\r\n\tVortex structures in nonlinear optics, aerodynamics, lattice vortex solitons in nonlinear Schrödinger equation, vortex filamentation, vortex dynamics superconducting in thin films, vortices in ferromagnetic hybrids, vortices in fluid flow, and vortex structures in Bose-Einstein condensation.
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She has completed her post-doctoral studies at the University of Alberta, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Canada, and later she has participated in academic research projects at the University of Colorado at Boulder, USA.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"186388",title:"Prof.",name:"İlkay",middleName:null,surname:"Bakırtaş",slug:"ilkay-bakirtas",fullName:"İlkay Bakırtaş",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186388/images/system/186388.jpg",biography:'Dr. İlkay Bakırtaş is working as a Professor of applied mathematics at the Istanbul Technical University (ITU), Department of Mathematics. She received her Ph.D. degree in Mechanics from ITU in 2003. She completed her postdoctoral studies at the University of Colorado at Boulder, USA. She has published 18 research papers in peer-reviewed journals in SCI, 4 book chapters, 21 conference proceedings in the fields of perturbation methods, nonlinear wave propagation in arteries, optical solitons and wave collapse in optics and water waves problems. She is the editor of the books "Perturbation Methods with Applications in Science and Engineering” and "Nonlinear Optics - From Solitons to Similaritons" by IntechOpen. 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She has completed her post-doctoral studies in University of Alberta, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Canada and later she has participated in academic research projects in University of Colorado at Boulder, USA. She has published 32 research papers in peer reviewed journals in SCI, 13 conference proceedings, 1 book chapter, in the fields of nonlinear wave propagation in arteries, optical solitons in nonlinear optics and water waves problems, in particular gravity currents. She has been the supervisor of many graduate students in applied mathematics. Dr. Antar is a member of Scientific Committee of TUMTMK (Turkish National Committee of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics). 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1. Introduction
The contamination of the different water compartments with several chemicals and by-products has become a major concern for human health and aquatic biota [1, 2, 3]. The environmental contaminants of major concern are pharmaceuticals, personal care products, pesticides and herbicides, heavy metals, and waterborne pathogens. Some of the chemical compounds are persistent to degradation and, therefore, can accumulate in aquatic organisms and sediments. Thus, the monitoring of contaminants in the aquatic environment is crucial to study their impact [4].
Currently, there is no regulation about the allowed levels of pharmaceutical compounds, including ethinylestradiol and antibiotics, in water. Concerning the maximum contaminant levels (MCL) in drinking water for the target metals presented in this work, their MCL are between 2 and 30 μg L−1, according to the chemical species [5, 6]. Arsenic presents an MCL value of 10 μg L−1 [5, 6], while the MCL value for mercury is 2 or 6 μg L−1 according to United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and World Health Organization (WHO), respectively. Moreover, the MCL for lead is 15 [5] and 10 μg L−1 [6]. Uranium presents the higher MCL, which is 30 μg L−1 [5, 6]. Cadmium’s maximum contaminant level corresponds to 3 and 5 μg L−1 according to WHO and EPA, respectively. With respect to the pathogens targeted in the paper-based biosensors, the EPA [7] recommends that Escherichia coli cannot exceed 126 CFU per 100 mL in fresh recreational water, while Enterococcus should present a maximum of 35 CFU per 100 mL in marine and freshwater.
In this context, paper-based biosensor devices combine the main features of paper substrates (cost-effectiveness, easy manipulation, and compatibility with proteins and biomolecules), with the high specificity and selectivity of the biorecognition systems of biosensors [1, 8, 9]. Furthermore, paper-based assays can be a solution in resource-limited contexts, as both sample and reagents can be introduced without any flow device, through imbibition and filtration via capillary action [10].
The first types of paper-based devices were related to semiquantitative analysis of glucose in urine and immunoassays on chromatographic paper test strips (or lateral flow) [11]. In the last decade, a new fabrication method based on wax patterning was introduced, allowing the design of well-defined channels on paper surface, which provided microfluidic features to the paper-based devices [12].
Reviews concerning the application of paper-based devices in different fields such as food, water analysis, environmental monitoring, and health diagnostics are available [8, 11, 13]. Furthermore, the application of biosensors has been extensively discussed regarding both their usefulness on assessing environmental and urban pollutants [1], and also their role as part of portable biochemical detection systems [14]. However, gathering information about the implementation of paper-based techniques coupled with biosensor devices to water analysis is still lacking. Hence, the aim of this work is to provide a description of the state of the art about the development and application of paper-based analytical biosensors to detect contaminants in water, focusing on work developed in the last 3 years.
2. Paper-based analytical devices
2.1 Substrate material
Paper is a complex material and a promising support for the development of biosensor analytical devices. Its main features, such as versatility, low-cost, and biocompatibility, generate simple and disposable bioanalytical tools using low reagent consumption (in the order of microliters) [8, 11, 12]. Paper is mainly constituted of cellulose fibers. The cellulose is a hydrophilic polymer, which makes paper substrate permeable to aqueous liquids [15].
There are different types of paper that are used for fabrication of paper-based devices (Table 1). Filter papers have been widely used as substrate material to paper-based devices for biosensor application [16, 17, 18, 19]. There are a vast range of commercially available high-quality filter papers, mainly constituted of alpha cellulose, a highly stable form of cellulose. The filter papers can be classified according to different properties, such as particle retention, pore size, thickness, and flow rate.
Type of paper
Examples
Features
Cellulose filter paper
Whatman® filter paper grades 1 and 2
Hydrophilic polymer, permeable to aqueous liquids; available with different pore sizes and thickness
Cellulose chromatography paper
Whatman® chromatographic paper grades 1, and 2
Allows the concentration of nanostructures in its surface and the separation of nanoparticles in agglutination-based assays
Nitrocellulose membrane
Millipore Hi-Flow Plus HF240
Hydrophobic polymer; adequate for immobilization of complex biological structures by electrostatic interactions
Printing paper
Fabriano 5 HP paper, Boise®Aspen® 30 multiuse recycled copy paper
3D structures can be easily printed in its surface, providing microchannels or screen-printed electrodes
Table 1.
Types and features of papers used in biosensors described recently.
The filter paper grade 1, considered as a medium retention and flow filter paper, has been functionalized to obtain paper-based immunosensors [16, 17]. Irvine et al. adsorbed metallothioneins in grade 1 filter paper for the detection of heavy metals [18]. In the same way, other filter paper grades have been used, such as the slow filter paper grade 42 (pore size of 2.5 μm) for the incorporation of an in vitro transcription/translation system [19].
