\r\n\tAll book chapters are produced by forward-thinking specialists in the area of renewable energy and smart grids, with detailed analysis and/or case studies. This book is intended to serve as a reference for graduate students, academics, professionals, and system operators.
",isbn:"978-1-83881-907-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-906-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-909-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"42f44a6c474bb1bb3664945884ff1879",bookSignature:"Prof. Wenping Cao and Dr. Shubo Hu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10498.jpg",keywords:"Wind Speed, Wind Farm Design, Wind Energy Prediction, Power Dispatch, Optimization Algorithms, Stability Analysis, Distributed Generation, Integrated Energy System, Market Mechanism, Demand Side Management, Data-Driven Method, Electric Grid Security",numberOfDownloads:39,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 1st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 21st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 9th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 8th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A Chair Professor of Electrical Power Engineering at the Aston University, UK, and a Marie Curie Fellow at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"174154",title:"Prof.",name:"Wenping",middleName:null,surname:"Cao",slug:"wenping-cao",fullName:"Wenping Cao",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/174154/images/system/174154.jpg",biography:"Dr. Wen-Ping Cao received the B.Eng degree in electrical engineering from Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, China, in 1991, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical machines and drives from the University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK, in 2004. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
Filter banks decompose signals into multiple sub-bands to perform various processes and reconstruct the original signals [1]-[8]. It has been demonstrated that sub-band processing with filter banks improves the performance of numerous image processing applications such as image recognition, watermarking, image coding,and so on [9]-[14].
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For example, image recognition accuracy is improved with sub-band processing. A watermark is typically embedded into a middle frequency band in order to make the scheme not only robust to compression but also secure against attacks on the watermark. Thus, it is highly desirable that analysis filters have excellent frequency characteristics to appropriately decompose signals in such applications.
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In sub-band coding, on the other hand, we usually focus more on various visual issues proper to compression such as checkerboard artifacts and blocking effects, rather than the frequency characteristics of the analysis filters. Coding gain is also one of the significant issues in image coding. Therefore, various constraints are imposed on the filters to deal with such problems in the design. Accordingly, the design is usually performed with non-linear optimization, which increases its design complexity.
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Multi-resolution processing, which is an extension of sub-band processing, is also in demand in a number of applications. Multi-resolution schemes such as wavelet transform not only decompose the frequencies of signals but also yield various lower resolution versions of the original signals by gradually reducing the sampling rate with filter banks.
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Meanwhile, image scaling has become highly required processing in the context of the diversification of the means of displaying images [15]-[17]. Image scaling changes the resolution of images more flexibly than multi-resolution processing, although it does not decompose the frequency components of signals. Typically it consists of up/down samplers and a filter which suppresses the imaging or aliasing components caused by the samplers.
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Under the circumstances, we discuss complex processes where sub-band processing and scaling are carried out sequentially in this chapter. For instance, when watermarked images are scaled, or scaling is applied to decoded images, a filter bank and a scaling structure are designed separately and implemented sequentially. However, they have the structural similarity in that they involve samplers and filters. This implies that one can integrate them in order to implement them with lower implementation cost.
\n\t\t\t
Therefore, this chapter provides a profound discussion on a filter bank structure to yield an effective scheme in computation in such complex processing. We introduce a simple filter bank structure for computational simplicity which directly synthesizes the analysis decomposed signals to produce a scaled signal, not to reconstruct the original signal as in traditional perfect reconstruction filter banks.
\n\t\t\t
First, we discuss the frequency decomposition characteristics of the filter bank to show how to obtain arbitrarily scaled signals. We briefly clarified the band-width of the synthesis filters to obtain the scaled signal from the analysis part of the filter bank in [18]. However, the discussion is not sufficient since the behavior of the aliasing components, which can significantly affect the filter bank performance, is not clarified. This chapter discusses the issue so that the feature of the filter bank will be manifested. It is shown that the aliasing problem is similar to that of perfect reconstruction filter banks.
\n\t\t\t
Next, theoretical conditions for addressing the above aliasing problem are given through the input-output relation of the filter bank. We also discussed the strategy to make the filter bank equivalent to the direct scaling structure by deriving such theoretical conditions in [18]. However, we observed the number of conditions is proportional to that of aliasing components, which can lead to time-consuming design or complicated optimization. Moreover, we also know the conditions are usually not satisfied when all the filters have linear phase, so that the derived filter banks do not have excellent performance.
\n\t\t\t
In this chapter, we discuss the conditions from a viewpoint of the aliasing components to verify that they are the same regardless of the aliasing components, so that the number of equations to solve is significantly reduced. A design procedure with the conditions is also discussed. We mention that the procedure is applicable to various image processing mentioned above. In addition, it is demonstrated through simulation results that scaled images\' quality is comparable to that of the sequential structure even though not all the filters have linear phase characteristics. Finally, we discuss potential issues and advantages in making use of the scheme as well as traditional ones in practical image processing.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Image scaling
\n\t\t\t
Image-scaling which changes the resolution of images has become highly required processing in the context of the diversification of the means of displaying images. In such context, various image processing such as image coding, watermarking and recognition is also applied before image scaling, in which a filter bank is often accompanied by a scaling structure sequentially in practice since filter banks are used in many image processing applications with their sub-band decomposition performance.
\n\t\t\t
Typically, the direct scaling structure consists of up/down samplers and a filter which suppresses the imaging or aliasing components caused by the samplers. Similarly, the filter bank structure also involves the samplers and filters. This indicates that one can integrate both the structure in order to implement them with lower computational complexity than that of their sequential structure shown in Figure 1.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 1.
The typical sequential structure.
\n\t\t\t
For this, we provide a study on a simple filter bank structure depicted in Figure 2 which is a simplified version of the structure given in [18]. Please note that the sampling rate at the output in both the structures Figure 1 and Figure 2 is the same when\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t and\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t. In addition, the number of channels in both the systems is also the same when\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tN\n\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t. Thus, we assume this relation in this chapter.
\n\t\t\t
The aim of this chapter is to demonstrate that the computational complexity of Figure 2 for scaling is reduced compared to that of Figure 1, while its scaling performance is comparable to that of Figure 1.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 2.
The introduced filter bank structure.
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\n\t\t
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3. A discussion on the computational complexity of the filter bank for scaling
\n\t\t\t
First, we discuss the computation cost of the introduced filter bank drawn in Figure 2 as well as the sequential structure shown in Figure 1.
\n\t\t\t
The sequential structure decomposes the input signal into sub-band frequency components first with down-sampling by the factor\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t. Next, the decomposed signals are synthesized after up-sampling by\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t. Such sub-band processing with the filter bank is followed by the direct scaling structure, where further up-sampling by \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tis carried out. Thus, the sampling rate increases with two successive up-sampling processes. After this, the sampling rate decreases with down-sampling by\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t.
\n\t\t\t
On the other hand, the introduced filter bank structure also decomposes the input into multiple sub-band signals with down-sampling by \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tfirst, and then synthesizes the signals with up-sampling by\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t.
