infection sexually. Conversely, the immunocompromised state of HIV infection makes syphilis acquisition more likely. In developed countries, homosexual (men having sex with men) are the largest affected group [78, 79]. However, recent increases in congenital syphilis in developed [78] and developing countries warrant attention to the learning the potential value of MC in prevention of syphilis acquisition in women as well.
Several reviews have studied the influence of MC and syphilis. Weiss et al. studied risk of three ulcerative STIs (syphilis, chancroid, and genital herpes) and reported that of the syphilis studies (N = 14), there was substantial reduction of syphilis (33%) in men; however, this was limited by significant heterogeneity between the studies. The reduced risk of HSV-2 infection was of borderline statistical significance and MC was associated with lower risk of chancroid in six of seven studies [80]. More recently, a large review (N = 60) of studies assessed the association between MC and women’s health outcomes included six studies on syphilis acquisition [47]. All the studies were in developing countries; there were no RCTs. The results were that MC was highly protective; all studies reported a reduction in syphilis with one reporting no cases of syphilis in the treatment (MC) group [81].
Partners PrEP Study Team followed 4716 HIV sero-discordant couples, of whom roughly 50% of the men were circumcised. During the follow-up period (~ 2·75 years), MC was associated with significantly fewer cases of syphilis by 42% in men compared with uncircumcised men and was most protective for HIV (+) men as demonstrated by 62% reduction. Further, MC male circumcision reduced overall female partner syphilis incidence by 59%; by 75% in the HIV (−) women and a 48% HIV (+) women. Thus, MC was strongly associated with reductions in syphilis acquisition in both men and their female partners. This suggests that MC decreases syphilis acquisition even in HIV discordant couples and should be an option for HIV (+) men in countries employing voluntary medical male circumcision to reduce syphilis [77, 82].
5.3 Genital ulcerative disease
Genital ulcerative disease (GUD) is associated with an increased risk of HIV acquisition and transmission. The ulcer results from various sexually transmitted infections but the ulcer’s disruption of the skin tissue promotes co-infection by other viruses and bacteria. In the United States most genital ulcers are due to HSV or syphilis. Less prevalent infectious causes include chancroid (Haemophilus ducreyi), granuloma inguinale (Klebsiella granulomatis), and lymphogranuloma venereum [83].
Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV) is a sexually transmitted infection caused by certain chlamydia trachomatis strains. LGV is common in certain areas of Africa, Southeast Asia, India, the Caribbean, and South America. It is rare in developed countries, but in the last 10 years has been increasingly recognized in North America, Europe, and the United Kingdom as causing rectal infections among men who have sex with men [84]. In the Ugandan RCT, MC reduced the risk of genital ulcer disease (GUD) in men by 50% [5] (Table 1).
5.4 Gonorrhea, chlamydia, trichomonas, and bacterial vaginosis infections
These bacterial STIs cause cervicitis, urethritis, vaginitis and genital ulceration, and some may also infect the rectum and pharynx. Chlamydia and gonorrhea are associated with serious short- and long-term conditions such as pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy, infertility, chronic pelvic pain and arthritis. They also can be transmitted to the newborn infant during pregnancy or delivery [36].
The three African RCTs also reported associations between MC and gonorrhea, chlamydia, trichomonas, and bacterial vaginosis (Table 1). The South African trial reported reductions with borderline statistical significance in male acquisition of chlamydia (44%) and trichomonas (47%) in men with MC [3]. The Kenyan study results suggested reductions in chlamydia and trichomonas, but neither was statistically significant [4]. Neither study reported an association between MC and gonorrhea in men. Gray reported statistically significant reductions in bacterial vaginosis (any severity) (40%), severe bacterial vaginosis (61%) and trichomonas (48%) in females whose partners had MC [85].
Grund et. al’s review of the impact of MC on women’s health outcomes reported high quality evidence that MC was protective of chlamydia, that effect was moderately generalizable, and inclusive of studies from Africa, Americas, Asia, Europe and the U.S. In contrast, low consistency evidence was found for MC and female acquisition of trichomonas, bacterial vaginosis, and gonorrhea [47].
6. Summary and conclusions
Three African trials of male circumcision in HIV-negative men showed that circumcision reduced male acquisition of HIV by 50–60%. As a result, male circumcision is now a recommended strategy for HIV prevention in men in developing nations. By reducing the number of new infections in the population, the resource burden of HIV treatment is lessened, and fewer women and babies are exposed to HIV infection. Nearly 15 million voluntary medical male circumcisions (VMMC) have been performed for HIV prevention in 14 countries of eastern and southern Africa during the decade since WHO and UNAIDS recommended VMMC to be a component of HIV prevention intervention [7, 49]. Swaziland was the first country to introduce national early infant male circumcision (EIMC) into VMMC programming for HIV prevention [86]. It is estimated that these VMMCs will avert over half a million new HIV infections through 2030.
Although MC has not been directly associated with decreases in HIV transmission to female partners, MC has health promotion benefits for women. High-consistency evidence exists that male circumcision protects women against cervical cancer, cervical dysplasia, herpes simplex virus type 2, chlamydia, and syphilis. Even in HIV infected men and women, MC appears to have a role in reducing co-infection with syphilis and STIs such as chlamydia and gonorrhea.