Cellulose chromatography paper is also an alternative as high-quality substrate in paper-based biosensors. These papers can be differentiated by their flow rate and thickness. Vijitvarasan et al. [20] developed a paper-based device taking in advantage of the separative properties of chromatographic paper in order to enhance the concentration of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) on the surface of the paper. Thus, a lower level of reduced silver particles was detected on the surface of AuNPs. Chromatography papers have also been applied in the development of microfluidic devices based on capillary flow measurement [21, 22]. McCraken et al. [22] tested two different chromatography papers (grade 1 Chr and grade 2 Chr) to optimize the separation of immunoagglutinated particles. The chromatography paper providing the lower flow rate (grade 2, 115 mm/30 min) was selected for the immunoagglutination assay.
Derivatives of cellulose, such as nitrocellulose membranes, have been applied as substrates of paper-based devices. These membranes are naturally hydrophobic and demonstrate to be adequate for the immobilization of enzymes and proteins by electrostatic interactions [11]. For instance, Lopez-Marzo et al. [23] developed a lateral flow immunodevice with nitrocellulose membrane for the detection of Cd2+ in water, taking advantage of the immobilization of antibodies (2A81G5 mouse antibody and antibovine serum albumin (BSA) mouse antibody), to create zones where the probe conjugate and the positive control containing BSA would interact. A similar approach was reported for immobilization of BSA conjugate and control goat antimouse immunoglobulin for the detection of U(VI) [24].
Concerning electrochemical paper-based devices, printing paper can be applied in the development of screen-printed electrodes. Hence, carbon-based conductive ink is printed onto paper surface [25, 26]. In this context, Rengaraj et al. [27] fabricated a paper-based electrode with the high-quality printing paper using only three layers of printing.
In addition, both chromatographic paper and multiuse recycled copy paper were used for printing wax wells in paper-based devices as a confinement strategy [20], or as a low-cost alternative to microplates [28].
2.2 Fabrication procedures
There are different techniques that can be applied in order to obtain paper-based biosensor devices with variable properties, such as functionalized platforms with biomolecules or cell suspensions, conductive characteristics for electrochemical analysis, and create barriers to define the reaction zones.
Wax printing is a process used to create hydrophobic barriers that define reaction microzones or fluid reservoirs [29], as exemplified in Figure 1. Different works [16, 17, 20, 22, 28] applied this technique using graphic design software [16, 17, 22] or stencils [28] to define the microchannel areas. The incorporation of the wax onto the microfluidic channel is performed by printing the wax onto the paper surface with subsequent heating to allow wax penetration in the paper.
Figure 1.
Examples of fabrication schemes for production of (A) wax printed paper-based well devices and (B) stencil-printed transparency film-based carbon electrodes. Adapted and reprinted with permission from [28]. Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society.
Screen printing is another technique used to fabricate paper-based devices, particularly for electrochemical analysis (Figure 1B). For example, Rengaraj et al. [27] fabricated a paper-based electrode by printing three layers of a carbon-based conductive ink onto hydrophobic printer paper. Other fabrication techniques include a simple procedure of cutting by punching [18, 19], obtaining discs with millimetric dimensions that can be functionalized and/or introduced into devices, such as commercial screen-printed electrodes [18].
Furthermore, lateral flow immune-based devices can be fabricated by assembling different layers, which include the conjugation of pad strip (signal producer), the nitrocellulose membrane, as well as the sample and absorption pad [23, 24]. Stocker et al. [30] applied a simple technique based on premarking the spots with a pencil, with subsequent physical deposition of a cell suspension and drying of the paper strips.
3. Integrated biosensors methods
3.1 Transducers
Biosensors can be defined as analytical devices, which integrate or associate a biorecognition element and a transducer. The bioelement recognizes the target analyte and the transducer converts the biochemical interaction to a measurable signal [1]. The most frequently applied transducers are based on optical, electrochemical, thermal, and piezoelectric properties. This work focused on the transducer types most used in the paper-based biosensors for analysis of water (electrochemical, optical, and piezoelectric).
The electrochemical paper-based biosensors are based on the modification of paper-based platforms placed in commercial screen-printed electrodes [17, 18], or rely on the fabrication of lab-made functionalized paper-based screen-printed electrodes [27].
Concerning the optical approaches used in the paper-based devices, the most applied strategies were based on colorimetric measurement [19, 20, 28] using image processing algorithms as an analytical system. In this context, a colorimetric based approach for the detection of Pb2+ and for U(VI) resorted to the acquisition of images of the paper spots with a digital camera, and images processed using the ImageJ software [20, 24]. On the other hand, Adkins et al. [28] developed a paper-based colorimetric method for the detection of Escherichia coli, which was based on a smartphone for image acquisition and ImageJ software for image processing.
Other example of mobile-based strategy involves the quantification of different pathogens (E. coli and Zika virus) as a function of capillary flow rate using a smartphone as a photometric detector [21]. This photometric approach was based on video recording of an immunoassay followed by comparison of the capillary flows between different analyte concentrations. Other colorimetric method was based on the detection of Cd2+ [23] in drinking water with a lateral flow immunosensor device. The measurement of color intensity was performed with COZART™ RapidScan color intensity portable reader. Colorimetry in paper-based biosensor devices was developed as a semiquantitative approach for the detection of arsenite [30]. This method was based on a bacterial biosensor deposited onto a paper strip. The developed color measurement was performed by comparison with spots containing known arsenite concentrations. Furthermore, a method based on fluorescence was applied as transducer for the detection of ethinylestradiol in a paper-based immunoassay [16]. For this, a LED-based system was constructed and used as excitation source. The fluorescence emission was measured with a scientific-grade spectrometer.
A piezoelectric strategy was also implemented for measurement of immunoagglutinated samples for the detection of E. coli and Zika virus [22]. This approach was based on particle rheology of the immunoagglutinated samples. In order to monitor the movement of the suspension of particles in a microfluidic paper-based platform, videos were taken with a smartphone and flow distance was measured every five frames.
3.2 Biorecognition elements
The biorecognition element has a strong and selective affinity to the target. There are several types of biorecognition elements, such as natural biomolecules (nucleic acids, antibodies, enzymes, and other proteins), synthetic bioelements (molecularly imprinted polymers, aptamers), or whole cells (Figure 2) [1].
Figure 2.
Examples of biorecognition elements found in paper-based biosensors.
Different types of biorecognition elements have been applied for the development of paper-based biosensors for the detection of target analytes in water. An in vitro transcription/translation system reconstituted from purified recombinant components necessary for E. coli translation of β-galactosidase enzyme was immobilized on paper as a turn on/turn off switcher for the presence of antibiotics inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis [19].
Concerning the application of antibodies as biorecognition elements, specific antibodies (polyclonal rabbit anti-EE2) have been applied for the detection of the estrogen ethinylestradiol in river water samples [16, 17]. In addition, suspensions of antibody-conjugated particles were used for the detection of two target pathogens (E. coli K12 and Zika virus) [21]. For the detection of U(VI), immobilized U(VI)-2,9-dicarboxyl-1,10-phenanthroline-BSA conjugate worked as a competitive probe for the antibody 12F6-AuNP conjugate, as the antibody 12F6 has an increased affinity to U(VI)-2,9-dicarboxyl-1,10-phenanthroline complex [24].