\n\t\t\t
Accordingly, we see that the sequential structure requires two down-sampling and up-sampling processes, while the introduced filter bank structure is carried out with only one down-sampling and up-sampling process. Such a structural difference can cause different computation time for scaling signals.
\n\t\t\t
If we assume that both the systems have the same length of the analysis filters, then the difference in length between both the systems will be in their synthesis part. The difference will also cause different computation time. We also discuss these concerns with the design and simulation in both of the systems in detail.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4. A discussion on the filter bank structure for scaling
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.1. The frequency decomposition and synthesis characteristics of the filter bank
\n\t\t\t\t
Next, we discuss the performance of the frequency decomposition and synthesis with the filter bank. Figure 3(a) shows an original signal \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\twhere the bold line represents \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tπ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t[rad] on the frequency axis. Figure 3(b) shows the frequency decomposition characteristics with the analysis low-pass filter \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t followed by down-sampling by the factor\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. We also show the counterpart of the high-pass filter \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tand down-samplingin Figure 3(c). The frequency components colored with dots represent the aliasing components. Please note that these decomposition characteristics in the analysis part are the same as those of traditional (perfect reconstruction) filter banks.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 3.
The frequency decomposition and synthesis in the filter bank
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The analysis signals such as Figure 3(b) and (c) are described in the z domain as
These analysis signals are up-sampled by the factor \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tand then filtered with the filters \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t in the synthesis part, which is illustrated with Figure 3(d) and (e) in the case of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tand\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, respectively. Please notice that the pass band of the filters \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is not the same asthat of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t since the factor \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tand\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t are not the same either to yield scaled signals.
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These signals in the synthesis part are represented as
In this manner, one can obtain a scaled signal by using the filter bank, and the scaled signal is completely reconstructed when the ideal filters are used in the filter bank. However, it is not possible to use such filters, as in traditional filter banks, and the aliasing components affect the scaling performance with the filter bank.
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Therefore, we provide a discussion on the aliasing components in the next, which manifests the scaling behavior of the filter bank.
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4.2. The aliasing components of the filter bank
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The output signal of the filter bank is rewritten as
When \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, that is, a perfect reconstruction filter bank is used, then the pass-band of the synthesis filters is the same as that of the analysis one. In this case, “serious” aliasing caused by the “mismatch” of the band of the filters is avoided, and only minor aliasing caused by the non-ideal filters exists in the adjacent areas between the aliasing componentsin the frequency domain.
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On the other hand, when \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t≠\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, which is necessary to obtain an arbitrarily scaled signal, the pass-band of the synthesis ones is not the same as that of the analysis ones, and the serious aliasing occurs. Actually, it can be observed that the pass-band of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t overlaps with the aliasing components in the above equation and also in Figure 3.
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However, it can also be verified in the frequency domain that such serious aliasing is essential and necessary to obtain a scaled signal, since the aliasing components themselves form the scaled signal in part in thiscase.
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In this sense, one can conclude that even though the input signal is scaled, only minor aliasing between the aliasing components caused by the non-ideal filters is taken into account to design the filter banks as well as the traditional filter banks.
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We also compare the direct scaling structure in the sequential structure shown in Figure 1 with the filter bank of Figure 2 in terms of aliasing. In the direct scaling structure, up-sampling by the factor of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis followed by down-sampling by\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. Hence, when\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, which means the input signal is extended, then down-sampling is not critical sampling, that is, oversampling. We illustrate this with Figure 4.
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On the other hand, the filter bank structure performs down-sampling by \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tfirst, which means critical sampling. This implies that the aliasing caused by down-sampling in Figure 1 is less than that of Figure 2. Thus, it is also concluded that the filter bank structures have more aliasing than the direct scaling structures do when the scaling factors are larger than 1.
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These are possible issues to address when we design the filter banks that serve as scaling systems.
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Figure 4.
The frequency characteristics of the direct scaling structure
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5. The theoretical conditions for the improvement of the scaling performance
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Typically, traditional perfect reconstruction filter banks are designed to satisfy perfect reconstruction conditions completely or approximately so that aliasing will be eliminated. Similarly, we provide theoretical conditions for the introduced filter banks to reduce aliasing.
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We see, from Figure 3 and 4, that aliasing in Figure 3 is reduced if the eventual signal shown in Figure 3(f) is the same as Figure 4(c). In other words, it is desired that the introduced filter banks precisely work as the direct scaling structures. Therefore, a design scheme for the filter banks that approximately or exactly serve as the direct scaling structures is provided in this section.
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5.1. The input-output relation in the filter banks and the direct scaling structures in the frequency domain
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First, we give the relation between the input and output of the filter banks and the direct scaling structures. The output signal of the direct scaling structure in the sequential structure shown in Figure 1 is written as
Please note that we usually use a perfect reconstruction filter bank in Figure 1, therefore, it is assumed that the output of the filter bank is the same as its input.
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On the other hand, the output signal \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tof the filter bank shown in Figure 2 is represented as the equation (4).
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If the signal \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is equal to the output signal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, then
hold in some cases without any manipulation, or holds in the other cases by changing the order of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\ton the left and right side of (8). This depends on the values of\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. Therefore, the conditions (7) are proportional tothe number of aliasing components\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, and the parameters in the conditions are\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. Moreover, it is observed that the conditions are mostly difficult to satisfy when all the filters have linear phase characteristics, i.e., the symmetry of the coefficients. Therefore, we give a profound discussion on the conditions to address these issues in the next.
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5.2. A discussion on the conditions
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First, we discuss the equations (8) to verify that they hold. We assume that\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, but the following discussion is straightforwardly extended to the case where\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. Since the equation
need to hold in order to satisfy the equations (8). n is an arbitrary integer number.
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If\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, then\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, which leads to (10). Thus, the equations (8) hold in this case. When\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t≠\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, (10) does not hold. Hence, we replace r on the right side of (10) with\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. Therefore, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, which also leads to
If we replace\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\twith
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\to\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\trepresents the reminder in the case where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis divided by\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t.Therefore, the equations
hold. We see that the equations (14) also hold when\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, i.e., (14) are equivalent to (8) when\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t.
need to hold in order to satisfy the conditions (7).
\n\t\t\t\t
Next, we verify the equations (15) are the same regardless of\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. When\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, the equations (15) are rewritten with\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tg\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tand \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t partly (every \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t-th equation) as
where\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tg\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tand \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t are the coefficients of the filter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tand\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, respectively, and the order of the rows except the 0-th row on the right side of (16), however, changes depending on the factors \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tand\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t.
in which \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis a constant, and the\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t-th row on the right side of (16) is multiplied by the \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t-th element \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t in each\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. For example, the \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t-th row on the right side of (16) is multiplied by the coefficient \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t when\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t.
\n\t\t\t\t
Moreover, the \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t-th row on the right side includes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tq\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, since the coefficient \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tq\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t has the delay\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tq\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\thas the relation to\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, which is
If we denote \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\twhich satisfies\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t as\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, then\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, since the first row on the right side, which includes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t+\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tq\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, is multiplied by the coefficient \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t when\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. In this manner, the constant c is determined.