To date, there are no formal programs for MC, whether for VMMC or EIMC in developing countries. However, health care workers in developed and developing countries alike must be prepared to counsel parents that choosing EIMC could have protective benefits ranging from UTIs in infancy to STIs in adulthood. In addition, health care workers must be able to counsel sexually active adolescent and adult males not only on safe sex practices, but that MC may be an option to promote their health or that of their partner [12, 87] (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Male circumcision and infection - information to share adapted from “information for providers to share with male patients and parents regarding male circumcision and the prevention of HIV infection, sexually transmitted infections, and other health outcomes” - division of HIV/AIDS prevention National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
World-wide, male circumcision is an important component in the arsenal of tools to prevent disease. It does not replace but strengthens established approaches to prevent and treat infection e.g. avoidance of risky sexual behaviors, condom use, anti-viral/antibiotic medications, and vaccinations. The role of male circumcision to diminish infections, whether urinary tract or STIs, conserves health resources for those with unpreventable illness and more broadly, can play a role in increasing the health of the population overall.
\n',keywords:"male circumcision, sexually transmitted infections, sexually transmitted diseases, HIV, urinary tract infection, HPV",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69131.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69131.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69131",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69131",totalDownloads:724,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:35,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 2nd 2019",dateReviewed:"August 12th 2019",datePrePublished:"September 19th 2019",datePublished:"May 20th 2020",dateFinished:"September 19th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Worldwide, male circumcision is done for religious or cultural reasons, and to a lesser degree for medical indications. Newborn male circumcision is associated with fewer genitourinary infections in younger males. In the current decade, a substantial body of research suggests that male circumcision is effective as a prophylactic measure against HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. The compelling HIV reductions in 3 African randomized control trials in circumcised men have prompted use of male circumcision as a key part of HIV prevention in developing nations. More recently, the use of male circumcision as a public health measure in developed nations is a topic of international discussion.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69131",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69131",book:{id:"7985",slug:"circumcision-and-the-community"},signatures:"Ruth Mielke",authors:[{id:"246591",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruth",middleName:"Turnquist",surname:"Mielke",fullName:"Ruth Mielke",slug:"ruth-mielke",email:"ruthmielke@fullerton.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Physiology of the foreskin",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Uncircumcised",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Circumcised",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Urinary tract infection",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Current research",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 High-risk populations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Sexually transmitted infections",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 HIV",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.1.2 Homosexual transmission",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2 Human papilloma virus",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.2.1 HPV in women",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.2.2 HPV in men",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Other sexually transmitted infections",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.1 Herpes simplex virus",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.2 Syphilis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.3 Genital ulcerative disease",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.4 Gonorrhea, chlamydia, trichomonas, and bacterial vaginosis infections",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"6. Summary and conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Hutchinson J. On the influence of circumcision in preventing syphilis. Boston Medical Surgical Journal. 1856;55:77-78'},{id:"B2",body:'Wolbarst AL. Universal circumcision as a sanitary measure. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1914;62(2):92'},{id:"B3",body:'Auvert B, Taljaard D, Lagarde E, Sobngwi-Tambekou J, Sitta R, Puren A. Randomized, controlled intervention trial of male circumcision for reduction of HIV infection risk: The ANRS 1265 trial. PLoS Medicine. 2005;2(11):e298'},{id:"B4",body:'Bailey R, Moses S, Parker C, Agot K, Maclean I, Krieger J, et al. 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Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. 2018;68(6):394-424'},{id:"B59",body:'World Health Organization. Cancer: Cervical cancer. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2018. Available from: https://www.who.int/cancer/prevention/diagnosis-screening/cervical-cancer/en/'},{id:"B60",body:'Wawer MJ, Tobian AA, Kigozi G, Kong X, Gravitt PE, Serwadda D, et al. Effect of circumcision of HIV-negative men on transmission of human papillomavirus to HIV-negative women: A randomised trial in Rakai, Uganda. The Lancet. 2011;377(9761):209-218'},{id:"B61",body:'Brinton LA, Reeves WC, Brenes MM, Herrero R, Gaitan E, Tenorio F, et al. The male factor in the etiology of cervical cancer among sexually monogamous women. International Journal of Cancer. 