Biomolecules aiming the detection of toxic metals can also be referred. A complex comprising magnetic beads, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), and the functional nucleotide GR5-DNAzyme was applied as a biorecognition element of lead ion [20]. In another work, the recombinant human metallothionein 1a, a metal-binding protein [18], was used for the recognition of As3+ and Hg2+ in water. The tetrameric protein lectin concanavalin A (obtained from Canavalia ensiformis), selective to carbohydrates on bacterial cells, was selected as a biorecognition element of bacterial cultures from sewage sludge [27].
Finally, whole-cell living bacterial biosensors for arsenite detection were based on genetically engineered E. coli, where the ars operon (set of structural and regulatory genes whose expression is controlled through arsenite binding) was modified with a sequence for expression of β-galactosidase as a reporter protein in the presence of the target analyte [30]. Whole cells (biofilm formed from anaerobic sludge) were also employed in the biosensor proposed by Chouler et al. [25] for the assessment of toxic compounds in water in a microbial fuel cell device. The detection principle was based on the conversion of the chemical energy contained in organic matter into electricity via the metabolic processes of microorganisms. Hence, a microbial biofilm is placed on the anode surface, where the electroactive bacteria mediate the transference of electrons to the electrode upon their metabolic activity. Any factor disrupting this (water pollution for instance) will disrupt this signal. A similar approach was proposed by Xu et al. [26] using a wastewater bacteria consortium.
4. Applications
In this section, the application of paper-based biosensors for the detection of different types of target analytes in water samples is discussed. In Table 2, the main features of the target analyte, the sample type, the paper substrate, and the fabrication method of the paper-based device, the method of detection, and the biorecognition element are summarized.
Pharmaceuticals are among the targets. Indeed, they are considered emerging environmental contaminants, as they can be harmful to human health and to aquatic life. In this context, the synthetic hormone—ethinylestradiol, one of the main compounds of oral contraceptives, is considered an emerging pollutant due to its potential high estrogenic effect on the biota. Scala-Benuzzi et al. developed two different methods for the detection of ethinylestradiol in river water samples using an antiethinylestradiol specific antibody [16, 17]. In both approaches, the water samples were filtered, and pH was adjusted to 7.0 with phosphate buffer before the analysis. In one work, a fluorescent paper-based biosensor was implemented [16]. This methodology presented a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.05 ng L−1, which is mainly related to the high sensitivity of fluorescence methods. In another work, ethinylestradiol was detected in river water with a paper-based immunosensor based on electrochemical analysis [17], which also reached a low LOD value of 0.1 ng L−1, suitable for environmental analysis.
Antibiotics are another group of pollutants of great concern due to the global threat of antimicrobial resistance and the excessive, and sometimes abusive, use of these compounds. A colorimetric biosensor for screening of several antibiotics (paromomycin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, and erythromycin) inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis was applied for the detection of antibiotics in surface water [19]. The method was based on the ability of these antimicrobials to inhibit β-galactosidase synthesis. When a water sample without the target antibiotics was placed in the paper-based device, the enzyme β-galactosidase was synthetized and its activity induced a color change on the paper disc surface. However, when antibiotics were present, the inhibition of β-galactosidase synthesis prevented the change of color. Despite the limit of detection was on the microgram per milliliter level (0.5, 2.1, 0.8, and 6.1 μg mL−1 for paromomycin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, and erythromycin, respectively), this biosensor can be applied as a simple and portable screening methodology.
Heavy metals are naturally present in the environment. However, these elements can be toxic to human and aquatic organisms even at low concentrations. Moreover, their presence can be increased by industrial and agriculture activities. Vijitvarasan et al. implemented a paper-based scanometric biosensor for the detection of lead in water [20]. The biosensor was applied to river water samples. These samples were filtered, diluted 10 times with 10 mM tris-acetate buffer and spiked with different Pb2+ concentrations before analysis. An LOD value of 0.9 nM was determined. Furthermore, a method using a sensitive gold nanoparticle-based lateral flow immunodevice [23] was applied for the quantification of cadmium. Drinking water samples were spiked with 10 and 100 ppb of Cd2+, and other 11 metals commonly found in such type of water, containing also EDTA and ovoalbumin (masking agent). An LOD of 0.1 ppb was achieved.
A semiquantitative approach based on a paper-based bacterial biosensor was applied [30] for the detection of arsenite in groundwater samples. It was observed that arsenite produced a visible blue color from substrate of β-galactosidase (reporter protein) at arsenite concentration above 8 μg L−1. Finally, a paper-based lateral flow device was developed for uranium (VI) determination with an LOD (36 nM) below the action level established by the World Health Organization (126 nM) using an immunological competitive approach [24]. These sensors are a suitable tool for field analysis, in opposition to conventional time-consuming and expensive techniques performed under lab environment.
Sensors based on microbial metabolism were developed for application in wastewaters. Pollution peaks, meaning the abrupt change in concentration of organic and metal pollutant in wastewater treatment plants, can compromise the biological treatment phases by killing or inhibiting microorganisms present in sludge. Hence, untargeted sensors were developed using either biofilms [25] or bacteria consortium [26] to report spiking pollution in wastewater influents.
Waterborne pathogens are a major public health as they can lead to several diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery. Hence, accessible, cheap, and disposable analytical tools for monitoring the presence of these pathogens are mandatory, especially in areas with low resources. In this context, an electrochemical paper-based biosensor [28] was developed for the detection of E. coli in water, as an indicator of fecal contamination and an indirect indicator of the presumptive presence of other gastrointestinal bacteria. Different E. coli strains (both pathogenic and nonpathogenic) were detected in uninoculated and inoculated lagoon water. The method was able to detect as low as 10 CFU mL−1 of pathogenic and nonpathogenic E. coli.
5. Conclusions
The paper-based biosensors developed for quantification of the synthetic hormone EE2 presented higher sensitivity when compared to the more complex and expensive LC-MS/MS methods [31, 32]. With respect to the developed biosensors for quantification of different metals (uranium [24], arsenite [30], and cadmium [23]), the LOD was lower than their respective MCLs, thus complying with regulatory requirements. Furthermore, E. coli was detected [21, 22] at concentration level similar or lower than the maximum CFU/mL allowed in fresh recreational water. Hence, the use of paper-based platforms in biosensors has allowed the development of simple, specific, sensitive, and portable devices for the detection of several types of target analytes in water, with possible features summarized in Figure 3. Most of the reported methods were applied to surface water and drinking water samples only, which are samples containing a reduced amount of organic matter when compared to wastewater. Hence, efforts to develop sensors that can deal with more complex matrices should be pursued, encompassing strategies that accommodate sample pretreatment.