\n\t\t\t\t
On the other hand, we also define the following vector
where the \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t-th row on the left side of (16) is multiplied by the \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t-th element \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t in each\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. If \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\twhen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, then \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t since\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tc\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. In this case, the equations (16) are the same as those in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. In fact, the equation \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ts\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tholds when\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, since (18) is equivalent to (12). In other words, the relation between \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis the same as that between \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. Furthermore, the equations \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tv\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t hold in all the \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tunder (12). Therefore, we see that the equations (16) are the same regardless of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tor\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\'\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t.
\n\t\t\t\t
However, it is observed that equations are usually not satisfied when all the filters have linear phase characteristics. Accordingly, we do not impose the symmetry constraints on all the filters. We also see that the filter in the desired direct scaling structure needs to have some delays in order to satisfy the equations. The performance of such filter banks is examined in the next section.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6. Design and Simulation Results
\n\t\t\t
The equations derived in the previous section have unknown parameters\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t, and\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t. The filter \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tin the direct scaling structure should be known, or designed, in advance. Thus, \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tand\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tare obtained by solving the equations with a pre-designed desired \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tso that the filter bank structure will be exactly or approximately equivalent to the direct scaling structure.
\n\t\t\t
The concrete design procedure depends on applications the filter banks are utilized in. For example, several constraints should be imposed on the analysis filters \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t for the filter banks to have non DC leakage, high coding gain, etc., when the filter banks are exploited in sub-band image coding.
\n\t\t\t
The analysis filters should have high attenuation in the stop band, or excellent frequency decomposition performance, when the filter banks are employed for watermarking, since the watermarks are often embedded only into one narrow sub-band that is robust to attacks.
\n\t\t\t
These tell that the analysis filters typically suffer from severe constraints. In this section, we survey the case where the analysis and synthesis filters are separately designed, i.e., only \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t are determined so that the equations are satisfied with not only a pre-designed \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tbut also\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t, in order not to lay much burden on\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t. On the other hand, we do not impose the symmetry constraints on \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\tz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t to satisfy the equations more precisely.
\n\t\t\t
With this design policy, we here design filter banks. As an example, two-channel and three-channel filter banks are designed and explored. In the two-channel case, the scaling factor is 3/2, and in the three channel one, it is 2/3. The length of the linear phase analysis filters is 6 in the two-channel case, and 8 in the three-channel one. The length of the obtained (non-linear) synthesis filters is 9, and 6, respectively. The length of the linear phase filter in the direct scaling structure is 3, and 2, respectively, and it has third and half band amplitude characteristics, respectively. This is summarized in Table1.
\n\t\t\t
Please note that in the introduced filter bank structures, the direct scaling filters are not required for scaling since the filter banks perform not only sub-band processing but also scaling. The direct scaling filters are used only to design the filter banks. The round brackets “(· )” are used in this sense in Table 1. It is observed that the direct scaling filters have some delays so that the conditions will be satisfied.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tThe number of channels
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The scaling Factors
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The length of the analysis, synthesis and direct scaling filters
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3/2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
(3)
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2/3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
(2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
The length of the designed filters in the introduced filter banks.
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For comparison, we also design nearly perfect reconstruction filter banks in the two-channel and three-channel case, where the length of the analysis filters is 6, and 8, respectively. Please note that the sequential structure consists of the perfect reconstruction filter bank and the same direct scaling structure (except the delays). This is also shown in Table2.In the sequential structures, the coefficients of the analysis filters partially have a few zero-values to satisfy the perfect reconstruction conditions. The sequential structures also require direct scaling filters to perform the scaling process.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tThe number of channels
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The scaling Factors
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The length of the analysis, synthesis and direct scaling filters
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3/2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2/3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
8
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
9
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
The length of the designed filters in the sequential structures
\n\t\t\t
The elapsed computation time required for signal scaling in both the sequential structure and the introduced filter bank is also compared. The computation is carried out on a computer with a 2.2 GHz processor. In this comparison, we examine the elapsed time with various scaling factors and length of the filters.
\n\t\t\t
For example, the elapsed time is 0.2030, and 0.2660 in the introduced structure and the sequential one designed above, respectively, when\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tand the input image size is\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t256\n\t\t\t\t\t\t×\n\t\t\t\t\t\t256\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t.
\n\t\t\t
In addition, Table 3 shows the elapsed time[s] when\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t4, 6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t9, 11\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t, the length of the analysis filters in both systems is 10, and 30, the length of the filter in the direct scaling structure is equal to the factor\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t, and the input image size is\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t256\n\t\t\t\t\t\t×\n\t\t\t\t\t\t256\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t.
Comparison of the elapsed time[s] between the proposed and sequential schemes
\n\t\t\t
It is observed that the elapsed time is proportional to the factor \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tU\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tand also the length of the filters, and that the elapsed time of the introduced filter banks is more than that of the sequential structures when the synthesis filters are long with U = 9, 11. However, this drawback is improved if each branch of the filter banks is completely carried out in parallel, i.e., the computation time of the filter banks is the same as that of each branch in the filter banks. We also explored the elapsed time of both systems in this case, which is also shown in the round brackets “(· )”, where the length of the analysis filters is also 30, in Table 3.
\n\t\t\t
We also explore the performance of image-scaling in the two-channel and three-channel cases. Several well-known test images (\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t256\n\t\t\t\t\t\t×\n\t\t\t\t\t\t256\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t) are used as the input to the filter banks. Table 4 shows the PSNR[dB] of the output of the introduced filter banks against that of the sequential structures. It is observed that the obtained scaled images with the introduced filter banks are comparable to that of the sequential structures. However, it is not certain whether the proposed approach can yield the optimal solution for image-scaling. A detailed discussion on this issue is future work.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tThe number of channels
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
LENA
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
BARBARA
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
BOAT
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Building
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Lighthouse
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
147.60
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
148.88
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
145.40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
146.64
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
146.56
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
122.80
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
123.96
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
121.02
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
122.12
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
121.82
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 4.
The PSNR[dB] of the introduced filter banks against the sequential structures.
\n\t\t\t
The introduced filter banks as well as the sequential structures can be applicable to practical image processing applications. In this simulation, we examine the performance of both the systems in watermarking, where it is assumed that the watermark is embedded into a sub-band of the original image and then the watermarked image is rescaled, and that the watermark is extracted from the rescaled image subsequently. We illustrate both the systems in watermarking with Figure 5 and Figure 6 in which the scaling factor is 3/2.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 5.
The sequential structure employed for watermarking.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 6.
The introduced filter bank structure for watermarking.
\n\t\t\t
Please notice that the subsequent extracting stage in both the systems requires down-sampling and also the use of a scaled version of the original image, in order to extract the watermark embedded in a sub-band of the original image in this simulation. The only difference between both of the systems is that the sub-band signals are synthesized and then rescaled sequentially in Figure 5 while they are rescaled in each sub-band and synthesized in Figure 6. This also holds for other image processing applications such as image coding, recognition, etc.
