Countries reported with the presence of bacterial panicle blight (BPB) caused by
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6597",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Elasticity of Materials - Basic Principles and Design of Structures",title:"Elasticity of Materials",subtitle:"Basic Principles and Design of Structures",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'In the science of physics, elasticity is the ability of a deformable body (e.g., steel, aluminum, rubber, wood, crystals, etc.) to resist a distorting effect and to return to its original size and shape when that influence or force is removed. Solid bodies will deform when satisfying forces are applied to them. Elasticity solution of materials will be grouped in forms of linear and nonlinear elasticity formulations. The main subject of this book is engineering elasticity and consists of five chapters in two main sections. These two main sections are "General Theorems in Elasticity" and "Engineering Applications in Theory of Elasticity." The first chapter of the first section belongs to the editor and is entitled "Analytical and Numerical Approaches in Engineering Elasticity." The second chapter in the first section is entitled "A General Overview of Stress-Strain Analysis for the Elasticity Equations" by P. Kumar, M. Mahanty, and A. Chattopadhyay. The first chapter of the second section is entitled "FEA and Experimental Determination of Applied Elasticity Problems for Fabricating Aspheric Surfaces" by Dr. D.N. Nguyen. The second chapter is entitled "Concept of Phase Transition Based on Elastic Systematics" by Dr. P.S. Nnamchi and Dr. C.S. Obayi. The third chapter is entitled "Repair Inspection Technique Based on Elastic-Wave Tomography Applied for Deteriorated Concrete Structures" by Dr. K. Hashimoto, Dr. T. Shiotani, Dr. T. Nishida, and Dr. N. Okude. Finally, this book includes the basic principles of elasticity and related engineering applications about theory and design.',isbn:"978-1-78984-928-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-927-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-579-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71471",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"elasticity-of-materials-basic-principles-and-design-of-structures",numberOfPages:106,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0fa760a58144d1a77a16afba49a3685d",bookSignature:"Ezgi Günay",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6597.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6015,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:11,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 21st 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 14th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 13th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 1st 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 30th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"186402",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ezgi",middleName:null,surname:"Günay",slug:"ezgi-gunay",fullName:"Ezgi Günay",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186402/images/system/186402.jpeg",biography:"Ezgi Günay graduated from the Engineering Sciences Department at the Middle East Technical University (METU, Ankara, Turkey) in 1985. She completed her Master of Science degree in 1989 at the same department. The title of her thesis was “Development of a Preprocessor and Modification of a Finite Element Procedure for the Analysis of Metal Forming Processes” (December 1989, METU). She received her PhD from the Mechanical Engineering Department at Gazi University in 1996. The title of the thesis was “A Nonlocking Finite Element Model for Nonlinear Analysis of Thin and Thick Composite Plates.” She worked as an assistant professor between 1999 and 2009 and studied academically by giving basic courses as an associate professor between 2010 and 2020 at the same department. During these years, she gave courses on the following subjects: technical drawing, FORTRAN-computer programming languages, applied mathematics for mechanical engineers, differential equations, statics, dynamics, strength of materials, introduction to numerical analysis, introduction to composite materials, introduction to finite element analysis, finite element method, plate and shell theories, and elasticity. She has authored about 40 papers published both in national and international proceedings and journals. 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The theory of elasticity contains equilibrium equations relating to stresses, kinematic equations relating to the strains and displacements and the constitutive equations relating to the stresses and strains. Concept of normal and shear stresses, principal stress, plane stress, Mohr’s circle, stress invariants and stress equilibrium relations are discussed in analysis of stress section while strain-displacement relationship for normal and shear strain, compatibility of strains are discussed in analysis of strain section through geometrical representations. 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The machining process is carried out with the deformation model without mold. When vacuum pressure is supplied to the workpiece, the top surfaces of workpiece are deformed into aspheric shape. After machining process, the bottom surface will be formed into the aspheric shape and the top surface returns to its original flat surface form due to internal force and bending moments of the material. However, the accuracy will decrease due to the reduced thickness while the vacuum pressure keeps unchanged during machining process. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out the finite element analysis (FEA) to determine the vacuum pressure with corresponding to the reduced thickness. In addition, the mold with its surface approximates and the desired surface form of the lens is also presented. When uniform vacuum pressure is supplied to the workpiece through small holes of the mold, the workpiece will be deformed into aspheric profile as similar to the mold surfaces. In order to improving the form accuracy, the FEA and the experiment are studied for modifying the mold profile to correspond with bending strength of workpiece material.",signatures:"Duc-Nam Nguyen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64709",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64709",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63939",title:"Concept of Phase Transition Based on Elastic Systematics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81340",slug:"concept-of-phase-transition-based-on-elastic-systematics",totalDownloads:1028,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The use of elastic constants systematics to describe fundamental properties of engineering materials has made materials science education and its related subjects increasingly important not only for manufacturing engineers but also for mankind at large. In this chapter, we present actual scaling of phase transition-driven considerations, such as martensitic transformation and transformable shape memory formation via elastic constant systematics. The scaling in terms of the simple and polycrystals mechanical stability criteria based on the elastic moduli and an acoustic anisotropy is in good agreement with novel experimental data from the literatures, and further, a long-standing concern in predicting polycrystalline elastic constants was considered beyond the commonly encountered criteria.",signatures:"Paul S. Nnamchi and Camillus S. Obayi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63939",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63939",authors:[{id:"248411",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul Sunday",surname:"Nnamchi",slug:"paul-sunday-nnamchi",fullName:"Paul Sunday Nnamchi"},{id:"271156",title:"Dr.",name:"Camillus",surname:"Obayi",slug:"camillus-obayi",fullName:"Camillus Obayi"}],corrections:null},{id:"63814",title:"Repair Inspection Technique Based on Elastic-Wave Tomography Applied for Deteriorated Concrete Structures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80649",slug:"repair-inspection-technique-based-on-elastic-wave-tomography-applied-for-deteriorated-concrete-struc",totalDownloads:975,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Applying elastic wave tomography as an innovative NDT method, the evaluation of velocity distribution in three-dimensional (3D) before and after the repair is introduced in this study. The increase in the velocity with penetration of the repair material according to the repair effect is identified visually and quantitatively. The 3D tomography technique is newly proposed for one-side access inspection, using drill hammering to generate an elastic wave. Accordingly, the elastic wave velocity distribution result enables to visualize the internal quality of concrete after patch repair is successfully done. In addition, an attempt for reinforced concrete (RC) slab panels is made to confirm the effectiveness of the repair by comparing the velocity distribution of elastic waves obtained from acoustic emission (AE) tomography analysis, before and after the repair. Thus, the velocity recoveries due to injection are found in all the slab panels, and it is confirmed that the elastic wave velocities obtained using this technique can serve as an indicator for examining the state of crack and void filling with injected material. Further, a good correlation is found between the low-velocity region before repair and the amount of injection. These results show the potential of the AE tomography technique to be used as a method for estimating the effect of injection repair.",signatures:"Katsufumi Hashimoto, Tomoki Shiotani, Takahiro Nishida and Nobuhiro Okude",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63814",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63814",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6233",title:"Natural and Artificial Fiber-Reinforced Composites as Renewable Sources",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3bdc5c86f24513451093c4484320aa8a",slug:"natural-and-artificial-fiber-reinforced-composites-as-renewable-sources",bookSignature:"Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6233.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186402",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ezgi",surname:"Günay",slug:"ezgi-gunay",fullName:"Ezgi Günay"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5503",title:"Wood in Civil Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb659c92f0d45acc8f960d9a656b54e2",slug:"wood-in-civil-engineering",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5503.