Figure 3.
Schematic representation of the elements that compose paper-based biosensors.
The most frequently used transducers comprised electrochemical and optical methods, with analytical strategies based on colorimetric reactions, associated with image processing analysis. Besides the recent advances in the development of paper-based analytical tools and biosensor devices, their association to the analysis of contaminants in water is still an open research field with a high potential for the implementation of new portable and low-cost analytical methods for in situ analysis.
Acknowledgments
This work received financial support from the European Union (FEDER funds through COMPETE POCI-01-0145-FEDER-031756) and National Funds (FCT/MEC, Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia and Ministério da Educação e Ciência) through project PTDC/CTAAMB/31756/2017.
Conflict of interest
We declare that there is no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"microfluidic, paper-based devices, water analysis, water contaminants, biosensing",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65532.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65532.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65532",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65532",totalDownloads:1518,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:67,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 13th 2018",dateReviewed:"January 3rd 2019",datePrePublished:"February 7th 2019",datePublished:"November 20th 2019",dateFinished:"February 7th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The presence of contaminants in water generates a great concern worldwide. As contaminants, we can refer different classes of chemicals, such as pharmaceuticals, personal care products, heavy metals, and also microorganisms, such as waterborne pathogens. Some of the chemical compounds have the potential to bioaccumulate in the aquatic biota. Hence, the development of simple and portable methods for the detection of contaminants in the aquatic environment can improve their monitoring and, consequently, the study of their environmental impact. In this context, the development of paper-based analytical tools and also of biosensor devices has been exploited for quantitative and semiquantitative analysis of several contaminants in different water matrices. The association of these two analytical strategies can provide the implementation of low-cost, portable, and easily handled methods for detecting chemical and biological contaminations in water. In this chapter, we provide a review of the developed paper-based analytical biosensors, highlighting the features of the paper-based (paper substrate and fabrication procedures) and biosensor devices (transducers and biorecognition elements). Moreover, the application of the referred paper-based biosensors for the detection of different water contaminants (pathogens, pharmaceuticals, and heavy metals) in environmental and wastewater samples is discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65532",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65532",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring"},signatures:"Patrícia S. Peixoto, Ana Machado, Hélder P. Oliveira, Adriano A. Bordalo and Marcela A. Segundo",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Paper-based analytical devices",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Substrate material",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Fabrication procedures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Integrated biosensors methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Transducers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Biorecognition elements",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Hashemi Goradel N, Mirzaei H, Sahebkar A, Poursadeghiyan M, Masoudifar A, Malekshahi ZV, et al. Biosensors for the detection of environmental and urban pollutions. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry. 2018;119(1):207-212. DOI: 10.1002/jcb.26030'},{id:"B2",body:'Ebele AJ, Abou-Elwafa Abdallah M, Harrad S. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the freshwater aquatic environment. Emerging Contaminants. 2017;3(1):1-16. DOI: 10.1016/j.emcon.2016.12.004'},{id:"B3",body:'Peixoto PS, Toth IV, Segundo MA, Lima JLFC. Fluoroquinolones and sulfonamides: Features of their determination in water. A review. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry. 2016;96(2):185-202. DOI: 10.1080/03067319.2015.1128539'},{id:"B4",body:'Zulkifli SN, Rahim HA, Lau WJ. 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DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-6276-2'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Patrícia S. Peixoto",address:null,affiliation:'
LAQV, REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Portugal
ICBAS, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Portugal
CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Portugal
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Hélder P. Oliveira",address:null,affiliation:'
INESC TEC, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Portugal
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Adriano A. Bordalo",address:null,affiliation:'
ICBAS, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Portugal
CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Portugal
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Marcela A. Segundo",address:"msegundo@ff.up.pt",affiliation:'
LAQV, REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Portugal
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1. Introduction
Democracy has formed the foundation of governance in the world, with every voter willing to express his/her views on the ballot [1, 2]. Elections have been held manually and electronically in both the developed and developing nations, some results have ended in contestations and wars erupting after the elections. Covid-19 has had a devastating effect on the political, social, and economic spheres in the world [3]. The way of running elections was also affected by this pandemic as nations sought to find ways of halting the spread of the disease. In developed nations countries like Estonia and other American states have been implementing Internet voting.
Africa is constituted by 54 countries with diversified democracies [4]. Eritrea is the only country that does not hold regular elections as has continuously postponed elections citing security threat from its neighbors Ethiopia and Djibouti. The African nations have diversified electoral systems, with some countries like Zimbabwe implementing first past the post and proportional representation, and South Africa, the proportional representation in their polls [5]. Most of the African countries hold regular manual elections as demanded by the United Nations Universal Declarations on elections.
The prospects for the growth of democracy in the 21st century in Africa depend on how the continent positions itself for value-adding services such as Internet voting. Covid −19 has forced the world to quickly develop and implement Information Communication Technologies (ICT) opportunities previously unimaginable. For Africa to take advantage of this, an effective enabling environment and use of ICTs is a particularly important contributor to modern democracy.
2. Literature review
Internet voting is where a ballot is cast by the voter through the Internet [6]. The use of Internet voting gained popularity in Estonia since 2001. Estonia is the first country to carry out a successful pilot project in municipal elections in 2005. Estonia went on further to first use Internet voting in the 2007 parliamentary elections [7].
The four kinds of Internet voting are kiosk Internet voting, polling-place Internet voting, precinct Internet voting, and remote Internet voting (Canada-Europe Transatlantic [8]). Kiosk Internet voting involves the use of a computer at a specific location (an authorized internet polling station) that is controlled by election officials. This differs from a standalone electronic voting machine because the ballot is immediately transmitted over the Internet to the central vote-counting site. Polling-place Internet voting is conducted through the use of a computer at any polling station and is supervised by the usual election officials. Precinct Internet voting is very similar to polling-place voting except that it must occur at the voter’s designated precinct polling station (voters are only allowed to cast their ballots at polling stations where they are registered). Remote Internet voting is where a voter cast the ballot from the comfort of their homes or where the is Internet provision [9]. The advantages, disadvantages, and countries that are implementing Internet voting are shown in Table 1.
Internet Voting type
Advantages
Disadvantages
Countries implementing the system
1. Remote Internet voting
Convenient and accessible for voters who have Internet access at home, at work, or abroad; and for persons with disabilities, the military, single parents, voters who are traveling, etc.