1989;44(2):199-203'},{id:"B62",body:'Albero GMPH, Castellsague XP, Giuliano ARP, Bosch FXP. Male circumcision and genital human papillomavirus: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 2012;39(2):104-113'},{id:"B63",body:'Larke N, Thomas SL, dos Santos Silva I, Weiss HA. Male circumcision and human papillomavirus infection in men: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2011;204(9):1375-1390'},{id:"B64",body:'Cardona C, Garcia-Perdomo H. Incidence of penile cancer worldwide: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública. 2017;41:1-10'},{id:"B65",body:'Minhas S, Manseck A, Watya S, Hegarty PK. Penile cancer—Prevention and premalignant conditions. Urology. 2010;76(2 Suppl 1):S24-S35'},{id:"B66",body:'Freeman EE, Weiss HA, Glynn JR, Cross PL, Whitworth JA, Hayes RJ. Herpes simplex virus 2 infection increases HIV acquisition in men and women: Systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. AIDS. 2006;20(1):73-83'},{id:"B67",body:'Tobian A, Charvat B, Ssempijja V, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, Makumbi F, et al. Factors associated with the prevalence and incidence of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection among men in Rakai, Uganda. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2009;199:945-949'},{id:"B68",body:'Abu-Raddad LJ, Magaret AS, Celum C, Wald A, Longini IM Jr, Self SG, et al. Genital herpes has played a more important role than any other sexually transmitted infection in driving HIV prevalence in Africa. PLoS One. 2008;3(5):e2230-e'},{id:"B69",body:'Pialoux G, Vimont S, Moulignier A, Buteux M, Abraham B, Bonnard P. Effect of HIV infection on the course of syphilis. AIDS Reviews. 2008;10(2):85-92'},{id:"B70",body:'World Health Organization. Facts Sheets: Herpes Simplex Virus. 2019. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/herpes-simplex-virus'},{id:"B71",body:'Gantt S, Muller WJ. The immunologic basis for severe neonatal herpes disease and potential strategies for therapeutic intervention. Clinical and Developmental Immunology. 2013;2013:16'},{id:"B72",body:'Looker KJ, Magaret AS, May MT, Turner KME, Vickerman P, Newman LM, et al. First estimates of the global and regional incidence of neonatal herpes infection. The Lancet Global Health. 2017;5(3):e300-e3e9'},{id:"B73",body:'Corey L, Wald A. Maternal and neonatal herpes simplex virus infections. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2009;361(14):1376-1385'},{id:"B74",body:'McQuillan G, Kruszon-Moran D, Flagg EW, Paulose-Ram R. Prevalence of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 and Type 2 in Persons Aged 14-49: United States, 2015-2016. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 2018'},{id:"B75",body:'Rajagopal S, Magaret A, Mugo N, Wald A. Incidence of herpes simplex virus type 2 infections in Africa: A systematic review. Open Forum Infectious Diseases. 2014;1(2):1-11'},{id:"B76",body:'Korenromp EL, Rowley J, Alonso M, Mello MB, Wijesooriya NS, Mahiané SG, et al. Global burden of maternal and congenital syphilis and associated adverse birth outcomes-estimates for 2016 and progress since 2012. PLoS One. 2019;14(2):e0211720'},{id:"B77",body:'Taylor M, Newman L, Ishikawa N, Laverty M, Hayashi C, Ghidinelli M, et al. Elimination of mother-to-child transmission of HIV and syphilis (EMTCT): Process, progress, and program integration. PLoS Medicine. 2017;14(6):e1002329-e'},{id:"B78",body:'Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2017. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2018'},{id:"B79",body:'Stoltey JE, Cohen SE. Syphilis transmission: A review of the current evidence. Sexual Health. 2015;12(2):103-109'},{id:"B80",body:'Weiss H, Thomas S, Munabi S, Hayes R. Male circumcision and risk of syphilis, chancroid, and genital herpes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sexually Transmitted Infections. 2006;82:101-109'},{id:"B81",body:'Nayyar C, Chander R, Gupta P, Sherwal BL. Co-infection of human immunodeficiency virus and sexually transmitted infections in circumcised and uncircumcised cases in India. Indian Journal of Sexually Transmitted Diseases and AIDS. 2014;35(2):114-117'},{id:"B82",body:'Pintye J, Baeten JM, Manhart LE, Celum C, Ronald A, Mugo N, et al. Association between male circumcision and incidence of syphilis in men and women: A prospective study in HIV-1 serodiscordant heterosexual African couples. The Lancet Global Health. 2014;2(11):e664-e671'},{id:"B83",body:'Yarbrough ML, Burnham C-AD. The ABCs of STIs: An update on sexually transmitted infections. Clinical Chemistry. 2016;62(6):811'},{id:"B84",body:'Stoner BP, Cohen SE. Lymphogranuloma venereum 2015: Clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment: Table 1. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2015;61(suppl_8):S865-S873'},{id:"B85",body:'Gray R, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, Makumbi F, Nalugoda F, Watya S, et al. The effects of male circumcision on female partners’ genital tract symptoms and vaginal infections in a randomized trial in Rakai, Uganda. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2009;200:e1-e7'},{id:"B86",body:'Fitzgerald L, Benzerga W, Mirira M, Adamu T, Shissler T, Bitchong R, et al. Scaling up early infant male circumcision: Lessons from the kingdom of Swaziland. Global Health: Science and Practice. 2016;4(Suppl 1):S76-S86'},{id:"B87",body:'Mielke RT. Counseling parents who are considering newborn male circumcision. Journal of Midwifery & Women\'s Health. 2013;58(6):671-682'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ruth Mielke",address:"ruthmielke@fullerton.edu",affiliation:'
California State University Fullerton, Fullerton, California, United States
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1. Introduction