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2193",title:"Advances on Analysis and Control of Vibrations",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"926bac5ebecf5b70140e42105b5e2527",slug:"advances-on-analysis-and-control-of-vibrations-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Mauricio Zapateiro de la Hoz and Francesc Pozo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2193.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"148213",title:"Dr.",name:"Mauricio",surname:"Zapateiro",slug:"mauricio-zapateiro",fullName:"Mauricio Zapateiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8822",title:"Advances in Structural Health Monitoring",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"429d24d493e64821ae08df0a71d33e37",slug:"advances-in-structural-health-monitoring",bookSignature:"Maguid H.M. 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Effective management of BPB is critical to minimizing the damage caused by the disease and maximizing production returns. However, limited options for management of the disease are available currently. No single genes or quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for complete resistance to BPB have been found so far [13, 14]. Only a few rice cultivars with partial resistance are available for commercial use. No chemical control options are available in the USA although oxolinic acid has been used as a major control measure for BPB in Japan for more than two decades [15]. Resistant populations of
In this article, we focus on the review of recent advances on the development of management strategies for BPB, including exclusion, genetic resistance, chemical control, biological control, and cultural practice. In addition, world distribution of the pathogen, characteristic symptoms of BPB, and current understanding of epidemics of BPB are also included. Two review articles covering the pathogenesis of
Since the first description of
Country | \nYear | \nBPB pathogen | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|
Japan | \n1955 | \n[22, 24] | \n|
Taiwan (China) | \n1983 | \n[25] | \n|
Columbia | \n1989 | \n[26] | \n|
Latin America | \n1989 | \nB. glumae | \n[26] | \n
Vietnam | \n1993 | \n[27] | \n|
Japan | \n1996 | \n[28, 29] | \n|
The Philippines | \n1996 | \n[30, 31, 32] | \n|
Louisiana (USA) | \n2001 | \n[1, 33] | \n|
Korea | \n2003 | \n[34] | \n|
China | \n2007 | \n[35] | \n|
Panama | \n2007 | \n[36] | \n|
Nicaragua | \n2008 | \n[37] | \n|
Arkansas (USA) | \n2009 | \n[1, 9] | \n|
Mississippi (USA) | \n2009 | \n[1] | \n|
Texas (USA) | \n2009 | \nB. glumae | \n[1, 10] | \n
Honduras | \n2011 | \nLex Ceamer, personal communication | \n|
Mississippi (USA) | \n2012 | \n[38] | \n|
Costa Rica | \n2014 | \n[39] | \n|
Ecuador | \n2014 | \n[40] | \n|
South Africa | \n2014 | \n[41] | \n|
India | \n2015 | \n[42] | \n|
China | \n2018 | \n[43] | \n
Countries reported with the presence of bacterial panicle blight (BPB) caused by
BPB of rice can be caused by either
The symptoms of BPB include seedling blight, sheath rot, and panicle blighting [1, 2, 3, 4]. These symptoms can be induced by either
Colonies of
Unlike rice sheath blight and blast, BPB is difficult to be diagnosed based on the symptoms on panicles. Similar symptoms on panicles can be caused by many abiotic and biotic factors including heat, insect damage, and secondary microorganisms [3, 4, 47]. However, BPB has the symptoms that can be distinguished from other causes. BPB occurs sporadically on individual plants or in circular or oval patterns in the field (Figures 2 and 3). In contrast, common panicle blanking, caused by abiotic stress such as from excessive heat, develops in the field more uniformly and does not form apparent foci. There are three important characteristics of BPB that separate it from other panicle disorders: (1) BPB often does not appear to prevent successful pollination although it can affect individual glumes or whole panicles (Figure 4). Thus, seed may be present on the panicle unlike panicle sterility that is caused by heat stress. (2) Infected florets initially have discoloration ranging from light green to light brown on the basal portion of the glumes with a reddish-brown margin separating this area from the rest that becomes straw-colored later (Figures 4 and 5). (3) The rachis or branches of the panicle remain green for a while at the base of each floret, even after the glumes desiccate and turn tan (Figures 4 and 5). Florets at the latest stages of infection usually appear to be gray or black due to the abundant growth of saprophytic fungi on the surface (Figure 5). The disease can cause linear lesions on sheaths with a distinct reddish-brown border and a gray and necrotic center, resulting in sheath rot (Figure 6A) and stem rot (Figure 6B). On the leaves, lesions are circular to oval with a smooth reddish-brown border and a gray or straw-colored center (Figure 6C). If the infected plants are young, this disease can cause seedling blighting (Figure 6D) or seeding rot. The symptoms of seedling rot were first reported in Japan [22] and frequently occur in young rice plants. However, these symptoms on leaves, sheaths, stems, and seedlings are rarely observed under the field conditions in the Southern USA [4]. This is one of the reasons why no scouting methods have been developed to detect and predict the development of BPB based on the symptoms on leaves and sheaths at the early crop growth stages.
\nA focal pattern of bacterial panicle blight (BPB) on the Presidio (cv) rice panicles (center) in a research plot inoculated with
Symptoms of bacterial panicle blight (BPB) on a Presidio (cv) rice panicle head (arrow) in the field inoculated with
A close look at the symptoms of bacterial panicle blight (BPB) on Presidio (cv) rice panicles. Photo was taken approximately 2 weeks after inoculation with
Comparison of the developmental symptoms of bacterial panicle blight (BPB) on infected kernels of rice (lower row) and healthy kernels (upper row). Photo was taken for rice kernels collected from different Presidio (cv) rice plants inoculated with
Symptoms of sheath rot (A), stem rot (B), leaf lesions (C), and seedling blighting (D) caused by
The disease cycle and epidemiology of BPB of rice are not completely understood. Both
The bacterial pathogen invades germinated seeds, inhabits the roots and lower sheaths, and moves up the growing plant as an epiphyte (an organism growing on a plant surface, but not as a parasite) [2, 51, 52]. A recent study, using real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR to monitor the infection process of
High temperatures in combinations with high humidity or frequent rain are essential for the development of BPB epidemics. The outbreaks of BPB are usually triggered by conditions of high temperatures in combination with simultaneously high relative humidity during the heading-flowering stages. In the observations of Yokoyama and Okuhara [56], the disease developed when minimum daily temperature was ≥23°C and moderate rainfall (<30 mm/day) occurred during heading. Tsushima et al. [57] found BPB commonly occurred when relative humidity was more than 95% for 24 hours during flowering. Lee et al. [58] reported that the disease did not develop when the minimum daily temperature was less than 22°C and when relative humidity was below 80% during the heading stage. Nandakumar et al. [1] found that the optimum temperature for the growth of
The outbreaks of BPB in the Southern USA in the epidemic years appeared to be related to unusual weather conditions. Weather conditions favorable for the development of the disease were high nighttime temperatures and high humidity or frequent rainfall during heading and flowering [10]. For example, in the 2010 epidemic year, abnormally high minimum (night time) temperatures occurred on June 21 through July 10 (Figure 7) when ca. 60% of the Texas rice acreage was near or at heading and flowering. During that period, rainfall was frequent and relative humidity was 95% or above most of the time (Figure 7). The combination of favorable weather conditions, high nighttime temperatures and high humidity, occurring at the most susceptible stages of rice plants promoted the infection and development of BPB. Similar weather patterns were observed in 1995 when a severe epidemic of BPB took place in Texas. There were many days with high maximum temperatures 35°C or above, day temperatures above 32°C from 10 am to 12 pm (the flowering time), and precipitation from the last week of June through the first week of August (Table 2). Heading and flowering occurred on a large percentage of the Texas rice crop during that period. These conditions were associated with severe outbreaks of BPB and significant yield losses in 1995. Figure 8 shows an example of the severity of this disease in 1995 and its association with yield loss for different rice cultivars, with the disease severity levels ranging from 1 to 22% of panicles affected.
\nAir temperatures and rainfalls during the 2010 growing season of rice at the Beaumont Center, Jefferson County, Texas. Note the red-dashed rectangle area showing minimum (night) air temperatures (blue curves) higher above the 65-year historical average (the brown curve) and frequent rainfalls (green bars). The dashed rectangle area represents the period of June 21 through July 10 that coincided with the heading and flowering stages (source:
Crop phenology (% heading) | \nMonth | \nWeek | \nDays | \nTotal precipitation (cm) | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
≥35°C | \nMean ≥ 24°C | \n10 am to noon ≥32°C | \nPrecipitation | \n||||
— | \nJune | \n1 | \n0 | \n0 | \n— | \n0 | \n4.4 | \n
7 | \n\n | 2 | \n0 | \n3 | \n— | \n1 | \n2.0 | \n
3 | \n\n | 3 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n0 | \n
6 | \n\n | 4 | \n4 | \n1 | \n0 | \n2 | \n8.0 | \n
15 | \nJuly | \n1 | \n0 | \n5 | \n0 | \n5 | \n4.0 | \n
12 | \n\n | 2 | \n4 | \n2 | \n0 | \n2 | \n0.7 | \n
11 | \n\n | 3 | \n4 | \n3 | \n6 | \n2 | \n0.4 | \n
10 | \n\n | 4 | \n6 | \n5 | \n7 | \n2 | \n4.8 | \n
10 | \nAugust | \n1 | \n3 | \n1 | \n4 | \n2 | \n2.2 | \n
3 | \n\n | 2 | \n2 | \n2 | \n6 | \n3 | \n3.5 | \n
3 | \n\n | 3 | \n4 | \n2 | \n— | \n3 | \n3.2 | \n
3 | \n\n | 4 | \n4 | \n1 | \n— | \n4 | \n2.5 | \n
Summary of rice crops and weather data at Beaumont and Eagle Lake, Texas in 1995.