\n\t\t\t
To demonstrate this, we use several original test images (\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t256\n\t\t\t\t\t\t×\n\t\t\t\t\t\t256\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t) and bi-level watermark images (\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t128\n\t\t\t\t\t\t×\n\t\t\t\t\t\t128\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t) shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8 in both the structures, and the watermark is embedded into the high frequency band of the original image because it is known that the low frequency one is visually susceptible to the watermarking process.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 7.
The bi-level image used as Watermark1.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 8.
The bi-level image used as Watermark2.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTable 5 represents the PSNR[dB] of the extracted watermark against the original watermark in both the systemsin which the original image “LENA” is used. It is observed that the obtained watermarks with the introduced filter banks are comparable to those of the sequential structures, while the computation time of the proposed filter bank is less than that of the sequential structures as shown above.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tWatermark1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Watermark2
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Proposed structure
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Sequential structure
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Proposed structure
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Sequential structure
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
34.38
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
34.56
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
34.66
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
34.88
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 5.
The PSNR[dB] of the extracted watermark against the original watermark.
\n\t\t\t
We, however, see that the water marks are not extracted with very high PSNR in both the systems, which is because re-sampling or filtering is carried out in the image-scaling and watermark-extracting stage.
\n\t\t\t
Typically, watermarks can also be deteriorated in quality or eliminated by attacks such as filtering, scaling, etc. Thus, they are more sensitive to such attacks than usual watermarking (without scaling) is. A detailed discussion is also the future work.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
7. Conclusion
\n\t\t\t
This chapter has discussed a filter bank structure which directly synthesizes the analysis decomposed signals to produce a scaled signal, which leads to computational simplicity in complex processing such as sub-band processing followed by scaling.
\n\t\t\t
First, we have discussed the frequency decomposition characteristics of the filter bank to show how to obtain arbitrarily scaled signals, where the behavior of the aliasing components has also been manifested and addressed, since it can significantly affect the filter bank performance as in traditional perfect reconstruction filter banks.
\n\t\t\t
Next, theoretical conditions for designing the filter bank that is equivalent to the direct scaling structure have been given with the input-output relation of the filter bank, where it has been mentioned that the number of conditions is proportional to that of aliasing components, and that the conditions are mostly not satisfied when all the filters have linear phase. Therefore, we have discussed the conditions, so that they are the same regardless of the aliasing components, which means that the number of equations to solve is significantly reduced.
\n\t\t\t
In addition, it has been demonstrated through simulation results that the computation time required for signal scaling with the proposed scheme is usually less than that of the sequential structures, and that the quality of scaled images is comparable to that of the sequential structures even though not all the filters have linear phase characteristics.
\n\t\t\t
Finally, we have discussed potential issues and advantages in employing the proposed scheme as well as traditional ones in practical image processing such as watermarking.
\n\t\t\t
The findings in this research are that the derived solution by using the proposed approach yields comparable scaling and watermarking performance to that of the usual sequential structures that consist of filter banks and also the direct scaling processes, while the computation time required for scaling is less than that of the sequential scheme and the design procedure is considerabley simplified.
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/40133.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/40133.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/40133",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/40133",totalDownloads:1415,totalViews:136,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 10th 2012",dateReviewed:"August 15th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 16th 2013",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/40133",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/40133",book:{slug:"digital-filters-and-signal-processing"},signatures:"Fumio Itami",authors:[{id:"154810",title:"Dr.",name:"Fumio",middleName:null,surname:"Itami",fullName:"Fumio Itami",slug:"fumio-itami",email:"itami@sit.ac.jp",position:null,institution:{name:"Saitama Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Image scaling",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. A discussion on the computational complexity of the filter bank for scaling",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. A discussion on the filter bank structure for scaling",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. The frequency decomposition and synthesis characteristics of the filter bank",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. The aliasing components of the filter bank",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. The theoretical conditions for the improvement of the scaling performance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.1. The input-output relation in the filter banks and the direct scaling structures in the frequency domain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.2. A discussion on the conditions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Design and Simulation Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVaidyanathan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. 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W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO’neil\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1986\n\t\t\t\t\tSubband Coding of Images.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Transactionson Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing Oct.\n\t\t\t\t\t34 \n\t\t\t\t\t1278\n\t\t\t\t\t1288\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B14",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOraintara\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTran\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNguyen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.Q.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tA Class of Regular Biorthogonal Linear-PhaseFilterbanks: Theory, Structure, andApplication in Image Coding.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Transactionson Signal Processing Dec.\n\t\t\t\t\t513220-3235\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B15",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUnser\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAldroubi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEden\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1993\n\t\t\t\t\tB-Spline Signal Processing: Part I-Theory.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Transactions on Signal Processing Feb.\n\t\t\t\t\t41\n\t\t\t\t\t821\n\t\t\t\t\t833\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B16",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUnser\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAldroubi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEden\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1993\n\t\t\t\t\tB-Spline Signal Processing: Part II-Efficient Design and Applications.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Transactions on Signal Processing Feb.\n\t\t\t\t\t41\n\t\t\t\t\t834\n\t\t\t\t\t848\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B17",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNguyen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. Q.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tInterpolated Mth-Band Filters for Image Size Conversion.\n\t\t\t\t\tIEEE Transactions on Signal Processing Dec.\n\t\t\t\t\t50\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B18",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tItami\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWatanabe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNishihara\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tMultirate Filter Bank-based Conversion of Image Resolution.\n\t\t\t\t\tProc. of IEEE, Asia Pacific Conference on Circuits and Systems Dec.\n\t\t\t\t\t1234\n\t\t\t\t\t1237\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Fumio Itami",address:" itami@sit.ac.jp",affiliation:'
Faculty of Engineering, Saitama Institute of Technology, Japan
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1. Introduction
Teacher behaviors play a key role in forming and shaping organizational culture in schools. The current innovative and leadership-based learning objectives introduced by Education 4.0 have made the transformation obligatory from traditional classroom of the industrial society to creation of digital classrooms. The Fourth Industrial Revolution has taken people to an era of new social and unprecedented changes. In all sectors of all industries, today’s hot issue is the Fourth Industrial Revolution. The First Industrial Revolution was based on the mechanization through the steam engine; the Second Industrial Revolution was based on mass production through electric energy; and the Third Industrial Revolution was based on intelligence information revolution through computer and internet. And the ongoing Fourth Industrial Revolution is based on IoT, Cloud, big data, AI, and mobiles. Also, in the near future, we will meet the 5G wireless network era. The speed of 5G is 280 times faster than LTE. And in some countries, this Fourth Industrial Revolution can be called digital transformation. Figure 1 illustrates the advent of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (IR) age.
Figure 1.
The advent of the fourth industrial revolution (IR) age.