Heterocyclic compounds are fascinating for several reasons, the most notable of which is that they have biological activities, and many drugs are heterocycles. Because of their biological properties, nitrogen heterocycles [1] and oxygen heterocycles (such as coumarins and analogues, [2, 3, 4] as well as chromone-based compounds [5]) have long aroused chemists’ interest. As a result, organic chemists have been hard at work developing new and efficient synthetic transformations to make these heterocyclic compounds. Carbon carbon (C-C)/carbon-heteroatom (C-X) formations are generally used in the synthesis of these heterocycles. The formation of carbon carbon (C-C)/carbon heteroatom (C-X) bonds between two C-H/C-H bonds or C-H/X − H bonds via oxidative transformation has become a central focus in C-C/C-X bond forming reactions in this setting, obviating the use of prefunctionalized substrates and reducing salt waste generation, resulting in superior sustainability and environmental compatibility [6, 7, 8]. Over the last two decades, the reliance on these direct oxidative C-H functionalizations that offer higher atom economy and sustainability has steadily increased, indicating the importance of and growing interest in this synthetic methodology. Despite the inherent difficulty of generating high regio-selectivity, effective realizations of numerous regioselective C − H functionalizations have been accomplished [9, 10]. Transition-metal-catalyzed oxidative reactions are one of the most cutting-edge aspects in organic chemistry. In these reactions, an oxidant is always used to regenerate the catalyst. In several of these metal-catalyzed reactions, it has been discovered that selecting the right terminal oxidant is critical to achieve the desired catalytic result. Molecular oxygen, 2,3-Dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ), p-benzoquinone, tert-Butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP), PhI(OAc)2, Iodine, metal oxidants, oxone, persulfates, and other oxidants have all been found to be useful in these processes. Among these inorganic and organic oxidants, potassium persulfate (K2S2O8) has emerged as a good inorganic oxidant for a wide range of oxidative transformations, with applications spanning from laboratory studies to industrial processes. Since the discovery of the Minisci reaction, K2S2O8 has demonstrated its special utility as an inexpensive, readily available oxidant [11, 12]. Among various peroxygen families of compounds, such as H2O2, KHSO4, and others, the peroxydisulfate ion (S2O82−) is the most effective oxidant. In aqueous solution, the standard redox potential is predicted to be 2.01 V [11]. Under mild circumstances, thermal, photolysis, radiolysis, or redox breakdown of S2O82− produces the sulphate radical anion (SO4•−) additionally, transition-metal ions can activate K2S2O8 to generate SO4•−. With a redox potential of 2.531 V, SO4•− is considered an extremely strong one-electron oxidant [13, 14]. Because of their predilection for electron transfer processes, it has a longer lifetime (4 s) than hydroxyl radicals. Exergonic or endergonic electron transport processes exist. Because of the high activation energy, the endergonic process could be sluggish. Various metal salts and complexes, anions, nucleophilic radicals, and neutral organic molecules can all be oxidized by K2S2O8 [11]. In recent years, a plethora of literature has emerged, highlighting the potential use of this oxidant in a variety of metal-catalyzed and metal-free organic reactions. Not only has it found widespread application in palladium catalysis as a result of Minisci’s work, but it has also been used to carry out a variety of novel oxidative transformations without the aid of any metal catalyst. In comparison to K2S2O8, other versions such as Na2S2O8 and (NH4)2S2O8 are significantly less widely utilized. This is due to the potassium salt’s higher solubility in organic solvents, allowing for more efficient transformation. The C − C to C − X (X = N, O, S, P, B, Si, F, Br, I) bond forming reaction is covered by the spectrum of transformations accomplished with K2S2O8 in metal-catalyzed and metal-free methods across a wide variety of substrates. K2S2O8 has also been shown to be quite effective at degrading organic pollutants, especially aromatic pollutants [15]. Despite the fact that selective organic transformations involving electron transfer to SO4•− have been studied in the literature [11, 16, 17], no comprehensive investigation on metal-free oxidative transformations involving persulfate K2S2O8 has been published, including updates on recent progress in the field. The focus of the current book chapter is on the use of K2S2O8 in oxidative organic transformations. Because there is so much information about this oxidant, just the most important examples illustrating a wide range of bond types are provided here. This review is separated into groups based on the types of bonds produced. We hope that chemists working on or planning to work on developing K2S2O8-based approaches for metal-free oxidative processes will find this book chapter useful, permitting considerable scientific advancement in this area.
2. Metal-free oxidative transformations with K2S2O8
K2S2O8 is used as the major oxidant in the creation of a variety of C − C/C − N/C − S/C − O bonds, allowing access to a variety of cyclic and acyclic compounds. In the process of oxidation S2O82− is either directly involved or the radical anion sulphate (SO4•−), which, in turn, is produced by the breakdown of K2S2O8.
2.1 C–C bond formation
Direct radical acylation, alkylation, and arylation reactions (through cross-dehydrogenative coupling reactions and decarboxylative processes), cascade radical addition cyclization processes, multifold bond-cleavage-bond-forming reactions, and photoredox reactions are among the various types of C-C bond-forming reactions reported with K2S2O8 as the sole oxidant. K2S2O8-mediated hydroxyalkylation of 2H-benzothiazoles with aliphatic alcohols in aqueous solution was reported by Weng and co-workers [18]. This mild and convenient approach produced a variety of hydroxyalkylated benzothiazoles in moderate to good yields. In addition, benzimidazole and ethers were compatible in this reaction, resulting in C-2 ether-substituted heteroarenes. K2S2O8 not only works as an oxidant in this case, but it also aids in the formation of radicals. In the reaction, there would be cross-coupling between the radicals. In addition, additional radicals would target benzothiazole, so two feasible pathways are proposed in Figure 1. To begin, homolytic cleavage of K2S2O8 produced sulphate radical anions (SO4•−), which stripped hydrogens from benzothiazole and alcohol, yielding benzothiazole radical and hydroxyl radical, respectively. The two radicals then had a cross-coupling reaction, resulting in the desired product. The hydroxyl radical, on the other hand, would attack the 2-position of benzothiazole to create radical cation intermediates, which were then deprotonated by SO4•− to provide the products (Figure 1) [18].