Yield (left Y-axis) and bacterial panicle blight (BPB) severity (% panicles affected) (right Y-axis) of eight cultivars of rice (X-axis) in naturally infested field at Beaumont, Texas, in 1995 (source: [
Successful disease control generally relies on employing management strategies toward reducing the damage to a manageable and acceptable level. These strategies are exclusion, genetic resistance, chemical control, biological control, and cultural practice. However, for control of the BPB disease at a given geographical area, there are few management options available currently. To effectively manage rice BPB, rice producers must start with the use of pathogen-free seeds as an exclusion measure, plant with partially resistant cultivars, apply with available chemicals or biocontrol agents, and use proper cultural practice. Integrated use of these available management strategies is the key to the effective and sustainable control of the BPB disease.
\nSince the BPB disease has been reported in more than 18 countries (Table 1) and the disease is not present in all the rice-producing countries and regions, exclusion of the BPB pathogens from a disease-free region is the most effective strategy to prevent BPB of rice. Plant quarantine is an effective measure to achieve this goal. For example, within the USA, the state of California has employed a plant material quarantine procedure to prevent the introduction of the BPB pathogens, other rice pathogens, and weed and insect pests into the state from the southern rice-producing USA. A similar plant quarantine law has been established and enforced in China to prevent the potential importation of the BPB pathogens from foreign countries since 2007 [21].
\nBPB is seedborne and infected seeds serve as the primary source of inoculum [1, 2, 48]. Therefore, the use of certified seeds that are free of the BPB pathogens is another effective measure to exclude the disease from a disease-free geographic area. Different molecular detection methods including PCR that have been developed to test rice seed lots [19, 48] can aid in this process. In the USA, the use of pathogen-free seeds is recommended to manage the BPB disease. However, using PCR procedure to ensure the BPB pathogens free in certified seed has not been employed. To reduce the BPB disease, it is recommended that farmers should not use the seeds harvested from the fields that are infected with BPB the previous year.
\nSeed treatment can serve as the last resort to reduce and even eliminate the seedborne BPB pathogen populations and to control subsequent head disease to an accepted level. Rice seeds treated at 65°C of dry heat for 6 days can eradicate the BPB pathogens [26]. Seed treatment with the antibiotic bactericide oxolinic acid (Starner®) has been shown to control the bacterial pathogens in naturally and artificially infected seeds [59]. An antagonistic
Considerable research efforts have been conducted globally to develop resistant cultivars as an effective and sustainable strategy for management of BPB of rice. Unfortunately, no single genes or quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for complete resistance to BPB have been found so far [13, 14]. Only several rice cultivars with partial resistance are available for commercial use. In Japan, BPB resistance breeding research efforts started as early as 1975; three partially resistant cultivars were identified through a field screening of nine cultivars and lines [62]. No resistant cultivars and breeding lines were identified in a study of screening 293 cultivars and lines using greenhouse inoculation at the flowering stage in 1983 [63, 64]. From 1985 through 2013, there were nine reported studies that screened a total of 798 cultivars and breeding lines in the field and greenhouse and identified a total of 28 cultivars and lines showing partial resistance to BPB [13, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73]. Most recently, Mizobuchi et al. [74] identified two tropical
In the USA, a collaborative research effort has been established for decades in the southern states of Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, and Texas through the Uniform Rice Research Nursery (URRN) to evaluate and develop rice cultivars with high yielding potential and resistance to BPB, sheath blight, rice blast, and other diseases. Annually, more than 200 elite breeding lines and cultivars from the southern states’ breeding programs are evaluated in the URRNs inoculated with
Mean severities of bacterial panicle blight (BPB) (Y-axis) in 20 rice cultivars (X-axis) over two locations (Beaumont and Eagle Lake) in Texas in 2010. Error bars are present in columns.
In addition to the host resistance research that has been conducted in Japan and the USA, resistant cultivars and lines have also been reported in other countries. In Brazil, three cultivars were found to be resistant to BPB in the field evaluation [81]. In China, one cultivar, named KaohsiugS.7, was reported to show resistance to the disease when rice plants were inoculated with
Host resistance such as rice blast resistance can be broadly classified into complete and partial resistance [83]. The complete resistance is of qualitative character and race specific, which is controlled by major resistance genes (R genes). However, the partial resistance is of quantitative character and non-race specific, which is controlled by several minor genes known as quantitative trait loci (QTLs). Unlike rice blast resistance having both complete and partial resistances, it is apparent that rice BPB resistance has only partial (quantitative) resistance and no complete resistance has been found. Pinson et al. [14] provided the first analysis of QTLs of rice resistance to BPB, using a population of 300 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from a cross between Lemont and TeQing, susceptible and resistant to BPB, respectively. Lemon was an American rice cultivar, while TeQing was a cultivar from China. Twelve QTLs, namely,
The current research evidence suggests that there is no direct correlation in genetic resistance between seeding rot and grain rot caused by the same bacterium
Oxolinic acid (5-ethyl-5,8-dihydro-8-oxo-[1,3]dioxolo[4,5-g]quinoline-7-carboxylic acid, Starner®) is the first chemistry that has been reported to be highly effective for control of the BPB disease in rice. This antibacterial compound, a quinoline derivative, was first introduced in Japan in 1989 for control of rice seeding rot and grain rot [15]. Combined use of oxolinic acid as seed treatment and foliar sprays at heading has been reported to be the best strategy for effective control of both seeding rot and gain rot diseases [17]. When applied at the heading stage, this bactericide is highly effective to inhibit multiplication of
Copper and copper-containing bactericides have also been reported to be effective for control of BPB in rice [86, 91, 92, 93]. These bacterial products include Kocide® 2000 (53.8% copper hydroxide), Kocide® 3000 (46.1% copper hydroxide), Previsto® (5% copper hydroxide), Badge® SC (15.4% copper hydroxide plus 16.8% copper oxychloride), Badge® X2 (21.5% copper hydroxide plus 23.8% copper oxychloride), and Top Cop® (8.4% tric basic copper sulfate). In the field trials of Louisiana, a single application of Kocide® 2000 or Top Cop® at the boot stage reduced the BPB severity as much as 75%, and grain yield and milling quality were improved [86]. In our multiyear field trials conducted in Texas, single applications of Kocide® 3000, Badge® SC, Badge® X2, or Previsto® at the heading stage significantly reduced BPB severity, with the reductions ranging from 42 to 96% [91, 92, 93]. However, except Previsto® with a relatively lower level of copper-active ingredient, all other copper products produced varying degrees of phytotoxicity on sprayed leaves and panicles and under certain environmental conditions reduced yields [86, 91, 92, 93]. These copper products have been registered as bactericides and fungicides for control of various bacterial and fungal diseases in citrus, tree crops, vegetables, vines, and field crop (soybeans, wheat, oats, and barley) in the USA. Probably due to their potential phytotoxicity and yield reduction, all these copper products have not been registered for management of the BPB disease on rice in the USA.
\nIn addition to oxolinic acid and copper-based bactericides, other bactericides such as kasugamycin, probenazole, and pyroquilon are used for management of rice seedling rot and grain rot in Japan [16] and Honduras (Lex Ceamer, personal communication).
\nSeveral studies have been conducted to develop biological control methods as a strategy for management of BPB of rice. In Japan, Tsushima and Torigoe [94] conducted the first research on the use of bacterial antagonists for control of BPB under field conditions. An antagonistic
In addition to bacterial biocontrol agents, bacteriophages (also known as phages) have been demonstrated to be effective for management of rice seedling rot in Japan. Adachi et al. [98] found that two bacteriophages were able to lyse
Few studies have been conducted to understand and develop cultural practices that could reduce the incidence and severity of BPB in rice. High levels of nitrogen fertility tend to increase the susceptibility of rice plants to the BPB disease. Avoiding excessive nitrogen rates can help reduce the damage caused by BPB. In an Arkansas study evaluating the effects of nitrogen on BPB severity, it was demonstrated that the severity of BPB at the high nitrogen rate (247 kg/ha) was 1.6 times higher than at the low rate (168 kg/ha) applied during a cropping season [99]. Under the Southern US rice production systems, early planting or use of early maturing rice cultivars to avoid the hottest times of the growing season is another effective approach to reduce the damage caused by the disease. In addition, avoiding excessive seeding rates is also helpful in reducing the incidence and severity of the disease.