Flexible voting time for voters
Flagging of ballot errors
Replication of ballot images without voter information for counting or audit purposes
Lower cost than traditional methods
Potential to enhance electoral efficiency
Faster and more accurate election results
Elimination of long queues
Instant absentee ballot
Font size and screen language can be modified
Limited access to the Internet or limited understanding on part of some voters
Possibility of stolen voter packages or identification cards
Misuse of voter’s Identity Card (ID) and personal information voting by others without the knowledge of the voter
Difficulty verifying voter ID
Possible pressure on voters to vote a certain way if in the presence of others
Hacks or viruses attacking the systems and altering election results
Technical difficulties, programming errors, or server malfunctions
Inaccuracies of the voter’s list, resulting in one voter receiving a card intended for another voter
Australia (for military and persons with disabilities only), Austria, Canada, Estonia, Netherlands, Switzerland, USA (for the military-), UK (project canceled)
2. Kiosk Internet voting
Placement inconvenient high traffic locations (for example, malls and supermarkets)
Flexible voting time for voters
Flagging of ballot errors
Replication of ballot images without voter information for counting or audit purposes
Potential to help address the voting needs of certain groups of voters (persons with disabilities, single parents, etc)
Potential to enhance electoral efficiency
Faster and more accurate election results
Elimination of long queues
Lack of paper trail to allow auditing and recounts
In the case of a power outage, no alternate method is available
Cost of machines
Software may sometimes be unreliable
Voters may leave the voting screen before the ballot is officially cast
Hacks or viruses attacking the system and altering results
Voters may be pressured to vote a certain way if in the presence of others
Technical difficulties, programming errors, server malfunctions
Machine updating and cost
Candidate representative’s oversight function may be diminished
Inaccuracies on the voters’ list could result in one voter receiving a card intended for another voter
France
3. Polling place Internet voting
Eliminates mismarked or spoiled ballots and other invalid results
Programmable machines to dispense ballots for any election
Removal of authentication questions so voter identification is most similar to the traditional process
Assistive devices to improve accessibility for voters with disabilities
Faster and accurate election results
Font size and screen language can be modified
Auditing and recounts can be questioned if there is no paper trail
In the case of a machine failure (that is, power outage) no alternate method is available
Cost of machines
Software may sometimes be unreliable (many machines have a negative reputation based on failure in USA trials)
Voters may leave the voting screen before the ballot is officially cast
Little advantage for voters in terms of convenience
Machine updating could also be an issue and costly
Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, India, Ireland Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States of America
4. Precinct Internet voting
Elimination of mismarked or spoiled ballots and other invalid results
Programmable machines to dispense ballots for any election
Assistive devices to improve accessibility for voters with disabilities
Removal of authentication questions so that voter identification is most similar to the traditional process
Faster and accurate election results
Font and screen language can be modified
Auditing and recounts can be questioned if there is no paper trail
In the case of machine failure (that is power outage), no alternate is available
Machines are expensive
The software can sometimes be unreliable
A voter may leave a voting screen before the ballot has been officially cast
Little additional convenience for voters
Machine updating could also be costly
5. Telephone/Mobile/Voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP)
Convenience and accessibility for voters who have telephones or mobile gadgets; and for certain groups of voters (persons with disabilities, military, single parents, travelers, etc.
Flexible voting time for voters
Flagging of ballot errors
Familiar technology, especially for those familiar with telephone banking
No ballot printing
Fewer elections staff and poll locations
Less costly
Potential increase in voter turnout
Enhanced electoral efficiency
Elimination of long queues
No paper trail makes traditional recount impossible
Possibility of stolen voter packages or identification cards
Difficulty verifying voter ID
Must ensure candidate representative’s function is written into the program (e.g. Halifax candidate module)
Others present may pressure voters to vote a certain way
Possible telephone/mobile lines overloading or phone service interruption
Inaccuracies on the voter’ list could result in one voter receiving a card intended for another voter
As shown in Table 1, Internet voting is necessitated by the demographics of a country especially people living abroad who would want to exercise their democratic right but will not be residing within the citizenry country during an election. Chisinau [11] argues that Internet voting will allow voters to cast their ballots at the comfort of their homes or convenient places. Voting through the Internet is easier as voters can cast ballots using their own devices and there is no time wasted in long queues. Voters do not travel long distances, thus reducing transportation costs and can do other business chores. It allows for inclusivity as people living with disabilities or serious medical conditions can exercise their democratic rights. Internet voting will also allow those people who will be traveling or will be on duty during election day to cast their ballots anywhere in the world [12].
The disadvantage of Internet voting is that it consists of a large complex network which makes it difficult to monitor the entire network, thus posing a serious security threat. The monitoring of the network is very expensive of which there is no 100 percent guarantee that the network will be secure. Hackers could use malware to rig the outcome of the elections, by tampering with the way votes are submitted and counted or even casting votes for people who did not vote. Internet voting may be a source of conflict between political parties if one party considers that Internet voting might be beneficial to the other party/parties [12].
2.1 Critical socio-technical analysis
The critical socio-technical analysis [10] which is premised on analyzing an information system during the systems development life cycle was used to identify key factors in the applicability of Internet voting in Africa. By finding key factors affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa, it is expected that decision-makers would come up with strategies that support the successful implementation of such systems.
African Electoral Management Bodies (EMBs) have been using manual systems in general elections for the past decades which has resulted in disputed elections, high operating costs affecting the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) because of systems and processes inefficiency. Only two countries, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Namibia have used polling stationed-based electronic voting machines which do not have Internet connectivity [13]. Covid-19 has not helped the situation either as countries have been forced into lockdowns, compelling nations to postpone elections. The introduction of Internet voting especially casting a ballot outside a polling station is the most difficult technological upgrade for an Electoral Management Body (EMB) as it involves the core of the entire electoral process [14]. This chapter investigated ‘why’ and ‘what’ factors were affecting the applicability of Internet voting in African general elections.
3. Methodology
In this study, desktop research was used to collect data from 30 journals and other documentation about factors affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa. The critical socio-technical analysis was then used to guide this study in the search and analysis of factors such as political, social, technical, legal, security, privacy, trust, and transparency affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa. These factors were selected after critically analyzing contemporary issues in developing and developed countries successfully implementing, on trials or have abandoned the implementation of Internet voting.
4. Findings
While the benefits from Internet voting will guarantee the rights of citizens to exercise their democratic rights, the study discovered that no country in Africa is implementing Internet voting in general elections. The factors affecting the applicability of Internet voting in Africa are political, legal, social, technical, security, privacy, transparency, and trust.
4.1 Political
Africa has the most number of people that flee their countries seeking greater opportunities from developing and developed nations [15]. Citizens from African countries migrate to other countries due to the effects of climatic changes, such as droughts, storms, and flooding. Other factors such as economic and political stability (wars) also force nationals to migrate to other countries seeking better opportunities [16]. The migration of people allows African countries to offer their citizens their democratic rights by allowing them to vote through the Internet. Some African governments also tend Internet shutdowns citing national security or curbing the spread of fake news during elections, for example, the Ugandan, Libya, Malawi, and Sudan Presidential elections [17] which makes it difficult to implement Internet voting.