Figure 1.
K2S2O8-mediated hydroxyalkylation of benzothiazoles with alcohols.
K2S2O8-mediated Minisci acylation on electron-rich pyrroles was used to establish regioselective monoacylation of (NH)-free pyrroles (Figure 2). Under initial heating circumstances, homolytic cleavage of K2S2O8 might form a sulphate radical anion (SO4•−), which could then be decarboxylated to produce acyl radical. Two mechanisms could lead to the synthesis of benzoylated product. From the acyl radical, the acylium ion might arise, which could then be electrophilically substituted with pyrrole to create nitrogen radical cation. In other pathway the sulphate radical anion (SO4•−) can capture one electron from pyrrole, resulting in pyrrole radical cation, which could produce adduct when reacting with nucleophilic acyl radical. Deprotonation of the intermediate could generate 2-benzoylpyrrole (Figure 3) [19].
Figure 2.
K2S2O8-mediated aroylation of electron-rich pyrroles.
Figure 3.
A mechanism for K2S2O8-mediated aroylation of electron-rich pyrroles.
Wei and colleagues demonstrated a simple, environmentally friendly, and effective method for undertaking radical cyclizations of enynes/dienes in water. This methodology was developed to employ mild reaction conditions with no catalyst, and it was easy to scale up. It was also designed to use K2S2O8 as a green oxidant and water as the solvent, resulting in a process that is both clean and simple to operate, meeting the green chemistry criterion. This reaction undergoes a sequential radical addition, intramolecular cyclization and H-abstraction to give the final product (Figure 4) [20].
Figure 4.
K2S2O8-mediated radical cyclizations of enynes/dienes with alcohols.
Zhang and Chen jointly reported K2S2O8−/tetrabutylammonium hydrogen sulfate (TBAHS) promoted cascade oxidative aryl-alkylation of N-Aryl-alkylation of N-aryl acrylamides for functionalized oxindole synthesis (Figure 5) [21]. Under the heating condition, K2S2O8 interacted with TBAHS to produce bis(tetrabutylammonium) peroxydisulfate, which might undergo homolytic O-O bond cleavage to yield two molecules of tetrabutylammonium sulphate radical anions (n-Bu4N+SO4•,) [22, 23]. The radical anions then extract a hydrogen atom from a variety of Csp3-H compounds, resulting in the C-centered radical. Alkene would then grab the resultant radical, which would then be cyclized to form an aryl radical. Finally, a carbocation is formed by single-electron oxidation of resultant aryl radical by radical anions, which is deprotonated by the produced sulphate dianion (n-Bu4N+SO42−) to obtain the desired product. The active n-Bu4N+SO4•, produced in the first stage of the reaction can provide higher solubility and a suitable oxidation potential for the product.
Figure 5.
K2S2O8 and TBAHS promoted synthesis of oxindoles.
Under metal-, photocatalyst-, and light-free circumstances, the Baishya group described two simple and successful C-3 arylation protocols of quinoxalin-2(1H)-ones with arylhydrazines and aryl boronic acids, respectively, via free radical cross-coupling reactions. Under two separate reaction conditions, K2S2O8 has been employed as an effective oxidant to create aryl radicals from arylhydrazines and aryl boronic acids. The process starts when persulfate S2O82− decomposes into the sulphate radical anion SO4•−, which interacts with phenylhydrazine to create the phenylhydrazine radical. Another sulphate anion radical combines with SO4•− to produce phenyldiazene, which then reacts with still another sulphate anion radical to produce phenyldiazene radical. The phenyl radical is formed when N2 gas is removed from phenyldiazene radical, and it conducts a Minisci-type radical addition reaction on the C-3 position of quinoxalin-2(1H)-one, yielding the desired product as shown in Figure 6 [24].
Figure 6.
K2S2O8Mediated C-3 arylation of quinoxalin-2(1H)-ones.
In the presence of persulfate, Ryu’s group found that a wide range of unactivated acyclic and alicyclic substrates cleanly undergo site-selective alkenylation of unactivated C(sp3)-H bonds with 1,2-bis(phenylsulfonyl)ethene. The sulphate radical formed by thermally induced homolysis of the persulfate anion abstracts a hydrogen from the β-position of cyclopentanone to create alkyl radical. After that, this radical combines with the C-C double bond of 1,2-bis(phenylsulfonyl)ethene to generate another radical, which then undergoes β-scission to yield the desired product as shown in Figure 7 [25].
Figure 7.
Persulfate anion-induced C(sp3)-H alkenylation by 1,2-bis(phenylsulfonyl)ethane.
Inorganic oxidants such as potassium persulfate (K2S2O8) have been frequently employed in oxidative transformations because they are inexpensive and readily available. Tang and Chang’s group published a method for selective intramolecular radical trifluoromethylacylation of alkenes with low-cost CF3SO2Na and K2S2O8 to produce CF3-functionalized chroman-4-ones (Figure 8) [26]. The rate-determining phase entailed the production of trifluoromethyl radical (CF3) from CF3SO2Na via the oxidation of K2S2O8. The reaction was started by CF3 rather than the acyl radical from the aldehyde, according to control experiments and DFT calculations.
Figure 8.