\nBPB has been reported in more than 18 countries and has become a global rice disease. Currently, BPB is one of the major diseases in rice in many countries, including Japan, the USA, and Latin America. The disease is highly destructive, which can cause almost complete losses in yield and milling quality under the most favorable conditions. The outbreaks of BPB are triggered by conditions of high temperatures. With predicted global warming, the disease is likely to be more prevalent on a global scale and to cause more damage in epidemic regions in the future [20, 74]. The global land and ocean surface temperature has been increased by as much as 0.85°C over the period of 1880–2012 based on the 2014 IPCC report [100]. Under the 1°C warming scenario, it is estimated that the increased damage caused by this disease in the Southern USA would result in a $103 million USD annual decrease in consumer surplus and a loss of rice production equivalent to feeding 1.9 million people (Aaron Shew, personal communication).
\nEffective management of this bacterial disease is challenging. Unlike most of other rice diseases, The BPB disease often develops after the heading stage, and typically no symptoms and signs can be observed before heading. Therefore, no scouting methods are currently available to detect and predict the development of the disease. No standardized seed treatment methods have been developed and commercialized specifically to eradicate or reduce the pathogen populations in rice seeds. No chemical control agents are labeled for management of the BPB disease in most countries, including the USA. The efficacy and increasing use of oxolinic acid have been affected by the development of oxolinic acid resistance in the populations of
Therefore, effective and sustainable control of the BPB disease largely depends on integrated use of available management options. Plant quarantine is the first defense to exclude the BPB pathogens from disease-free countries and regions. The use of pathogen-free seed or certified seed is another effective measure to control this disease. Planting with cultivars having a resistant level as high as possible is always an effective recommendation to reduce the damage caused by the disease. A limited number of rice cultivars, including hybrids, with partial resistance to BPB are available for commercial use in many countries. Since no source of complete resistance has been discovered so far, more research is needed to look for new sources of resistance through screening a greater number of germplasm lines, including those from other countries and the wild species of
Georgius Agricola (1494–1555), the founder of geology, was seemingly the first who gave the definition of clay in 1546. It has been modified several times due to which the clay definition raises the questions related of constituents of clay and implicitly which was very important [1]. The latest effort to solve all these issues was done by the Joint Nomenclature Committees (JNCs) of the Association Internationale pour l’Etude des Argiles (AIPEA) and the Clay Minerals Society (CMS). According to these societies, clay, a naturally occurring material, composed mainly of fine-grained minerals, become plastic in presence of water and become hard when dried or fired. By this definition of clay, engineered clays and clay-like materials can be distinguished as clay (fine grained minerals) exhibiting plasticity in presence of water and become hard on drying and firing [2, 3].
Clay is a soft, freely bound, fine grained natural rock or earthy material having diameter less than 0.005 mm and composed essentially of clay particles. Based on the standard definition of mineral, clays are mainly inorganic materials except peat, muck, some soils, etc. that contain huge amount of organic/natural materials. The clay particles are formed due to the weathering and erosion of rocks containing soil, ceramic clays, clay shales, glacial clays (including great volume of detrital and transported clays) the mineral group feldspar (known as the ‘mother of clay’) over vast spans of time. During weathering, the content of feldspar is distorted by hydrolysis process results in formation of clay minerals such as kaolinites (the primary minerals in kaolin clays) and smectite (the primary minerals in bentonite clays). Clay can incorporate with one or more clay minerals even in presence of minute quantities of quartz (SiO2), metal oxides (Al2O3, MgO etc.) and organic matter [4, 5]. The plasticity of clays are due to their particle size, geometry as well as content of water and become hard, stiff, coherent and non: plastic upon drying or firing. Plasticity and hardness are greatly affected by the chemical composition of the material present in the clay. Clays can be molded in any form when they retain water. For example, some species of chlorite and mica are found to be non-plastic while grinding macroscopic flakes even where more than 70% of the material is <2 μm esd (equivalent spherical diameter). Whereas some species of chlorites and micas become plastic on grinding the macroscopic flakes where 3% of the materials is <2 μm esd. Clays are easily molded into a form that they retain when dry, and they become hard and lose their plasticity when subjected to heat
In all definition of clays, the particle size is a key parameter, no generally upper limit is accepted till now. Although clays can be distinguished from other fine-grained soils on the basis of their size difference and mineralogy. The particle sizes of silts (fine-grained soils that do not consist of clay minerals) is larger than clays. Individual clay particles are always smaller than 0.004 mm. The difference between silt and clay varies by discipline. Geologists and soil scientists usually consider a particle size of 2 μm (clays being finer than silts) for the separation, sedimentologists apply 4–5 μm, and colloid chemists use 1 μm [6]. According to Geotechnical engineers, differentiation between silts and clays can be done on the basis of the plastic characteristics of the soil, as measured by the soils’ Atterberg limits. The combination of silts, sand and clay (<40%) are called loam [7].
Mostly, geologic clay deposits composed of phyllosilicate minerals having variable amounts of water present in the mineral structure. The clay can appear in different form of colors from white to dull gray or brown to deep orange-red depending on the soil’s content [4]. The colloidal suspensions are formed when clays are immersed in water and flocculation occurs when they immersed in saline water.
Clays are divided into two classes:
Residual clay: Residual clays are found in the place of origin and formed by surface weathering which give rise to clay in three ways:
Chemical decomposition of rocks, such as granite, containing silica and aluminia
Solution of rocks, such as limestone, containing clayey impurities, which, being insoluble, are deposited as clay
Disintegration and solution of shale [8].
Transported clay, also known as sedimentary clay, removed from the place of origin by erosion and deposited in a new and possibly distant position.
Clay minerals are the characteristics minerals on the earth found near planetary surface (the surface where the outer crust of the object comes in contact with atmosphere) environment with variable amount of ions like iron, magnesium, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals and other cations. They are considered as important constituents of soil and form by diagenetic and hydrothermal alteration of rocks in presence of water [9]. They are commonly found in fine grained sedimentary rocks such as shale, mudstone and siltstone. Clay minerals act as “chemical sponges” as they have capacity to hold water and dissolved plant nutrients eroded from other minerals due to the presence of some unbalanced electrical charge on their surface [8]. As water is essential for clay minerals formation, therefore, most of the clay minerals are known as hydrous alumino silicate or hydrous aluminum phyllosilicate.
The formation of clay minerals is due to the chemical weathering of rock [9, 10]. The chemical and structural composition of clay minerals is found to be similar to the primary minerals which originate from the crust of earth mainly from igneous or metamorphic rocks. Transformations may occur in ambient conditions. Although some of the most resistant primary minerals such as quartz, micas and feldspar may remain in soils whereas other less resistant primary minerals (pyroxenes, amphiboles) are susceptible to breakdown by weathering, thus forming secondary minerals. The resultant secondary minerals are the formed due to either modification of the primary mineral structure (incongruent reaction) or neoformation through precipitation or recrystallization of dissolved constituents of primary minerals into a more stable structure (congruent reaction). These secondary minerals are most probably defined as phyllosilicates because, as the name suggest (Greek: phyllon, leaf), they exhibit a platy or flaky structure with irregular edges; while one of their most important basic structural units is an extended SiO4 tetrahedra sheet [11].
As the clay minerals are most important component of the soil, they are usually ultra-fined particles having less than 2 μm sized particles. Clay minerals are found to be the most interesting class of minerals that have attracted substantial worldwide attention and investment in research and development. In 1930, the nature of clay can be defined with advanced development in X-Ray diffraction technology used to investigate the molecular nature of clay particles.
Most of the chemical and physical properties of the soil including swelling - shrinking capacity, cation exchange capacity etc. are due to presence of the clay minerals in soil. Clay minerals are look like micas due to their chemical composition [12].
The properties that define the composition of clay minerals are derived from chemical compounds present in clay minerals, symmetrical arrangement of atoms and ions and the forces that bind them together. The clay minerals are mainly known as the complex silicates of various ions such as aluminum, magnesium and iron [13]. On the basis of the arrangement of these ions, basic crystalline units of the clay minerals are of two types:
silicon – oxygen tetrahedron consists of silicon surrounding by four oxygen atoms and unite to form the silica sheet.
aluminum or magnesium octahedron consists of aluminum surrounding by six hydroxyl units and combine to form gibbsite sheet (If aluminum is main dominating atom) or brucite sheet (If magnesium is main dominating atom) (Figure 1) [14].