4.1.1 Legal
The legal framework allows voters to exercise their rights during an election or absentee voting through the Internet [18]. For African citizens living abroad or who will be committed during election day to exercise their democratic right, there must be legislation that supports Internet voting. The legal framework empowers the EMB and other stakeholders to remove the element of mistrust, as the voting process is done within the confines of the law. At the moment no country in Africa is exploring the use of Internet voting rendering the introduction of such legislation a futile exercise.
4.1.2 Technical
African countries are still facing challenges in the implementation of mobile communication and Internet technologies [19]. Countries like Somalia, South Sudan, and Mozambique have often been affected by ravaging wars, which destroys infrastructure and forcing these countries into retarded economic growth. As shown in Table 1, the limitation in the Internet penetration factor is that the network service providers do not provide 100% service coverage. This makes it practically impossible to offer Internet voting within the country for national general elections as some other communities will be disadvantaged by failing to access the service to cast their ballots. The penetration of internet communication in Africa is very low at 43% as shown in Table 2. Countries like Kenya, Libya, Mauritius, Nigeria, Morocco, Seychelles, and Tunisia have a higher national Internet penetration factor. These countries can partially implement Internet voting in some of their regions. Other African nations especially that are below 50% like Eretria, Togo, Western Sahara, South Sudan, Sierra Leone, and Somalia will have difficulties in implementing Internet voting nationally.
There is a wide gap between the digital divide within the African nations especially between the urban and the rural community, the elderly, and the young generations [20]. The young generations have embraced technology as they use smartphones and laptops as communication and business tools. A large population in African countries live in rural communities. Some of these people cannot afford to buy gadgets, power, and data used for Internet services. There is also a lack of digital skills and literacy among the communities both in urban and rural setups especially among the elderly. The content or language used on the Internet makes it difficult for some African communities to comprehend the importance of using such services. Hence the use of Internet voting in African countries will be difficult because of the digital divide.
4.1.4 Security
Internet voting should be secure for the results to be credible [21]. Key factors such as freedom, and equality during an election are important aspects of security requirements for Internet voting. The transmission of all voting data to servers or tabulation centers must be secure. All voting which is done whether on the Internet or otherwise should be granted the same status as any other vote cast in the same election. This means that each vote should be given the same weight as it also determines the outcome of an election [22]. Various encryption methods have been suggested for use with Internet voting including the blockchain [23]. African countries should have networks that can encrypt ballots cast over the Internet without the network being compromised, overloaded, or due to other disruptions like shutdowns.
4.1.5 Privacy
With the use of Internet voting, an EMB has to ensure that each vote cast remains a secret. A free election means that the voter must not be coerced by public or private pressure. After voting through the Internet, the voters should have an acknowledgment for the candidate that they have voted for. All ballots cast through the Internet should be accorded the same secrecy as in manual systems [24]. If a ballot is cast, the voter’s identification details must be able to be authenticated and not linked to the ballot. The vote cast should also be accounted for in the outcome without identifying the voter. In Africa voter intimidation remains a serious challenge [25], thus through Internet voting, voters may be coerced to vote for undeserving candidates.
4.1.6 Trust and transparency
Trust in Internet voting can only be accepted if the results from this service are credible. The EMB should assure voters that their votes are secure and secret. To build trust voters should also be able to verify that all collected ballots were from eligible voters and that they have been accurately counted [26]. If Internet voting is to be implemented in African countries pilot testing has to be undertaken to allow voters to test the system before being fully implemented in a general election. To build trust among stakeholders (voters, activists, and media) an EMB should be transparent in all the activities involved with Internet voting. To avoid mistrust from the public, the stakeholders should be educated on how Internet voting works and also made to appreciate the qualities of the system. Relevant information should be availed in a language that can easily be understood by the public. The information should include full technical documentation of how the system is designed functionally and technically, all levels of software documentation, source code, and the technical and organizational environments where the system is hosted.
4.2 Discussion and analysis
With the advent of the Covid-19 pandemic causing deaths, and unavoidable shutdowns, elections cannot be suspended indefinitely, decision-makers have to find alternative ways of conducting elections without compromising the health and safety of the electorate. Internet voting is one such method that may guarantee the health and safety of the electorate where voters can vote in the comfort of their homes. Decision-makers have to take note of the following during feasibility studies and implementation of Internet voting:
Politically, it is fundamental to foster a broad consensus among political parties for the implementation of Internet voting. This involves transparency where the relevant actors have a voice. Internet voting should be seen as politically neutral that is the new procedure should not benefit disproportionally given factions of the political spectrum [27]. For electoral results to be accepted by voters, Internet voting must produce an outcome that reflects the will of the people in an environment that establishes transparency and trust [14].
Technological and security concerns are often pointed to as the main concern of Internet voting [28]. To validate and verify the technological voting system the set of technological requirements have to be consulted systematically. In Africa, some voters live in remote areas but may also want to cast their ballots using the Internet. African countries have limited Internet infrastructure which should prompt governments to improve this area if its citizens are to benefit from Internet voting. The improvement on the infrastructure would also benefit an EMB during the voter registration process, as voters will be able to register through the Internet.
There have been numerous attacks of electronic voting systems over the Internet with the 2016 American Presidential election being the most contentious election of the decade [29]. The stakes of any general election are always high, which may create interests chief among them malicious actors-particularly in countries with specific geopolitical adversaries who may specifically create and deploy attacks or malware designed to manipulate the vote. In Africa, the use of Internet voting which has got limited transparency and audit trail may lead to manipulation and voter fraud. It will be very difficult to monitor votes cast over the Internet, to build trust among the citizens an EMB has to be trusted in pursuing its mandate.
Most electronic voting systems are now being developed with blockchain encryption [30, 31]. Blockchain technology is an end-to-end encryption method that secures ballots transmitted from voters’ private devices to a centralized tabulation facility. However, it has been observed that most serious vulnerabilities threatening integrity and secrecy of voting happen before ballots ever reach the blockchain. Voters may be coerced by family members or other pressure groups to vote in a certain way that does not reflect their will. It is also difficult to validate if the voter is the real one casting the ballot which is crucial to the credibility of an election. Estonia, for instance, has resolved this issue without blockchain by using e-ID cards. Blockchain technology also does not protect against -denial-of-service attacks that make servers unable to operate, does not protect information as it travels on the Internet, and does not make servers and infrastructure more resistant to advanced persistent threats. Despite improvements in encryption techniques, security will always remain a challenge for Internet voting.
The major social challenge is the digital divide as some parts of the population remain excluded from Internet voting and that gap exists in African countries regarding computer literacy and household Internet usage and availability. The ‘Digital transformation Strategy’ adopted by African countries in February 2020 should be pursued to narrow the gap between the digital divide in urban and rural communities and also narrow the ‘gender digital divide’ [32].