The Fourth Industrial Revolution makes three major changes namely intellectualization of human and machine, virtualization of the real and virtual, and hyper connection of human and things. This revolution brings about changes in future society due to technological progress. Technological progress includes infinite increase in data as well as explosive growth of network. This technological progress will bring increase in value of data and according to these changes the future society will evolve toward role change between humans and machines. In particular, we need to note the increasing data value, which will become more important in the near future.
Within this framework, we need to discuss the global change trends to respond to the Fourth Industrial Revolution. First of all, adaptability is more critical to success than ever. In other words, the importance of the user experience is growing and growing. Additionally, as the amount of data increases, big data management and analytics will become more important. For example, in 2027, bitcoin and the blockchain will become very popular in the business fields. With regard to the key success factors, we need to look at three aspects: technology, industry, and society.
From a technological point of view, technology will evolve into “High Intelligence Information Tech” and “High Quality Data Infrastructure” and provide high-quality intelligent information technologies to industry. And with technological assistance, the whole industry will achieve intelligent information.
2. What Education 4.0 proposes
As far as the educational innovation in the Fourth Industrial Revolution era is concerned, these changes have accelerated many things and respective and unique skilled sets of human capital have been required by the different conditions of social economy. The important factor in the future intelligent information society is to cultivate human-tech literacy resources. The importance of development of the required skills lies in people in learning management, to develop the skills as well as knowledge abilities taking the needs of the society into consideration [1]. Leapfrog [2] called the education in this era responding to the agrarian society as Education 1.0, industrial society as Education 2.0, globalization as Education 3.0, and innovation as Education 4.0.
To be able to cultivate human-tech literacy resources in the future intelligent information society, new and creative fusion talents are required. These creative fusion talents should have the following four intelligences: context intelligence, emotional intelligence, social emotion intelligence, and physical intelligence as indicated in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Creative fusion talents for future intelligent information society.
As can be seen in Figure 2, the intelligences traditionally known as multiple intelligences within the theory of multiple intelligences developed in Gardner [3] (logical-mathematical, linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, spatial, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist intelligence) look to have been reshaped and focus has been given on social, physical, context, and emotional intelligence with a new understanding. This shift will bring many changes in learning and teaching theories currently being followed as well.
From today on, we will be discussing creative talent cultivation through fusion education together with the introduction of the importance of these four intelligences with more emphasis on various ICT-based learning models. These learning models will also replace traditionally known learning models used in different educational contexts. These various kinds of learning models are evolving based on mobile. Particularly, in some countries, mobile has become commonplace beyond the PC. Figure 3 describes the diversification of digital learning in the Fourth IR era.
Figure 3.
Diversification of digital learning in fourth IR era.
The learning models given in Figure 3 also include various elements of learning ecosystem to provide optimized learning system to each learner in response to the Fourth Industrial Revolution. This learning ecosystem has to be considered to promote innovative and optimized learning. This innovative and optimized learning introduces change trends of educational digital contents. Nowadays, digital content is evolving in the following six directions. 1. Interactive, 2. Characteristic, 3. Clipped (mobile-based), 4. Global, 5. Realistic (AR/VR embedded), and 6. Emotional.
Almost each of these directions gives a special focus on coding education. In the Fourth Industrial Revolution era, the importance of coding education is emphasized around the world in following ways:
Coding is the building block of the future.
Learning code is your gateway into understanding how to make the future yours.
The coding really determines how it will look on the screen. Learning to code will guarantee that your vision gets carried through to completion.
Behind code is a bunch more 1s and 0s that do the real work inside the brain of the computer. Code is a fascinating world of its own.
Coding will change the way you think.
Code will give you a fresh way to look at problems. Code is a lot like structured poetry and will change the way you see the world through computational thinking.
To sum up, the future education direction is to create a leading country of intelligence information society with creative fusion talents. This change trend also redefines the objectives of future of education in the following reflected ways:
Education to maximize student interest and aptitude
Education for thinking, problem-solving, and creativity
Education to raise key talents in intelligence information technology
Education to focus on people and contribute to social integration.
From the stand point of educational innovation for the intelligent information society, the content and objectives of educational system in the world seem to move beyond rote education to realize problem-solving and critical-thinking centered education. This will require an expansion of SW/STEAM education and fulfilling computational thinking-oriented education and a reorganization of curriculum and system overall for developing autonomous competency and supporting future preparation. Establishing an adaptive learning system using intelligent information technology will also set up an adaptive learning system by analyzing history and level to maximize learning efficacy.
These chain changes will develop intelligence learning platform to support activities for advanced learning according to individual interest and level and create a core personnel specializing in intelligent IT that is capable of leading new industries. These systems are expected to raise intelligence information talents who are good at computer science, data analytics, and SW development (foster talented children in intelligent information area).
Furthermore, these new trends will also have implications for universities. For example, industry-university-research collaboration intensive learning courses with top faculties will be opened and the quality gains of the students registered in these courses will naturally support best graduation schools in intelligence information technology area.
3. A teacher competency development program for the future
Development of direction of cloud-based intelligent personalized learning service will consider new assessments based on individual service, service beneficiary, visualized technology, AI platform technology and resource. For example, in the case of individual service, online activity, analytics, assessment/diagnosis, and so on will be implemented. These will bring new insights into the evaluation of student products and learning outcomes. Because data will be collected based on learner’s use and learning activities, and analytics results are recommended for optimized personalized learning. However, older teachers will hesitate to use new learning methods or new ICT-based devices.
Above all, in order to cultivate future creative convergence talents, a teacher competency development program for the future is needed. Within this framework, we need to rethink innovative learning opportunities for teachers in educational organizations toward Education 4.0. To be able to create these innovative learning environments for teachers, we should train teachers and expand infrastructure for the intelligent information society. Additionally, we should commit customized training of S/W education for teachers’ continuous reinforcement of SW capacity. Doing so, we will also supply wireless internet network in all schools and develop high-tech future school model using AI, AR, and VR. The content and areas of teacher competency development are summarized in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Teacher competency development for educational innovation.
As can be seen in Figure 4, this teacher competency development can be realized with “Training of Leading Teachers,” “Customized Teacher Training,” “Development and Offering of New Teacher Training Programs,” and “Training for Creative Convergence Education.”
4. Innovative teacher supervision models within the teacher competency development for educational innovation
The huge transformation in learning and teaching models, digital classroom, and educational contexts will bring a radical change in teacher behaviors. For the teachers to change, creation of reflective learning communities is required together with a redefinition of the meaning and scope of teacher supervision. Such a change would only be possible through development of new coaching skills, which would require development of reflective and cognitive skills of the teachers themselves and peer coaching environments to be able to survive and cope with their adaptation to Education 4.0 within the educational contexts. Serving teacher development and collaboration for better learning and teaching, this model will also change teacher behaviors and it will help reshaping. Within this framework, three supervision models namely, reflective, cognitive, and peer coaching to be able help teachers survive and cope with their adaptation to Education 4.0 will be discussed.