Structure of tetrahedral and octahedral unit.
The main dominating atom in the tetrahedral sheet is found in form of Si4+ cation. The basic building block of tetrahedral sheet is a unit of Si atom surrounded by four oxygen atom known as silica tetrahedra. The tetrahedral sheet is formed by sharing of three oxygen of each tetrahedra with three nearest tetrahedra as shown in Figure 2. These oxygen atoms are known as basal oxygen which connect pairs of all tetrahedra together (more or less) in one plane whereas the fourth oxygen atom remain free and form the bond with other polyhedral elements known as apical oxygen. Apical oxygens are all in a separate plane and provide a link between both tetrahedral and the octahedral sheet [15]. As only one apical O is present per tetrahedron therefore, each tetrahedron shares a corner with an octahedron in the octahedral sheet.
Arrangement of tetrahedral unit to form the tetrahedral sheet.
The tetrahedral sheet is carrying negative charge due to the isomorphous substitution of Al3+ in place of Si4+ generating the charge deficiency in tetrahedral sheet. Common tetrahedral cations are Si4+, Al3+, and Fe3+.
The main dominating atoms in octahedral sheets are Al3+ or Mg2+ surrounded by six oxygen atoms or hydroxyl group give rise to eight sided building block known as octahedron. Since, octahedral sheet are present in two forms: dioctahedral or trioctahedral sheet.
When aluminum having three positive valences present in the octahedral sheet, only two-thirds of the sites are filled so that the charges will be balanced which results in formation of dioctahedral sheet. When magnesium having two positive charge valences is present, all three positions are filled to balance the charge which results in formation of trioctahedral sheet [15]. Therefore, for di – octahedral sheet, Al3+ is the main dominating atom with Al2(OH)6 a unit cell formula and often abbreviated as the stoichiometric equivalent Al(OH)3 where two Al3+ atoms coordinated with six oxygen/or hydroxyl ions
In tri – octahedral sheet, Mg2+ is the main dominating atom where three Mg2+ atoms are coordinated with six oxygen/or hydroxyl ions having a unit cell formula of Mg3(OH)6 (also written as Mg(OH)2). Gibbsite or hydrargillite (hydrous aluminum oxide, Al2(OH)6 or Al2O3•3H2O) and brucite (hydrous oxide of magnesium, Mg(OH)2) are the minerals which are generally described in literature on clay chemistry, mineralogy and structure. The octahedral sheet is formed by sharing of two oxygen of each octahedra when various octahedra linked together horizontally (Figure 3) [16, 17].
Arrangement of octahedral unit to form the octahedral sheet.
The difference in the composition of clay minerals occurs very frequently when substitution of ions takes place within the mineral structure. The substitution of Si4+, Al3+, and Mg2+ takes place with other cations with comparable ionic radii in their respective tetrahedral and octahedral sheets due to weathering (Table 1). Consequently, in the center of the tetrahedron, replacement of Si4+ by Al3+ without changing the basic structure of the crystal takes place. Moreover, in octahedron, Al3+ and Mg2+ cations are replaced by the ions such as Fe3+/2+ and Zn2+ (ionic radius = 0.074 nm). This process is known as isomorphous substitution where one structural cation is replaced by another of similar size and this kind of replacement signifies the primary cause of both negative and positive charges in clay minerals. For example, the substitution of one Al3+ for a Si4+ in the tetrahedral unit creates one negative charge. Alternatively, replacement of a lower valence cation by a higher valence (Fe2+ by Fe3+) cation results in a gain of one positive charge. The net charge of the clay mineral is determined by after balancing electron loss and gain within the structure. In most soils, the net negative charge exceed by a positive charge after substitution [18].
Cation-exchange capacities and specific surface areas of clay minerals | ||
---|---|---|
mineral | cation-exchange capacity at pH 7 (milliequivalents per 100 grams) | specific surface area (square metres per gram) |
3–15 | 5–40 | |
40–50 | 1,100* | |
10–40 | 10–100 | |
10–40 | 10–55 | |
100–150 | 760* | |
80–120 | 40–800 | |
3–20 | 40–180 | |
30–135 | 2,200 | |
20–30 | 1,540 |
Cation exchange capacity and specific surface area of different clay minerals.
*depending on the fraction of internal specific surface area.
The aluminosilicate layers comprises of the basic structural units of phyllosilicates which is formed by the combination of tetrahedral and octahedral sheets bound by shared oxygen atoms. Both the tetrahedral and octahedral sheets are the main components of phyllosilicates (due to their leaf like or plate like structure, they are known as phyllosilicates) which bound together by sharing of oxygen atoms into different layers. Phyllosilicate are the most common clay minerals consists of Si dominating tetrahedral unit and Al/or Mg dominating octahedral unit which are arranged in to sheet form. Based on number of tetrahedral and octahedral sheets and their arrangement, the phyllosilicates are divided into following categories including layer and chain silicates, sesquioxide and other inorganic minerals:
Clay can be classified depending on the way that the tetrahedral and octahedral sheets are packed into layers. The major groups of clay minerals present in the soil environment include layer and chain silicates, sesquioxides, and other inorganic minerals as shown in Figure 4 [19].
Classification of clay minerals.
A silicate comprising of planar octahedral layer bound to tetrahedral layer above and below with a distinctive repeating distance between t-o-t layers. These are the primary component of soils and are known as excellent trappers of water held between layers. Minerals within these groups are further categorized into dioctahedral and trioctahedral [11]. On the basis of number and arrangements of tetrahedral and octahedral sheets present in clay, the layer silicate are divided into three categories:
1:1 type of clay mineral
2:1 type of clay mineral
2:1:1 type of clay mineral
Each individual layer is assembled from one tetrahedral (SiO4) and one octahedral sheet (AlO6). The sheets are bonded together by sharing of O2− ions. Kaolinite and Halloysite are examples under this category [20].
The mineral Halloysite having 1:1 layer structure as kaolinite has a single sheet of water molecules between two layers with c-spacing/interlayer spacing 10.1Ǻ which make it different from kaolinite. It is illustrated by its tubular form in contrast to the platy form of kaolinite particles. Dehydration occurs on mild heating of Halloysite and will irreversibly get transformed to kaolinite. Halloysite possesses a hydrated form with a composition of Al2Si2O5(OH)4·2H2O. which irreversibly changes to a dehydrated variety mainly at relatively low temperatures (60° C) or upon being directed to conditions of low relative humidity. The dehydrated form of Halloysite has basal spacing with thickness of a kaolinite layer (approximately 7.2 Å) whereas the basal spacing of hydrated form is about 10.1 Å. The difference of 2.9 Å is due to the thickness of a sheet of water. Consequently, in hydrated form, the layers of halloysite are separated by monomolecular water layers that are lost during dehydration [23].
Most of the layer silicate clays are commonly found in soils and based on the mica structure in which a single octahedral sheet sandwiched between two tetrahedral sheets and form an individual composite layer as shown in Figure 5. Therefore, they are referred as 2:1 layer silicates in which Talc [Mg3Si4O10 (OH)2] and Pyrophyllite [Al2Si4O10(OH)2] signifies the trioctahedral and dioctahedral members. In dioctahedral and trioctahedral layer silicates, two and three octahedral sites are occupied respectively out of the three available sites in the half- unit cell (single Si4O10) [26].
Different types of clay minerals.
These types of clay minerals consist of one octahedral layer sandwiched between two tetrahedral layers. They are further characterized into two categories:
Expanding clay minerals: Smectite group and Vermiculite
Non – expanding clay minerals: illite (mica groups)
The most prominent members of this group are Montmorillonite. Beidellite, nontronite, and saponite. The flake-like crystals of smectite (e.g., Montmorillonite) are consisting of an expanding lattice, 2:1 type clay mineral. Each layer is composed an octahedral sheet sandwiched between two tetrahedral (silica) sheets. Slight attraction is found between oxygen atoms present in the bottom tetrahedral sheet of one unit and in the top tetrahedral sheet of another unit. This allows a variable space between layers, which is occupied by exchangeable cations and water. Therefore, the exchangeable cations and water can easily enter the interlayer space resulting in the expansion of layers that may vary from 9.6 Å to 20 Å [14]. In Montmorillonite, magnesium ions are replaced aluminum ions in some sites of octahedral sheet and likewise, some silicon ions in the tetrahedral sheet may be replaced by aluminum ions. This type of replacement is known as isomorphic substitution which give rise to a negative charge on the surface of clay minerals. The magnitude of the negative charge depends upon the number of substituted atoms/ions. These negative charges of the unit cell are typically balanced by exchangeable hydrated alkali (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) or alkaline earth (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr., Ba, Rd) cations. Therefore, the layer charge density of these minerals is found to be in between 0.2–0.6 per unit formula [27]. The general structural formula of smectite group of clay minerals is (Na, Ca)0.33(Al,Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2.(H2O)n. The structure, chemical composition, exchangeable ions are responsible for their several unique properties such as high cation exchange capacity, high surface area and high adsorption capacity.