Synthesis of CF3-functionalized chroman-4-ones.
Under metal-free circumstances, the Xaio group disclosed a novel and simple approach for the synthesis of 3-(2-oxo-2- arylethyl)chroman-4-ones as shown in Figure 5. Using the radical method, aromatic or aliphatic aldehydes react with various 2-(allyloxy)arylaldehydes to make chroman-4-one derivatives in a moderate to good yields. The procedure is metal-free and has a step-by-step approach, as well as readily available starting materials, demonstrating its some physiologically active chemicals having practical synthetic use (Figure 9) [27].
Figure 9.
K2S2O8- mediated synthesis of chroman-4-one derivatives.
2.2 C–N bond formation
Under metal-free circumstances, several nitration, azidation, and intramolecular C-N bond-forming reactions with K2S2O8 have been described. Unlike the decarboxylation of alkyl radicals from carboxylic acids or the generation of sulfur-centered radicals from the corresponding metal salts, silver or other metal catalysts are not required for the generation of nitrogen dioxide or azide radicals (redox potentials of nitrogen dioxide and azide radicals are +1.04 V and + 1.33 V, respectively), [28, 29] and K2S2O8 alone could suffice.
By employing TBN and various internal alkenes, Patel group developed a metal-free approach with K2S2O8 and quinolone for the synthesis of 1,2,5-oxadiazole-N-oxides (furoxans) and nitrolefins from various internal alkenes as shown in Figure 10 [30]. In this method, the TBN undergoes thermal heterolytic cleavage of tert-butyl nitrite, resulting in the formation of a NO radical and a tert-butoxy radical. Under aerobic reaction conditions, the NO radical is transformed to a NO2 radical. As shown in Figure 10, the NO2 radical generated attacks the various alkenes and produces the desired products [30].
Figure 10.
Tert-butyl nitrite mediated differential functionalizations of internal alkenes.
The Sawant group published an excellent yielding transition metal-free technique for oxidative coupling of primary amines to imines and azobenzenes, thiols to disulfides, and 2-aminothiophenols to benzothiazoles. The use of biocompatible and green reaction conditions such as solvent, room temperature reactions, and a transition metal-free approach are among the advantages of the current ecologically friendly process. It also has a wider range of substrate scope (Figure 11) [31].
Figure 11.
K2S2O8-mediated synthesis of imines, azobenzenes, benzothiazoles, disulfides.
2.3 C–O/C–S/C–Se/C–halogen bond formation
The oxidative C-O, C-S, C-Se and C-halogen bond-forming processes utilizing K2S2O8 as the only oxidant are described in some detail. For the synthesis of 1,2-diketones from internal alkynes, Chao and colleagues established a K2S2O8-mediated, transition-metal-free approach [32]. For diaryl- and aryl-alkyl acetylenes, Chao’s procedure is quite convenient. However, under this K2S2O8-mediated reaction state, the aldehyde functionality connected to the aryl-alkyne is unwelcome, resulting in a very poor yield of the desired 1,2-diketone product. Transition-metal (Pd, Ru, Au, Ag, and Cu) catalyzed reactions are generally used to convert alkynes to 1,2-diketones [33, 34]. This K2S2O8-mediated process is a good transition-metal catalyzed reaction alternative. The author concluded from 18O-isotope labelling tests that oxygen incorporated into alkyne came from K2S2O8 and molecular oxygen rather than water (H2O18) as shown in Figure 12 [32].
Figure 12.
K2S2O8-mediated synthesis of 1,2-diketones.
Tetrahydro-carbolines were oxidized by persulfate, according to the Chen group. In moderate to good yields, this reaction promotes the synthesis of a range of 2-formyl N-substituted tryptamines and related derivatives as important intermediates. The approach can be used to perform direct last-stage oxidation of Cialis and evodiamine, two interesting medicines (Figure 13). Under thermolysis in the DMSO solvent, breakdown of S2O82− results in the creation of the sulphate radical anion SO4•− single electron transfer (SET) from tetrahydro-carboline to SO4•− yields the carbon-centered radical, which is then further oxidized to provide the iminium intermediate. N-Boc-2-formyl-Trp-OH is produced via intermolecular nucleophilic addition to an iminium intermediate (Figure 13) [35].
Figure 13.
K2S2O8-mediated oxidation of tetrahydro-β-carbolines by persulfate.
In order to synthesis the related flavanones and chalcones in good to excellent yields, a novel K2S2O8-mediated approach for the oxidative deoximation of flavanone and chalcone oximes was developed. Flavanone oximes, chalcone oximes, ketoximes, and aldoximes have all been effectively deoximated using this approach. This approach works for both inhibited and functionalized aldoximes as well as ketoximes (Figure 14) [36].
Figure 14.
K2S2O8-mediated oxidative deoximation of oximes.
Bhat recently reported paraselective thiocyanation of phenol and aniline driven by K2S2O8. For heterocycles like indoles, high regioselectivity was also seen (C3-thiocyanation) as shown in Figure 15 [37]. To learn more about the mechanism, the radical scavenger TEMPO (2,2,6,6- tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxyl) was treated with the reaction mixture. Even after an extended reaction period, the thiocyanation reaction did not progress, indicating that a free radical route was most likely engaged during the process. K2S2O8 is well recognized for producing a powerful, short-lived oxidant-sulphate radical anion (SO4•−). When the sulphate radical anion (Eo = 2.6 V) interacts with aromatics with low ionization potential, it produces a radical cation [38, 39].