4.1 Reflective coaching (reflection: a great asset for a teacher competency development for the future)
The fourth industrial based on changes such as intellectualization of human and machine, virtualization of reality and virtual and hyper connection of human and things and its reflections on Education 4.0 are catering to the needs of the learners and teachers in “innovative era.” These require changes in behaviors with certain features of connectivism, parallelism [4], and visualization. The learner’s ability should be developed through this learning management for the sake of applying the new technology. According to Sinlarat [1], the learning management mentioned looks to be a new learning system, which will allow learners to grow with knowledge and skills to survive during their whole life and they will be equipped with the best of their abilities. From this perspective, Education 4.0 would be more than just an education. On the other hand, learning management is expected to cope with the changes in economic and social and environments to serve the human capital need. To be able to achieve this, a change would be needed in learning management, which requires reflection. Through reflection and reflective learning environments, teachers would have a great opportunity to self-evaluate their reflective teaching practices. Because, they can raise their professional development as long as they become more aware of their weaknesses as well as strengths in their actual teaching practices.
From this point of view, reflection could be regarded as a powerful tool to reflect and change and it could be conducted with some methods [5]. According to some scholarly works, it could be achieved through reflective practices, which would allow teachers to grow professionally [6]. Schön [7] named reflective practice as a critical process in refining a person’s artistry and crafting a certain discipline. In other words, this process requires a person to see his or her experiences in practice while being observed and coached by other people. Smyth [8] maintains that there are four serial stages regarding questions, which lead a teacher to critical reflection:
Describing—What do I do?
Informing—What is the meaning of this?
Confronting—How did I come to be like this?
Constructing—In what other ways could I do it?
These types of reflective practices are utilized in both in-service and pre-service education and peer involvement and coaching are regarded as two essential parts of reflective practices observed mostly in pre-service education for teachers [9]. In this study, our focus will be on journals for individual reflective practices, collaborative learning, video or audio recordings of lessons, teacher educator’s feedback, student feedback, action research, study groups for reflective practice of small groups, teacher portfolios, instructional rounds, classroom walk-throughs for school-based reflective practice, and cognitive coaching and peer coaching even though different approaches to each type of reflective practice are available.
4.1.1 Strategies to practice reflection
To have a brief understanding of the content and functions of reflective coaching, one needs to find out the reflective instruments and strategies employed during the teacher evaluation. The preliminary stage before the reflective process is to collect data about what is actually happening in classes. There are some options to do that:
Reflective journals/diaries: This could be regarded as the easiest way to initiate the reflective process because it is completely personal. Through the use of journals to create reflective learning environments, Göker [10] argues that teachers could provide other teachers with some opportunities to reflect on their actual practices. Within this framework, writing diaries is often used in various learning environments. In writing diaries, teachers would basically express his or her feelings, ideas, and reflections considering their own teaching practice. Doing so, teachers could keep notes in learning logs or personal narratives, dialog journals including various reflections providing them with a critical understanding of how they act in classes and assisting them in realizing other alternative strategies to develop their own practice.
Collaborative learning: According to Brookfield [11], an ongoing communication with the peers created in mutually cooperative environment is essential. This type of collaborative work with peers is expected to contribute to development of reflective thought among teachers. Through efficient discussions, teachers could report their experiences and reframe, and check to broaden their vision about the practices. These would bring changes in teacher behaviors and the school culture could change naturally.
Video or audio recordings of lessons: Recording of lessons could present quality data for the reflective practice. After watching these recordings of their own or other peer members, teachers could develop better awareness of their own teaching. Because, many things happen in classes and teachers may not be aware of what is actually happening and teachers may not normally see. Within this perspective, this type of recording could present a clearer picture about the whole process of teaching. Discussions to be made would trigger a teacher’s reflective thought, reflecting on their strengths and weaknesses, thus helping them get some inspiration toward their development in their teaching.
Teacher educator’s feedback: This type of feedback would assist the teachers in reflecting upon their lessons, tasks, and activities in the school culture.
Student feedback: Students in classes could also give more information about what is actually happening in classes. Teachers could ask their students to present information about what is going on in classes, because, students’ perceptions and opinions could present a different and valuable perspective.
Action research: Seeing it as a reflective process, a teacher could find out progressive responses and solutions to problems to understand his or her practice and develop the ways they address issues. This type of reflective process would help teachers to develop more awareness about what is actually happening in classes by means of defining the main problems and speculating on prospective causes and solutions. They would then attempt to initiate a proper action plan.
Study groups for reflective practice of small groups: This type of formation of groups has been utilized since colonial times, the first of which was documented in America by Franklin [12]. The basic aim then was to search for better business practices. These groups were organized and utilized for teacher development to serve the quality of teaching by means of professional reading, dialog in the 1980s [6, 13, 14, 15] (Little, 1981). To achieve their objectives, 5–10 teachers form a group to begin discussions on a defined topic or curriculum, methodology, and testing to be able to compare and review their own experiences and to seek answers to implement new things in their future teaching practices. The members highly value class observations and they come together after observation to discuss the issues targeted before. This approach is still followed during post-conference sessions of today’s cognitive and peer coaching implementations.
Teacher portfolios: They were first initiated and utilized professionally after the formation of a professional model for teachers by the NBPTS (The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards) seeking national certification [16]. To achieve teaching standards, experienced teachers [17] wishing to get the highest honor in teaching profession came together.
Instructional rounds: These rounds have recently been initiated by City et al. [18]. They attempted to adapt and extend on health practices to be able to develop their knowledge and practices through observations, analysis, and discussions conducted with other physicians. School principals and supervisors employed a similar method to create a learning environment serving the progressive solutions to problems to improve instruction together with the teachers and develop their teaching practices. They carried out four different steps consisting of identifying a problem, observing, debriefing, and taking corrective steps [18]. Their aim was to form a reflective culture through the use of a common language among each other. Within this framework, a cultural reflective transformation was targeted to create a reflective learning environment, in which they would reshape teacher behaviors. They did it as a type of reflection-for action because they aimed to improve teaching practices within a system.
Classroom walk-throughs for school-based reflective practice: Classroom walk-through, as a supervisory technique and a type of reflection on action, was first initiated in educational settings in the 1990s [19]. Supervisors visit classes to observe classes and evaluate practices of teaching and learning outcomes. Professional dialogs between supervisors and teachers consist of dialog, focus on what is actually happening in classes are highly valued [18]. Follow-up dialogs conducted in reflective in nature are expected to move teachers to achieve a certain level of reflection and collaboration to teaching practices.
4.2 Cognitive coaching
This type of coaching model was first initiated by Costa and Garmston [20] as a critical and “nonjudgmental mediation of thinking” based on constructivist learning theory. The ultimate goal is to foster a person’s capacity to improve abilities of self-monitoring, self-directedness as well as those of self-modification. Planning conversation, observation, and reflecting conversation basically constitute a three-stage coaching cycle. The model described as a teacher supervision means in this study is mainly based on (a) the theories by Bandura [21] and Vygotsky [22], (b) application of the researcher’s model of peer coaching [9] and model of reflective coaching [10, 23] implemented within different educational contexts, and (c) similar mentoring or coaching studies.