Currently, most African countries do not have any legislation that supports Internet voting. The legal framework should be put in place to allow for Internet voting, which should clearly state who is eligible and the reasons that support eligibility.
Despite low usage in Internet voting around the world, Estonia is the only country that has fully utilized this service in general elections. Table 3 highlights countries that have fully, partially, piloting and discontinued the use of Internet voting.
Internet voting used in General Elections
Partial use of Internet voting and Special cases
Planned to be piloted or Piloted but Discontinued or Never Used
Estonia is the only country to allow citizens the option of online voting in local, national, and European elections
Armenia: Diplomatic staff and their families can vote online.
France: Voting was never used for out-of-country voters in the 2012 parliamentary elections but discontinued in 2017 due to security concerns; the government plans to bring it back in 2022. Out-of-country residents also voted online in the 2016 Republican party primaries.
Australia: Online voting was trialed for out-of-country military personnel in 2017 but has been discontinued. New South Wales allows some groups- voters with disabilities, living in remote areas, out of state- to vote online, but there are no plans to extend this option to other states.
India: In 2010. Internet voting was trialed in the local elections in the state of Gujarat.
Canada: Online voting is possible for municipal elections in some districts of Ontario and Nova Scotia. Canada has considered introducing Internet voting in federal elections.
Norway: Online voting for2011 local and 2013 national elections was made available in some districts. In 2014, Internet voting was discontinued for security reasons.
Mexico: Some states have allowed online voting for out-of-sorts country voters.
In 2004, the Netherlands used Internet voting for an election to the Rijnland water board and in 2006 for out-of-country voters for national elections. Internet voting was discontinued in 2017 due to security concerns.
New Zealand: Out-of-country voters can vote online.
Spain: In 2010, Barcelona held an online referendum on an urban development project. The voting was a one-off, online-only pilot and was highly controversial.
Panama: Out-of-country voters can vote online.
United Kingdom: Online voting was trialed in local council elections between 2002 and 2007.
Switzerland: Some cantons offer online voting to out-of-country voters- also in a few cases, to resident voters- in elections and referendums. The stated goal is to roll out Internet voting to the entire country.
Russia: is set to introduce its first online voting system. The system will be tested in a Moscow neighborhood that will elect a single member to the capital’s city council in September 2019. One of the first experiments to introduce Internet voting was conducted by the Electoral Commission of the Volgograd Region during voting in Uryupinsk in 2009, and the Odintsovo district in 2010.
United States: Despite the security concerns raised after a District of Columbia trial of Internet voting was hacked, more than 30 U.S. states allow military personnel and out-of-country residents to vote online. Voters using online or mail ballots waive their secrecy rights.
Finland has appointed a working group to study the technical feasibility of an online voting system. It determined that the technology does not yet sufficiently meet all the requirements, citing problems with reconciliation of verifiability and election secrecy
Table 3.
Countries that use internet voting (use of internet voting outside of polling stations in politically binding elections).
The success of Internet voting depends largely on how it is perceived by the people meant to use it: citizens. For example, Internet voting is difficult to be transparent as compared to manual systems. The transparency and reliability of Internet voting have been questioned, as this is electronically done. Therefore, it is fundamental to know what their attitudes towards the implementation of Internet voting would affect them.
5. Conclusions
The applicability of Internet voting in Africa largely depends on how the nation’s willingness to adapt to new technology in the face of challenges such as political, legal, security, privacy, trust and transparency, the digital divide, and limited infrastructure. The successful experience of countries such as Estonia highlights the importance of a gradual, step-by-step design and implementation of Internet voting which may be used for benchmarking. It is also recommended that the perception of the citizens should be taken into consideration. African nations should also make an effort to improve the internal coverage of Internet services within their territories.
\n',keywords:"Covid-19, lockdown, pandemic, Internet voting, critical socio-technical analysis, democracy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77251.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77251.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77251",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77251",totalDownloads:85,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 30th 2021",dateReviewed:"May 26th 2021",datePrePublished:"December 3rd 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 21st 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The covid-19 pandemic has brought about new ways of conducting business through the use of Information Communication Technologies and elections have not been spared either. Internet voting is another form of strengthening democracy through the use of Information Communication Technologies. Africa lags in the implementation of electronic voting, especially Internet voting. This chapter applied a critical socio-technical analysis that analyses factors that influence the applicability of Internet voting within the African context. The researcher applied desktop research which included 30 journals to gather data from the Internet and other documentation sources. The findings reveal that decision-makers can partially implement Internet voting in some of the countries in Africa like Kenya, Libya, Nigeria, Morocco, Mauritius, Tunisia, and Seychelles. To successfully implement Internet voting, the decision-makers in African nations have to fully invest in the Information Communication Technology infrastructure, provide the necessary security, legislation and carry out intensive voter education to build trust among voters.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77251",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77251",signatures:"Paul Sambo",book:{id:"11068",type:"book",title:"Contemporary Issues in Information Systems - a Global Perspective",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Contemporary Issues in Information Systems - a Global Perspective",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Denis Reilly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11068.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-464-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-463-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-465-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"105509",title:"Dr.",name:"Denis",middleName:null,surname:"Reilly",slug:"denis-reilly",fullName:"Denis Reilly"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Literature review",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Critical socio-technical analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Findings",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.1 Political",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"4.1.1 Legal",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.1.3 Social",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.1.4 Security",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.1.5 Privacy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.1.6 Trust and transparency",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.2 Discussion and analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Nwogu, G. A. (2015). Democracy: Its Meaning and Dissenting Opinions of the Political Class in Nigeria: A Philosophical Approach. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(32), 128-140. Retrieved from www.iiste.org'},{id:"B2",body:'Tar, U. (2010). The challenges of democracy and democratisation in Africa and Middle East. Information, Society and Justice Journal, 3(2), 81-94.'