Figure 15.
K2S2O8-mediated Thiocyanation of phenols, anilines and heterocycles.
Yu reported using thiocyanation and C-O cyclization in the presence of K2S2O8 to obtain 3-thiocyanato-4H-chromen-4-ones from different 2-hydroxyaryl enaminones [40]. The production of a nucleophilic SCN radical was hypothesized as the next step in this process as shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16.
K2S2O8-mediated synthesis of 3-thiocyanato-4H-chromen-4-ones.
Sun and co-workers described a K2S2O8-mediated selenoamination of alkenes using diphenyl diselenide and several nitrogen containing compounds such as saccharin, dibenzenesulfonimide, benzotriazole, pyrazole, 1,2,4-triazole, 6-chloropurine, and others as shown in Figure 17 [41].
Figure 17.
K2S2O8-promoted selenoamination of alkenes.
Yi and co-workers used Selectfluor and K2S2O8 to develop a transition-metal-free technique for direct benzylic C-H fluorination [31]. Despite the existence of different techniques for this transformation, the use of K2S2O8 as a cheap oxidant was shown to be the most effective. The most plausible scenario was the formation of a benzylic radical with the sulphate radical ion, which then interacted with a F atom from Selectfluor (Figure 18) [39].
Figure 18.
K2S2O8-promoted benzylic monofluorination and difluorination.
3. Conclusions
Oxidative transformations that result in the formation of C-C/C-X bonds are an important class of reactions that has made significant progress in recent years. The oxidative reactions carried out under metal-free conditions using K2S2O8 as the major oxidant are highlighted in this book chapter. Overall, this book chapter covers a wide range of greener metal-free transformations (C-C, C-N, C − O/C − S/C − Se/C − Halogen bond formations) with K2S2O8 and the mechanisms that underpin them. Their applications in visible light and photoredox-catalyzed reactions have recently been discovered. Nonetheless, given the current state of knowledge about the use of this oxidant in diverse transformations, a comeback of new techniques is very likely in the near future, which can be hastened even further with a complete grasp of mechanistic pathways.
Acknowledgments
Bilal Ahmad Mir acknowledges the support of this chapter by University Grants Commission (CH/20-21/0228) for Fellowship. Suresh R acknowledges the support of this chapter by SERB for funding under the National Post-Doctoral Fellowship scheme SERB-NPDF (PDF/2021/002055) and Rajamalli P, MRC, IISc Bangalore for providing RA position.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"potassium persulfate, oxidant, eco-friendly, oxidative transformations, Minisci reaction, C-C and C-X bond formation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82251.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82251.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82251",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82251",totalDownloads:14,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 8th 2022",dateReviewed:"March 28th 2022",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 15th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The formation of carbon-carbon/carbon-heteroatom bonds by oxidative transformations is a hotly debated topic in chemistry. K2S2O8 has emerged as a cost-effective inorganic oxidant for a wide range of oxidative reactions in this setting. This book chapter covers oxidative reactions facilitated by K2S2O8 in the absence of a metal catalyst in detail. Organic chemists may find this book chapter valuable in formulating the mechanistic pathways involving the sulphate radical anion, as well as in the quick and environmentally friendly synthesis of novel chemical species.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82251",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82251",signatures:"Bilal Ahmad Mir and Suresh Rajamanickam",book:{id:"11211",type:"book",title:"Green Chemistry - New Perspectives",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Green Chemistry - New Perspectives",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Brajesh Kumar and Dr. Alexis Debut",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11211.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-778-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-777-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-779-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Metal-free oxidative transformations with K2S2O8",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 C–C bond formation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 C–N bond formation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 C–O/C–S/C–Se/C–halogen bond formation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Müller CE, Hansen FK, Gütschow M, Lindsley CW, Liotta D. New drug modalities in medicinal chemistry, pharmacology, and translational science: Joint virtual special issue by journal of medicinal chemistry, ACS medicinal chemistry letters, and ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 2021;64:13935-13936. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01548'},{id:"B2",body:'Borges F, Roleira F, Milhazes N, Santana L, Uriarte E. 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DOI: 10.1039/C4OB02418D'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Bilal Ahmad Mir",address:"ahmadmir.bilal6@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, Pondicherry University, India
Materials Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, India
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Our journals are currently in their launching issue. They will be applied to all relevant indexes as soon as they are eligible. These include (but are not limited to): Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, MEDLINE, Database of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), Google Scholar and Inspec.
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IntechOpen books are indexed by the following abstracting and indexing services:
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BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Since 2002, Research4Life has provided researchers at more than 10,500 institutions in over 125 lower and middle-income countries with free or low-cost online access to up 151,000 leading journals and books in the fields of health, agriculture, environment, applied sciences and legal information. There are five programs through which users can access content: Research for Health (Hinari), Research in Agriculture (AGORA), Research in the Environment (OARE), Research for Development and Innovation (ARDI) and Research for Global Justice (GOALI).
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Since 2002, Research4Life has provided researchers at more than 10,500 institutions in over 125 lower and middle-income countries with free or low-cost online access to up 151,000 leading journals and books in the fields of health, agriculture, environment, applied sciences and legal information. There are five programs through which users can access content: Research for Health (Hinari), Research in Agriculture (AGORA), Research in the Environment (OARE), Research for Development and Innovation (ARDI) and Research for Global Justice (GOALI).