The quantity of cations required to balance the charge deficiency induced by these substitutions is referred to as the cation exchange capacity (CEC). The CEC for Montmorillonite ranges from 80 to 100 milliequivalent per 100 grams. Montmorillonite clays have very poor thermal stability.
These minerals show some prominent characteristics like high cation exchange capacity, swelling and shrinkage capacity. When smectite dominated soils (e.g., Vertisols) undergo dryness, wide cracks commonly appears making the soil difficult to till due to their hardness [28].
The different types of bentonite are found based on their respective dominant element, such as potassium (K), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), and aluminum (Al). For industrial purposes, three main classes of bentonite exist: sodium, calcium and potassium bentonite.
Chlorite is mainly belongs to 2:1:1 silicate group which are basically iron magnesium silicates with some aluminum atoms. The typical chlorite clay crystal composed of 2:1 layers, such as in vermiculites clay mineral alternate with a magnesium dominated tri-octahedral sheet (also known as brucite) giving rise to 2:1:1 ratio. All the octahedral positions in chlorite are occupied by magnesium ions as in the brucite layer [41]. The negative charge of chlorites is less than smectite or vermiculites but about the same as that of fine grained mica. There is no water adsorption between the layers responsible for the non – expanding nature of this crystal. The interlayer spacing is about 14 Å. Chlorites having a muscovite-like silicate layer and an aluminum hydroxide sheet are called donbassite and show the ideal formula of Al4.33(Si3Al)O10(OH)8 [22]. In many cases, the aluminum ions present in octahedral layer are partially replaced by magnesium ions as in magnesium-rich aluminum dioctahedral chlorites called sudoite. Another type of dioctahedral chlorite is Cookeite in which lithium substitutes for aluminum in the octahedral sheets [15, 42].
Palygorskite is a fibrous magnesium aluminum phyllosilicate having the formula (Mg,Al)2Si4O10(OH)·4(H2O) which mainly found in a type of clay soil in the Southeastern United States. It is one of the types of fuller’s earth [43]. The structure of palygorskite consists of extended silicon-oxygen sheets results in the retention of the mineral in the layer silicate family whereas the tetrahedral SiO4 groups forming silicon-oxygen sheets are oriented in such a manner so that extended lathlike features could be developed which create the fibrous morphology. The chain silicate mineral found in sediments from playa lakes, saline deposits in desert soils and in calcareous material. Attapulgite is one type of palygorskite found in Attapulgus, Ga. For chemical formula and physical properties of attapulgite [44, 45].
It is also known as Meerschaum, a fibrous hydrated magnesium silicate having chemical formula Mg4Si6O15(OH)2·6H2O. It is opaque and white, gray, or cream in color. It may seem like the bones of the cuttlefish Sepia. The name of Sepiolite is derived from cuttlefish Sepia.
The structures of sepiolite and palygorskite are almost similar consisting of narrow strips or ribbons of 2:1 layers that are attached to each other at the corners. One ribbon is attached to the another by inversion of the direction of the apical oxygen atoms of SiO4 tetrahedrons; in other words, an extended rectangular box comprising of continuous 2:1 layers is enclosed to the nearest boxes at their extended corner edges. Therefore, due to the absence of silicate layers, channels or tunnels occur on the extended sides of the boxes results in the fibrous morphology of the minerals. Since the octahedral sheet is irregular, some of the magnesium ions present in octahedral layer are exposed at the edges and hold on bound water molecules (H2O). In addition to the bound water molecules, variable amounts of zeolitic/free water (H2O) are included in the rectangular channels. The width of the ribbons is found to be greater in sepiolite than in palygorskite which is a major difference between these chain silicates. The width of ribbons defines the number of octahedral cation positions per formula unit [5, 46].
Sesquioxide clays are produced from heavy rainfall and leached most of the silica and alumina from alumino – silica clay by leaving less soluble iron oxide (Fe2O3), iron hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) and aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3). Sesquioxides of iron and aluminum are found in soil. A sesquioxide is an oxide comprising three atoms of oxygen and two another element. For example, aluminum oxide (Al2O3) is a sesquioxide. Many sesquioxides contain the metal atom having +3 oxidation state and the oxide ion such as Al2O3, La2O3 except the alkali metal sesquioxides which contain both peroxide, (O22−) and superoxide, (O2−) ions, e.g., Rb2O3 is formulated [(Rb+)4(O22−)(O2−)2] [45]. They are not adhesive in nature and do not swell in presence of water. They have ability to hold large amount of phosphate as they have tendency to hold phosphorous tightly make them unavailable for absorption by plants. They have low CEC. They are found in both crystalline and amorphous form. Crystalline Sesquioxide are either metal oxide or hydroxide whereas amorphous Sesquioxide are Allophane and Imogolite.
Clay minerals are considered as gift for human beings as they are exploring the clay minerals continuously through research as these are of very low cost, environment friendly, easily available and non – toxic. The clay minerals are so widespread that in the world, there is hardly any country where there are no deposits of one or other kind of clay minerals. In nature, clay minerals are found with certain physical and chemical characteristics due to which these clay minerals play an important role in different fields from research to industries [47]. The clay minerals are a class of rock-forming minerals having porous like sheet structure with different distances between the sheets. The combination of the electrical conductivity of the matrix material and the pore fluid is the electrical conductivity (mS/m) of the porous material. The cation exchange capacity, a number of possible charged ions by the negatively charged surface of clay materials, depends on the number of sheets and the cations located in these structures [48]. Therefore, physical and chemical properties of clay minerals depend significantly on their sheet structure, cation- and anion-exchange capacity and adsorption ability which mainly determines their importance in different applications [49].
The ability of clay minerals to adsorb certain cations/anions and their retention around outside of structural unit depends on positive or negative charge deficiency in their mineral structure.
The exchange of these adsorbed ion takes place with other ions. The quantitative relationship between different reacting ions makes the exchange reaction completely different from simple sorption. Cation-exchange capacity (CEC) is the measurement of number of cations retained on the surface of soil particles [50]. It has been defined as quantity of cations that are available for exchange with other cations at a given pH and usually expressed in milliequivalent/100 gram of dry clay. Negatively charged ions present on the surface of soil particle bind with positively charged ions but allow them to exchange in the surrounding soil water with other positively charged particles results in alteration of chemistry of soil [51]. The various aspects of soil chemistry are affected by CEC. As CEC indicated the soil capacity to retain the nutrients like K+, NH4+, Ca2+, therefore, the soil fertility is measured by CEC. It also indicates the capacity to retain pollutant cations like Pb2+. (CEC Wikipedia) CEC depends on particle size, crystallinity perfection and adsorbed ion therefore for a given mineral, values exist in range rather than single specific capacity. The exchange capacities also depend on pH due to the presence of hydroxyl group on the surface of certain clay minerals like allophane and kaolinite.
The original negative charge layer is either replaced or exchanged by the adsorbed cations. This ability of colloidal particles such as clay minerals to maintain and exchange positively charged ions is important because it governs the mobility of positively charged chemical species both in soils and in general geochemical cycling of cations as shown in Figure 6 [52]. CEC is a reversible process and normally correlated with clay minerals due to the presence of interlayer exchangeable cations such as smectites. The cation-exchange capacities of the clay minerals is given in the Table 1.
Clay minerals showing the cation exchange capacity.
There are various cations which do not have same replacing power and not equally replaced under a given set of conditions. For example, calcium will easily replace sodium than sodium will replace calcium. Due to similar size potassium and ammonium ions, they easily fit in the hexagonal cavities of the silicate layer. Vermiculite and vermiculitic minerals preferably and irreversibly adsorb these cations and fix them between the layers. Heavy metal ions such as copper, zinc, and lead are strongly attracted to the negatively charged sites on the surfaces of the 1:1 layer minerals, allophane and imogolite, which are caused by the dissociation of surface hydroxyls of these minerals.