During the coaching process, a competent coach (mentor) is regarded as an essential figure with a capacity to: (1) create interactions with the participants giving priority to produce self-directed learning; (2) seek trust in maintaining coaching relationships; (3) evaluate and intercede the five states of mind; and finally (4) produce new approaches to foster the five states of mind to be able to create a learning environment, in which the trainees could mediate the capacity of their own and that of others to develop. Cognitive coaching, within this process, could also be described as a formative model to promote teacher self-evaluation to help them develop their self-efficacy, identity, and teaching skills. From this perspective, it is important to ease reflective process and possible responses coming from the mentee, the mentor in this study drafts questions. To be able to produce any cognitive development, a good mentor should use paralanguage, structuring as well as meditative questioning response behaviors [20]. The four strategies given above are always utilized during both the planning and reflective conversation sessions to help the mentees give the most suitable decisions about their teaching practices. A teacher could also be provided autonomy to a certain extent and this would ease their professional development conducted through cognitive coaching.
4.3 Peer coaching
Peer coaching is regarded as a part of reflective process and a fruitful tool to create collaborative efforts and it warrants consideration as a potentially serviceable solution for improving teacher effectiveness when implemented both in pre-service and in-service teaching settings. Peer coaching as almost the most basic supervision mode employed in classes is regarded as a clinical and reflective process, in which teacher teams or student teachers regularly observe themselves for the sake of refining teaching practice, encouraging reflective practice, providing assistance, suggestions, and support [9, 24, 25]. This process is considered as a tool for the more experienced teachers to use the skills they gained during their in-service teacher program. Research also advocates the use of peer coaching implementations to empower transfer of training to real teaching practice in classes, supercharging collegiality by means of peers’ exchange of feedback together with reflective development of teachers [9, 25].
The most common way of peer coaching is conducted in the following way: A teacher invites his or her peer to monitor his/her class to collect data about what is really happening in class. This could be done through note taking, checklist, a narrative agreed, a simple observation task, and drawing conclusions. The teacher could ask his/her peer to put emphasis on, for example, what different patterns of interaction occur or which students contribute the most in the lesson. It is better for the observer not to be involved in evaluating the teacher’s lesson for the sake of having a positive evaluation. Coaching benefits and expectations are negotiated between the peers during a pre-conference and post-conference.
Taking the recent developments and changes in Education 4.0, Göker [9] argues that these peer coaching environments could play a key role in creating the required reflective learning communities, in which teachers and teacher candidates would be trained as practitioners to lead to change. Göker [9] further maintains that one strategy for development of teachers mostly suitable for the creation of a reflective learning community is that of peer coaching, described as the process of two peers studying on planning instruction, developing support materials, and monitoring each other’s work with students. Within this framework, peer coaching is regarded as nonjudgmental, based on classroom observation followed by feedback, and intended to develop teaching skills. Openness and trust are the two essential characteristics of peer coaching process and peers need to be sensitive to be non-evaluative or nonjudgmental during the pre/post-conference sessions, in which they discuss, share their own experiences, teaching, and learning behaviors as well as teaching practices.
5. Conclusion
Any change in teacher behavior, which plays a key role in forming and shaping organizational culture in schools, is not an easy task. From the stand point of educational innovation for the intelligent information society, promoting reflective practices and developing professional learning communities through reflective, cognitive, and peer coaching implementations is essential to lead to a teacher change. The current innovative and leadership-based learning objectives introduced by Education 4.0 have made it obligatory for teachers to change. As Education 4.0 environments require future creative convergence talents, teachers should carry out new tasks to take greater ownership of growing creative convergence talents and to change processes of their school culture. This change process could be achieved through creating reflective learning communities together with a redefinition of the meaning and scope of teacher supervision. For the sake of achieving these changes in teacher behaviors, this study discussed a “Teacher Competency Development Model,” in which, innovative learning opportunities for teachers in educational organizations were offered through innovative models in teacher supervision based on cognitive, reflective, and peer coaching and their utilization within the educational contexts. It is obvious that if teachers create a professional and reflective learning community aiming at behavioral change in reflective practices and promoting professional development, learning becomes self-directed and they definitely become empowered thorough learning management, which looks to be an essential task required by Education 4.0. Today, we have a digital society and life style has changed. Learning management needs to respond to the prospective changes of behaviors of both teachers and learners.
\n',keywords:"redefinition of learning opportunities, teacher competency development model, Education 4.0, school culture, peer, cognitive and reflective coaching",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72707.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72707.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72707",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72707",totalDownloads:169,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 25th 2019",dateReviewed:"June 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"July 3rd 2020",datePublished:"January 7th 2021",dateFinished:"July 3rd 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Teacher behaviors play a key role in forming and shaping organizational culture in schools. The current innovative and leadership-based learning objectives introduced by Education 4.0 have made the transformation obligatory from traditional classrooms of the industrial society to creation of digital classrooms. This transformation will embrace digital curriculum that might impact learning outcomes and reduce in-class management. How is it different from traditional classrooms? The spaces in a digital classroom are both digital and physical. This environment asks for future creative convergence talents, thus giving teachers new tasks to take greater ownership of change processes of their school culture. This shift also requires creation of reflective learning communities together with a redefinition of the meaning and scope of teacher supervision. This study introduces, a “Teacher Competency Development Model,” in which innovative learning opportunities for teachers in educational organizations toward Education 4.0 are offered through innovative models in teacher supervision based on cognitive, reflective, and peer coaching and their utilization within the educational contexts. Within this framework, the contents and strategies of three supervision models, namely, reflective, cognitive, and peer coaching to be able to help teachers survive and cope with their adaptation to Education 4.0 will be discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72707",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72707",signatures:"Süleyman Davut Göker and Mubeher Ürün Göker",book:{id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",publishedDate:"January 7th 2021",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",email:"gokersd@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Canakkale Onsekiz Mart Universitesi Tip Fakultesi Hastanesi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"324060",title:"Dr.",name:"Mubeher",middleName:null,surname:"Ürün Göker",fullName:"Mubeher Ürün Göker",slug:"mubeher-urun-goker",email:"murungoker@comu.edu.tr",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. What Education 4.0 proposes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. A teacher competency development program for the future",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Innovative teacher supervision models within the teacher competency development for educational innovation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Reflective coaching (reflection: a great asset for a teacher competency development for the future)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"4.1.1 Strategies to practice reflection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.2 Cognitive coaching",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.3 Peer coaching",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Sinlarat P. Education 4.0 is more than education. In: Annual Academic Seminar of the Teacher’s Council 2016 on the Topic of Research of the Learning Innovation and Sustainable Educational Management. Bangkok: The Secretariat Office of Teacher’s Council; 2016'},{id:"B2",body:'Harkins AM. Leapfrog principles and practices: Core components of education 3.0 and 4.0. Futures Research Quarterly. 