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
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This chapter aims to redefine what identity is as a concept and the impact of globalization on contemporary architecture especially on regions with rich heritage and unique culture as the Arab World. To accomplish this, the chapter examines the emergence of “local identity” as a reaction to the globalization of cultural values, uniform architectural styles, and stereotype patterns through discussing sustainability as a motivation for identity in culture and architecture. The research methodology is based on conducting a qualitative analysis of literature review to the main concepts discussed in this chapter such as: identity, culture, vernacular architecture, and sustainability. 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This change influences one another at various temporal and spatial scales; however, improper land uses are the primary causal factor on climate change. It studies relevant literature and Nepal’s case to assess the relationship between land use and climate change. Similarly focuses on how land-use impacts climate change and vice versa. In recent centuries land-use change significant effects on ecological variables and climate change. 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Meanwhile, decision-making periods of location choice and determining areal densities are conducted without quantitative spatial/technical analyses. Those urban matters bring along new planning paradigms like smart growth (SG) and new urbanism. SG is a land use planning paradigm which indicates that traffic problems should be minimized by transit alternatives, effective demand management and providing a balance between land use and transportation planning. This study aims to apply SG strategies to the land use planning process and evaluate the accuracy of land use planning decisions in the perspective of sustainable transportation. In order to reveal the effects of land use planning decisions on the available transportation infrastructure, two scenarios are investigated for 2030. In the first scenario “do nothing” option is considered, while the residential area densities and trip generation rates are regulated based on SG strategies in the second scenario. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. 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Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. 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\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 27th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},subseries:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",keywords:"Demographic shifts, Innovation, Technology, Next-gen leaders, Worldwide environmental issues and clean technology, Uncertainty and political risks, Radical adjacency, Emergence of new business ecosystem type, Emergence of different leader and leader values types, Universal connector, Elastic enterprise, Business platform, Supply chain complexity",scope:"
\r\n\tThe Business and Management series topic focuses on the most pressing issues confronting organizations today and in the future. Businesses are trying to figure out how to lead in a time of global uncertainty. In emerging markets, issues such as ill-defined or unstable policies, as well as corrupt practices, can be hugely problematic. Changes in governments can result in new policy, regulations, and interest rates, all of which can be detrimental to foreign businesses and investments. A growing trend towards economic nationalism also makes the current global political landscape potentially hostile towards international businesses.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe demographic shifts are creating interesting challenges. People are living longer, resulting to an aging demographic. We have a large population of older workers and retirees who are living longer lives, combined with a declining birthrate in most parts of the world. Businesses of all types are looking at how technology is affecting their operations. Several questions arise, such as: How is technology changing what we do? How is it transforming us internally, how is it influencing our clients and our business strategy? It is about leveraging technology to improve efficiency, connect with customers more effectively, and drive innovation. The majority of innovative companies are technology-driven businesses. Realizing digital transformation is today’s top issue and will remain so for the next five years. Improving organizational agility, expanding portfolios of products and services, creating, and maintaining a culture of innovation, and developing next -generation leaders were also identified as top challenges in terms of both current and future issues.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe most sustained profitable growth occurs when a company expands its core business into an adjacent space. This has significant implications for management because innovation in business ecosystems differs from traditional, vertically integrated firms. Every organization in the ecosystem must be aware of the bigger picture. Innovation in ecosystems necessitates collaborative action to invent and appraise, efficient, cross-organizational knowledge flows, modular architectures, and good stewardship of legacy systems. It is built on multiple, interconnected platforms. Environmental factors have already had a significant impact in the West and will continue to have an impact globally. Businesses must take into account the environmental impact of their daily operations. The advantage of this market is that it is expected to grow more rapidly than the overall economy. Another significant challenge is preparing the next generation of leaders to elevate this to the number one priority within the next five years. There can be no culture of innovation unless there is diverse leadership or development of the next generation of leaders; and these diverse, next-generation leaders are the ones who will truly understand the digital strategies that will drive digital transformation.
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\r\n\tThe topic on Economics is designed to disseminate knowledge around broad global economic issues. Original submissions will be accepted in English for applied and theoretical articles, case studies and reviews about the specific challenges and opportunities faced by the economies and markets around the world. The authors are encouraged to apply rigorous economic analysis with significant policy implications for developed and developing countries. Examples of subjects of interest will include, but are not limited to globalization, economic integration, growth and development, international trade, environmental development, country specific comparative analysis, technical innovation and knowledge management, political economy analysis, and banking and financial markets.
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\r\n\tMarketing is an important aspect in the functioning of all types of organizations. The external environment is characterized by constant and dynamic changes, that pose risks to the company. It is associated with changes in macroeconomic, political, legal, and demographic, as well as new consumer trends. It is necessary to carefully plan marketing activities in order to provide the market with products that satisfy consumers' needs and desires, provide them with value, and bring satisfaction and contentment. Therefore, in this topic, we focus on overall marketing efforts, including marketing communications through traditional and social media, pricing strategies, distribution strategies, branding, innovation, and new product launches, as well as researching the current market and consumer trends. We also analyze the latest trends and tendencies in marketing, such as product placement and neuromarketing.
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