The method used to determine the CEC mainly include the complete exchange of cations by a cationic species like ammonium, Na, K, Co(III) hexamine complex, Ba and Cu(II)ethylene diamine complex. The indirect method to determine CEC mainly involves the exchange of naturally occurring cationic species in clay minerals with organic cations such as alkylammonium. Depending on the method used for determining CEC, if the exchanged cations are present in excess, they are removed in subsequent step and the cations retained on the surface of clay are determined.
Methylene blue used for determination of CEC in a rapid qualitative procedure but when compared with other methods, results were not appropriate [53, 54]. Some other complexes like an Ag thiourea complex, Co(III) hexamine complex, and Cu(II) ethylenediamine complex [55, 56, 57]. Due to high affinity of clay minerals for these ions, CEC can be determined directly.
There are some other techniques like potentiometric titration, surface tension measurement which are used for determination of CEC. The potentiometric titration used for different types of clay minerals like Colay 90Wyoming bentonite, Na-Montmorillonite and Illite bearing shale whereas surface tension measurement used for Montmorillonite, Kaolinite and Illite [58].
If dry clay minerals are allowed to adsorbed water in a controlled environment, water is added into their interlayer space in more or less discrete forms of layer causing swelling or expansion of the interlayer space. The swelling of interlayer space of clay minerals is due to the hydration energy forces associated with the particles interaction [59]. The swelling clays are prone to large volume change which are related to change in water content. The swelling capacity of clay minerals depends on the following factors:
The layer charge density of clay minerals
The type of the interlayer ions whether they are monovalent or divalent.
The concentration of ions presents in the surrounding solution with clay minerals.
The amount of water present in the interlayer of clay minerals.
The quantity and types of minerals i.e. composition of clay minerals
The swelling capacity phenomenon depends on granularity as well as superficial activities of clay itself. Swelling clay minerals are geological type of materials containing the mineral particles more than 50% with less than 2-micron size. The main mineral components of clay minerals are dispersed layer silicate [60]. The swelling properties of clay minerals play an important role in design of structures of light buildings. However, clay minerals/soil are heterogenous in nature; their chemical composition depends on other elements also instead of swelling minerals. There are several mineralogical research which discuss about the swelling and non – swelling clay minerals.
The mobilization of swelling capacity may result stability concerns and foundation threats, tunnels and slopes which required certain assumption and factors like swelling potential which need to be mobilized by applying the swelling pressure. The factors affecting the swelling potential are known as internal factors (cations present in clay minerals and properties of clay minerals) and factors having significant effect on swelling potential are known as external potential (properties of ions and available pore water) [61].
Swelling pressure mainly depends on the average specific surface area, more surface area, more Swelling pressure mainly depends on the average specific surface area, more surface area, more force acting on the surface results in high volume change and high swelling pressure [62]. During the swelling process, deformation of crystal structure in clay minerals takes place results in change in mineral strength and hydraulic conductivity. The structure of clay minerals showing swelling capacity is represented by sheets of SiO4-tetrahedrons and Al(OH)3-octahedrons which are bonded by oxygen molecules and combined to each other through interlayer having free and exchangeable cations and water molecules with variable thickness and ratio [63]. The clay minerals showing more expansion belongs to 2:1 group of clay minerals with tetrahedrons and octahedrons layers where cations and water molecules are stored in the interlayer spaces [64]. The difference between swelling and non-swelling clay minerals is the size of interlayer space. Greater the interlayer space, more change will be in swelling behavior. The interlayer spacing is measured using X-Ray Diffraction analysis. The swelling clay show more interlayer spacing while non-swelling clay show less interlayer space (Table 2). The mechanism of swelling of clay minerals is shown in Figure 7. The water molecules attached to the surface of clay minerals which is negatively charged results in hydration during the swelling process for most expandable clay minerals. The hydration is the first step in swelling process. The hydration process results in osmotic swelling where water molecules flow toward interlayer of clay minerals having high ion concentration as there is difference in concentration of ions between the unit layers and in the pore water [64].
S. N. | Clay Mineral | Type | Basal Spacing (Å) | Swelling Potential |
---|---|---|---|---|
01 | Kaolinite | 1:1 | 7∙2 | Almost none |
02 | Montmorillonite/Bentonite | 2:1 | 9∙8–20 | High |
03 | Vermiculite | 2:1 | 10–15 | High |
04 | Mica | 2:1 | 10 | Low |
05 | Chlorite | 2:1:1 | 14 | None |
Basal spacing of different types of clay minerals on the basis of swelling potential.
(a) Non-swelling clay minerals, (b) clay minerals with low swelling capacity and (c) clay minerals with high swelling capacity.
The surface charge of clay minerals affects various chemical properties of clay minerals by varying the quantity of electrical and surface charge density. The surface charge properties play an important role in the formation of organo complexes of clay minerals, migration of ions, swelling and shrinkage. On the basis of difference in surface properties, clay minerals are categorized into two categories:
Clay minerals having permanent negative charge: The permanent negative charge in clay minerals occurs due to the isomorphous substitution in the tetrahedral and octahedral layers. This type of charge is also known as structural charge and is pH independent. The negative charges of clay minerals are mainly balanced by the interlayer ions present in the interlayer space of clay minerals. The basal plane of clay minerals are permanently charged through which overall negative charge originated which is measured over pH from 2 to 12 for many clay platelets as shown in Figure 8. The edges faces are pH dependent results in anisotropy of clay particles [65]
Clay minerals having Variable charge: The charge arises due to the protonation of Si – OH group present on the edges of clay surface. This type of charge is pH dependent. It may either be positive or negative due to the protonation or deprotonation of functional group of clay minerals depending on the pH [65, 66].
Surface charge of clay minerals at different pH.
The different basal planes such as Kaolinite, gibbsite have different charging properties as the surface charge is affected by salt concentration. In case of edge surface, when hydroxyl group expose to the solution, absorbing or release of protons takes place depending on nature of hydroxyl group and proton concentration in the solution. The most important property related to charge of clay minerals is point of zero charge (pH0) indicating the condition where the clay minerals carry positive or negative charge. According to Uehara and Gillman, pH0 is the pH positive and negative charge varies with charge components where these are equal. The surface charge not mainly affects the aggregation of clay particles by also contaminants uptake from the electrolyte solution. The data used to describe the surface charge is collected under the ambient conditions like room temperature and pressure. The behavior of oxide minerals particle can be understood with respect to their charging properties as different crystal planes of a given particle has uniform charge properties. Various crystal faces exposed by the clay platelets show different properties to the surrounding solution results in significant anisotropy [67].
The negative charge present on clay surface is also examined by anion exclusion and cation adsorption in a region near the clay surface known as electrical double layer (EDL). The anion exclusion and electrophoretic mobility can be measured in aqueous dispersion of clay particles indicating the thickness of EDL in terms of several nanometer which completely depend on the ionic strength [68]. The EDL can be conceptually subdivided into a Stern layer containing inner- and outer-sphere surface complexes and a diffuse layer containing ions that interact with the surface through long-range electrostatics [69, 70]. The surface chemistry of clay minerals can now be described by two processes like physisorption and chemisorption of molecules and ions which takes place in the interlayer space and at the edges of the clay mineral layers. For better description of the surface properties, surface electric properties like surface potential and surface charge density are required [71, 72].
Clay and clay-based minerals show non-covalent adsorptive behavior through three ways onto various molecules from liquid to gaseous state.
Physical adsorption where non-ionic adsorption takes place onto the clay surface (larger surface area compromised in small volumes).
Ion exchange adsorption which takes place either through the electrostatic interaction or exchange.
Addition of small molecules in pore/cavities and partial or complete elimination of large molecules by the cavities through zeolitic adsorption action [73].
The adsorption capacities of clay minerals depend on various factors. The high adsorption capacities of clay minerals for metal ions, organic matters and other substances are due to large surface area, low permeability, high cation exchange capacities and high retention capabilities. There are some other factors like structure and chemical composition of clay minerals which affects their adsorption capacity. There are different active sites in the clay minerals through which adsorption takes place: i) exchangeable cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+); ii) hydroxyls of acidic/basic character (SiOH, SiO(H+)Al, Al-OH, and OH or Mg-OH); iii) coordinatively unsaturated ions of Al3+, Mg2+, and/or Fe3+; and (iv) oxygen anions O−. Such active sites present on the surface and the structural elements results in physical adsorption through Vander wall interaction of hydrogen bonding which takes place through the hydroxyl group present on the surface. Secondly, chemisorption also takes place due to the formation of chemical bond formed through stronger interaction between surface and molecules [74, 75].