},{id:"B3",body:'Committee of Economic, S. and C. R. (2020). Statement on the Covid-19 Pandemic and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. International Human Rights Law Review, 9(1), 135-142. https://doi.org/10.1163/22131035-00901006'},{id:"B4",body:'Kolstad, I., & Wiig, A. (2018). Diversification and democracy. International Political Science Review, 39(4), 551-569. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512116679833'},{id:"B5",body:'Mngomezulu, B. (2019). Assessing the suitability of the proportional representation electoral system for Southern. Journal of African Foreign Affairs, 6(2), 157-171. https://doi.org/10.31920/2056-5658/2019/v6n2a8'},{id:"B6",body:'Oostveen, A. M., & van den Besselaar, P. (2004). Internetne glasovalne tehnologije in držvljanska participacija z vidika uporabnikov. Javnost, 11(1), 61-78. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2004.11008847'},{id:"B7",body:'Vinkel, P. (2012). Internet Voting: Experiences From Five Elections in Estonia. In Democracy and Development—Taiwan and Baltic Countries in Comparative.'},{id:"B8",body:'Canada-Europe Transatlantic Dialogue. (2010). A Comparative Assessment of Electronic Voting Prepared for Elections Canada. Retrieved from https://carleton.ca/canadaeurope/wp-content/uploads/AComparativeAssessmentofInternetVotingFINALFeb19-a-1.pdf'},{id:"B9",body:'Gilmore, J., & Howard, P. N. (2014). The internet and democracy in global perspective: Voters, candidates, parties, and social movements. In Internet, Voting, and Democracy (pp. 43-56). Retrieved from https://books.google.co.zw/books?id=QD65BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&dq=Remote+Internet+voting+is+voting+by+Internet+from+the+voter’s+home+or+potentially+any+other+place+with+Internet+access&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjZx9q437PlAhUvVBUIHajzCWwQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=Remote I'},{id:"B10",body:'Sambo, P. (2019). eVoting in the SADC Region: Behavioural issues affecting its implementation in Namibia and South Africa. University of South Africa.'},{id:"B11",body:'Chisinau. (2016). Feasibility study on Internet Voting for the Central Electoral Commission of the Republic of Moldova.'},{id:"B12",body:'Faulí C., Stewart K., Porcu F., Taylor J., Theben A., Baruch B., Folkvord F., Nederveen F., L.-V. F., & Devaux A. (2018). Study on the benefits and drawbacks of remote voting solutions - Presentation of Main findings.'},{id:"B13",body:'Christopher, G. (2018). DR Congo elections: Why do voters mistrust electronic voting? BBC News. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-46555444'},{id:"B14",body:'Applegate, M., & Basysty, V. (2020). Considerations on Internet Voting: An Overview for Electoral Decision-Makers.'},{id:"B15",body:'McKeon, N. (2018). ‘Getting to the root causes of migration’ in West Africa–whose history, framing and agency counts? Globalizations, 15(6), 870-885. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2018.1503842'},{id:"B16",body:'OSAA/ACCORD/AU/IOM. (2015). Conflict-Induced Migration in Africa: Maximizing New Opportunities to Address its Peace, Security and Inclusive Development Dimensions. Major Global and Continental Trends on Migration;Impact on Affected African Migrant Populations, (November), 23-24.'},{id:"B17",body:'Giles, C., & Mwai, P. (2021). Africa internet: Where and how are governments blocking it? BBC News. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-47734843'},{id:"B18",body:'Schmidt, A., Heinson, D., Langer, L., Opitz-Talidou, Z., Richter, P., Volkamer, M., & Buchmann, J. (2009). Developing a Legal Framework for Remote Electronic Voting. In P. Ryan & B. Schoenmakers (Eds.), Evoting and identity second international conference VOTEID 2009 Luxembourg September 78 2009 proceedings (pp. 92-105). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-04135-8_6'},{id:"B19",body:'Corrigan, T. (2020). Africa’s ICT infrastructure: Its present and prospects. SAIIA Policy Briefing (Vol. 197). Retrieved from https://saiia.org.za/research/africas-ict-infrastructure-its-present-and-prospects/#'},{id:"B20",body:'Sarkar, A., Pick, J. B., & Johnson, J. (2015). Africa’s digital divide: Geography, policy, and implications. In Regional ITS Conference, Los Angeles 146339, InternationalTelecommunications Society (ITS).'},{id:"B21",body:'Epstein, J. (2010). Internet Voting, Security, and Privacy. Bill of Rights Journal William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal (Vol. 19). Retrieved from http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,2025696,00.html'},{id:"B22",body:'Schryen, G. (2010). Security aspects of Internet based voting. Department of Economical Computer Science Und Operations Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3662-9_56'},{id:"B23",body:'Rodríguez-Pérez, A., Valletbó-Montfort, P., & Cucurull, J. (2019). Bringing transparency and trust to elections: Using blockchains for the transmission and tabulation of results. In ACM International Conference Proceeding Series (Vol. Part F148155, pp. 46-55). New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3326365.3326372'},{id:"B24",body:'Sambo, P., & Alexander, P. (2018). A scheme of analysis for eVoting as a technological innovation system. Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 84(2), e12020. https://doi.org/10.1002/isd2.12020'},{id:"B25",body:'Gibb, R. (2016). Electoral violence in sub-Saharan Africa: causes and consequences. African Affairs, 115(461), 766-767. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adw061'},{id:"B26",body:'Volkamer, M., Spycher, O., & Dubuis, E. (2011). Measures to establish trust in internet voting. In ACM International Conference Proceeding Series (pp. 1-10). New York, New York, USA: ACM Press. https://doi.org/10.1145/2072069.2072071'},{id:"B27",body:'Trechsel, A. H. (2017). POTENTIAL AND CHALLENGES OF E-VOTING IN THE EUROPEAN UNION STUDY. Retrieved from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/556948/IPOL_STU%282016%29556948_EN.pdf'},{id:"B28",body:'Solvak, M. (2020). Does vote verification work: Usage and impact of confidence building technology in internet voting. In Electronic Voting - 5th International Joint Conference, E-Vote-ID 2020, Bregenz, Austria, October 6-9, 2020, Proceedings| (Vol. 12455 LNCS, pp. 213-228). Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60347-2_14'},{id:"B29",body:'Mueller, R. S. (2019). Report On The Investigation Into Russian Interference In The 2016 Presidential Election, I(March).'},{id:"B30",body:'Soni, Y., Maglaras, L., & Ferrag, M. A. (2020). Blockchain based voting systems. European Conference on Information Warfare and Security, ECCWS, 2020-June, 241-248. https://doi.org/10.34190/EWS.20.122'},{id:"B31",body:'Yi, O. K., & Das, D. (2020). Block chain technology for electronic voting. Journal of Critical Reviews, 7(3), 114-124. https://doi.org/10.31838/jcr.07.03.22'},{id:"B32",body:'Africa Union. (2020). The digital transformation strategy for Africa (2020-2030).'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Paul Sambo",address:"plzsambo@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Great Zimbabwe University, Zimbabwe
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Abdelfatteh Haidine received his Ph.D. in 2008 from the Technische Universität Dresden, Germany, with a focus on the planning and optimization of telecommunications networks. He worked as a consultant and manager for the deployment of smart metering systems and smart grid applications.\n\nCurrently, he is a professor for wireless/mobile communications and intelligent systems with the Laboratory of Information Technologies, National School of Applied Sciences, Morocco. His research interests include different issues related to Machine-to-Machine (M2M) and Internet-of-Things (IoT) communications, networking technologies for smart domains: smart maritime port, smart city and smart grid applications, and so on. This covers LPWA networks and their techno-economical aspects. Dr. Haidine also deals with the application of combinatorial optimization as well as the Game Theory paradigm in network planning/migration and resources allocation in broadband mobile networks. 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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. 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He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. 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In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",annualVolume:11968,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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