Specific surface area (SSA) is defined as the surface area of soil particles per unit mass (or volume) of dry soil. Its unit is in m2/g or m2/m3. The clay minerals show high specific surface area due to the high soil water contaminant interaction results in high reactivity. The reactivity is different for different clay minerals (Kaolinite < Illite < Montmorillonite). The surface area of clay minerals mainly depends on the particle size and shape of the constituents present in clay minerals. As the particle size decreases, the specific surface area increases that can be both internal as well as external. This statement is true in case of the clay minerals which have large fraction of internal surface area such as smectite, vermiculite, sepiolite and palygorskite.
The specific surface area is different for different types of clay minerals. The expanding clay minerals like Montmorillonite and Vermiculite have high specific surface area up to 810 m2/g (combination of both internal and external surface areas) whereas non-expanding clay minerals like Kaolinite have specific surface area up to 10–70 m2/g as they show only external surface area due to non-contribution of interlayer surface as shown in Table 3 [76]. The specific surface area can be increased by treatment of acid activation mainly with inorganic acids.
S. N. | Clay Mineral | Type | Specific surface area (m2 g−1) |
---|---|---|---|
01 | Kaolinite | 1:1 | 5–20 |
02 | Montmorillonite/Bentonite | 2:1 | 700–800 |
03 | Vermiculite | 2:1 | 500–700 |
04 | Mica | 2:1 | 50–200 |
05 | Chlorite | 2:1:1 | — |
06 | Sepiolite/palygorskite | 2:1 | 150–900 |
Specific surface area of different types of clay minerals.
Plasticity of clay mineral is one of the important properties. It is the deformation of shape of clay minerals under the influence of finite force. It is defined as property of material which allow it to be repeatedly deformed without rupture when acted upon by a force sufficient to cause deformation and which allows it to retain its shape after the applied force has been removed. The plasticity of clay minerals is affected by their composition (types of clay minerals, proportion of non-plastic minerals etc.), organic substances, specific surface area, dispersion state of particles, particle size distribution and water characteristics (viscosity and surface tension). The other factors are pressure applied, body temperature and nature of additive used. High plasticity of clay-water system require more force for deformation which occurred to a greater extent without any cracking as compared to clay-water system having low plasticity which easily deform and rupture. The plasticity of clay minerals is related to morphology of clay minerals having platelet like structure which slide over each other after addition of water content. As the water content in clay minerals is increased, plasticity also increased up to maximum depending on nature of clay. Plasticity also known as extrudability, ductility consistency or workability.
When water is added in dry clay, cohesion is increased and tend to maximum after displacing of air from the pores present between clay particles. When water reaches into the pores, formation of high yield strength body takes place results in cracking or rupturing due to the deformation. The minimum quantity of water required to make plastic clay is known as plastic limit. When the water content increases in the clay, it converts into paste where the yield strength gradually reduced. The clay become sticky to fingers. The water content corresponding to this state is known as liquid limit. With further increasing the water content, dispersed form of clay obtained. The difference in water content between these two points is expressed as plasticity index [77, 78].
Dispersion is defined as a system where solid/liquid particles are dispersed into the continuous phase of liquid/solid/gas of different composition. In case of clay minerals, when they are wetted, separation of particles of clay minerals takes place results in formation of dispersion. Are detached. The flocculation is defined as when the particles such as of clay minerals dispersed into the solution, they come in contact and adhere with each other to form clusters, flocks or clumps of larger size (Figure 9). The clay dispersion is regulated by repulsive and attractive forces at the surface of charge colloid in electrical double layer. For dispersion of clay particles, there should be balanced between attractive and repulsive forces which is examined by exchangeable cations and ionic strength of the clay solution [79]. The dispersion of clay particles affected by variation in pH. Depending on oxide content and composition of clay minerals, they exhibit net negative or positive charge at high or low pH.
Dispersion and flocculation in clay minerals.
Suarez et al., (1984) reported that clay dispersion increased with increasing pH at constant sodium adsorption ration and electrolyte concentration for arid-zone clays; kaolinite and smectite [80]. For example, in case of sodium saturated clay, the particle charge depends on protonation of aluminol and silanol group which are affected by pH results in alteration of dispersion/flocculation behavior of clay minerals [81, 82]. The influence of pH plays an important role during the analysis of electrokinetic properties of clay minerals. In case of electrical potential of clay minerals, the effect of pH can be related to amount of variable charge present on external surface of the particles [83].
At present, identification and characterization of clay minerals can be done in easier way using modern analytical techniques such as Nitrogen Adsorption Isotherm, X-Ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-Transform Infra-Red (FT-IR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Zeta potential and Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA). The nitrogen adsorption isotherm used for analyzing the specific surface area, pore volume and pore size distribution by characterizing the porous materials like clay minerals. XRD is mainly used for identification of crystallinity of clay minerals. The characteristic peaks clay minerals like illite, kaolinite, chlorite, smectite etc. can be identified using XRD pattern which further gives information about the interlayer space. The interlayer space is determined using Bragg’s equation (nλ = 2dsinθ). For example, the characteristics peak of Montmorillonite is around 6.0° with interlayer spacing of 14.2Å and when this clay mineral is treated with a surfactant/acid, the interlayer spacing will be increased. FT-IR technique is used for identification of functional group like hydroxyl group, Si-O, Al-O group etc. For example The OH stretching vibration band that manifests at 3698.1 cm−1, 3622.6 cm−1, 3411.7 cm−1, 1638.9 cm−1, 1032.2 cm−1, 914.3 cm−1 and 799.2 cm−1 indicate the presence of kaolinite. Scanning electron microscopy used to study the surface topology of clay minerals such as the size of platelets and their shape mainly describes the surface morphology. SEM does not provide any information about the structure of clay minerals even after modification with surfactant or any acid. Transmission electron microscopy is used for studying microstructure and micromorphology of clay minerals by observing the stacking of layers and interlayer space [84, 85]. Zeta potential mainly used to study the surface charge of clay minerals. Zeta potential holds the information about electric double layer of charged particles whose magnitude is proportional to particle charge adhere on outer surface of clay minerals. Thermo gravimetric analysis used for determination of thermal stability of clay minerals. The curve obtained during analysis at various temperatures indicates the dehydration, dehydroxylation and phase transformation of clay minerals [86].
Naturally occurring clay minerals has mixed cations present on the surface and in interlayer space due to which it is impossible to use clay minerals for certain purposes as surface properties do not allow. Therefore, the interlayer space of clay minerals saturated with desired cations to confer physic-chemical properties which makes them unique for certain applications. Clay minerals are modified to enhance the properties of clay minerals like adsorption capacity, specific surface area, permeability etc. Different ways used to modify the clay minerals like ion exchange using cationic or anionic inorganic/organic complexes, binding of inorganic/organic anions, mainly at edges, reaction with acids, pillaring by different types of poly (hydroxo metal) cations, interlamellar or intraparticle and interparticle polymerization and physical treatments such as lyophilisation, ultrasound, and plasma. Clay minerals can also be modified by pillaring using suitable pillaring agent allowing the layers of clay minerals to open results in their high resistance, high thermal stability, porosity, surface area and basal spacing [87, 88].
A well-known method of ion-exchange is to use alkylammonium ions to make the clay minerals compatible with hydrophobic material in different processes. The natural and synthetic clay minerals can be modified through exchange of interlayer cations using particular organic cations like l-carnitine, spermine, hexadimethrine, tyramine, phenyltrimethylammonium, and hexadecyltrimethylammonium results in development of new types of inorganic–organic hybrid materials. These large organic molecules intercalated in the interlayer of clay minerals results in expansion of interlayer space [89]. The modified clay minerals can be characterized using different analytical techniques like XRD, FT-IR, SEM, TEM etc. as discussed above.
The pillaring of clay minerals is done by cation exchange method where mainly inorganic molecules, hydroxyl polycations of polynuclear metals like Al, Cr, Zn, Ti etc. are introduced into the interlayer of clay minerals [90].
The abundant clay and their minerals are derived from raw materials from small to wide range of composite make them suitable for different environmental application and purposes. They are most common type of sedimentary rock and formed by weathering of these rocks at the earth’s surface. They are known as ‘chemical sponge’ as they can hold water and other inorganic ions results in holding unbalanced charge on their surface due to which some clay minerals are positively charges and some are negatively charged. Due to the presence of water and inorganic ions, clay minerals shows remarkable characteristic which make them unique for different applications. The physico-chemical properties of clay minerals like specific surface area, ion exchange capacity, adsorption capacity, swelling capacity can be enhanced through modification with different organic cation which makes them unique for certain applications like low cost remediation of contaminated water bodies and soil.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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