2008;24(1):19-31'},{id:"B3",body:'Gardner H. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books; 1983'},{id:"B4",body:'Goldie JGS. Connectivism: A knowledge learning theory for the digital age? Medical Teacher. 2016;38(10):1064-1069. DOI: 10.3109/0142159X.2016.1173661'},{id:"B5",body:'Fullan M. Leadership and Sustainability: System Thinkers in Action. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc; 2005'},{id:"B6",body:'York-Barr J, Sommers WA, Ghere GS, Montie J. Reflective Practice to Improve Schools: An Action Guide for Educators. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.; 2001'},{id:"B7",body:'Schon DA. The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc.; 1983'},{id:"B8",body:'Smyth J. Developing and sustaining critical reflection in teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education. 1989;40(2):2-9'},{id:"B9",body:'Göker SD. Impact of peer coaching on self-efficacy and instructional skills in TEFL teacher education. System, And International Journal of Educational Technology and Applied Linguistics. 2006;34(2):239-254'},{id:"B10",body:'Göker SD. Use of reflective journals in development of teachers’ leadership and teaching skills. Universal Journal of Educational Research. 2016;4(12A):63-70. DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2016.041309. Available from: http://www.hrpub.org'},{id:"B11",body:'Brookfield S. Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher. San-Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 1995'},{id:"B12",body:'Makibbin SS, Spraque MM. Study groups: Conduit for reform. A paper presented at the meeting of the National Staff Development Council. In: St. Santa CGS, Smith K, editors. Teachers are Researchers: Reflection and Action. Newark, DE: International Reading Association; 1991'},{id:"B13",body:'Cooper C, Boyd J. Creating sustained professional development. In: Brody C, Davidson N, editors. Professional Development for Cooperative Learning: Issues and Approaches. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press; 1998'},{id:"B14",body:'Stigler JW, Hiebert J. The Teaching Gap: Best Ideas from the World’s Teachers for Improving Education in the Classroom. New York, NY: Free Press; 1999'},{id:"B15",body:'Little JW. School Success in Staff Development: The Role of Staff Development in Urban Desegregated Schools. Boulder, CO: Center for Action Research. 1981'},{id:"B16",body:'Bullock AA, Hawk PP. Developing a Teaching Portfolio: A Guide for Preservice and Practicing Teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall; 2005'},{id:"B17",body:'National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. 2009. Available from: http://www.nbpts.org [Accessed: 15 July 2016]'},{id:"B18",body:'City EA, Elmore RF, Fiarman SE, Teitel L. Instructional Rounds in Education: A Network Approach to Improving Teaching and Learning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press; 2009'},{id:"B19",body:'Downey C, English F, Frase L, Poston W, Steffy B. The Three-Minute Classroom Walk-through. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press; 2004'},{id:"B20",body:'Costa A, Garmston R. Cognitive Coaching: A Foundation for Renaissance Schools. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers; 2002'},{id:"B21",body:'Bandura A. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review. 1997;84:191-215'},{id:"B22",body:'Vygotsky LS. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1978. Available from: http://ouleft.org/wp-content/uploads/Vygotsky-Mind-in-Society.pdf'},{id:"B23",body:'Göker SD. Reflective leadership in EFL. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 2012;2(8):1355-1362'},{id:"B24",body:'Joyce B, Showers B. Improving inservice training: The messages of research. Educational Leadership. 1980;37(1980):379-385'},{id:"B25",body:'Thorn A, McLeod M, Goldsmith M. Peer coaching overview. 2007. Retrieved from: http://www.marshallgoldsmithlibrary.com [Accessed: 13 November 2019]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker",address:"gokersd@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Faculty of Education, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Mubeher Ürün Göker",address:null,affiliation:'
School of Foreign Languages, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey
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Calculation of N budget in agricultural systems with use of different empirical statistical methods is common practice in OECD and EU countries. However, these methodologies do not include climate and water cycle as part of the process. On the other hand, big scale studies are labor and work intensive. As a solution, various computer modeling approaches have been used to predict N budget and related N parameters. One of them is internationally established Soil and Water Assessment (SWAT) model, which was developed especially for modeling agricultural catchments. The aim of this study was to improve understanding of N leaching with simulation of agricultural land management (fertilization, irrigation, and plant species) in hydrological heavily modified watershed with irrigation-depended agriculture under Mediterranean climate. The study was conducted in Lower Seyhan River Plain Irrigation District (Akarsu) of 9495 ha in Cukurova region of southern Turkey. Intensive and extensive water and nitrogen monitoring data (2008–2014), soil properties, cropping pattern, and crop rotation were used for the SWAT model build, calibration, and validation of the model.",signatures:"Ebru Karnez, Hande Sagir, Matjaž Gavan, Muhammed Said\nGolpinar, Mahmut Cetin, Mehmet Ali Akgul, Hayriye Ibrikci and\nMarina Pintar",authors:[{id:"61187",title:"Prof.",name:"Marina",surname:"Pintar",fullName:"Marina Pintar",slug:"marina-pintar",email:"marina.pintar@bf.uni-lj.si"},{id:"82604",title:"Dr.",name:"Matjaž",surname:"Glavan",fullName:"Matjaž Glavan",slug:"matjaz-glavan",email:"matjaz.glavan@bf.uni-lj.si"},{id:"186540",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Çetin",fullName:"Mahmut Çetin",slug:"mahmut-cetin",email:"mcet64@cu.edu.tr"},{id:"186541",title:"Prof.",name:"Hyriye",surname:"Ibrikci",fullName:"Hyriye Ibrikci",slug:"hyriye-ibrikci",email:"hibrikci@cu.edu.tr"},{id:"186543",title:"Dr.",name:"Ebru",surname:"Karnez",fullName:"Ebru Karnez",slug:"ebru-karnez",email:"ekarnez@gmail.com"},{id:"186544",title:"MSc.",name:"Hande",surname:"Sağir",fullName:"Hande Sağir",slug:"hande-sagir",email:"hsagir@cu.edu.tr"},{id:"186545",title:"BSc.",name:"Muhammet Said",surname:"Gölpinar",fullName:"Muhammet Said Gölpinar",slug:"muhammet-said-golpinar",email:"sgolpinar@cu.edu.tr"},{id:"194134",title:"Mr.",name:"Mehmet Ali",surname:"Akgul",fullName:"Mehmet Ali Akgul",slug:"mehmet-ali-akgul",email:"mehmetaliakgul@gmail.com"}],book:{title:"Water Quality",slug:"water-quality",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"73014",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",surname:"Arismendi",slug:"ivan-arismendi",fullName:"Ivan Arismendi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oregon State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"186087",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cezara",surname:"Voica",slug:"cezara-voica",fullName:"Cezara Voica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"186369",title:"Dr.",name:"Zati",surname:"Sharip",slug:"zati-sharip",fullName:"Zati Sharip",position:"Senior Researcher",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. Zati Sharip is a senior researcher at the National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia. She also serves as the Head, Lake Research Unit, Water Quality and Environment Research Centre since 2007. She obtained her PhD from the University of Western Australia, Australia focusing on physical-chemical-biological interactions in a tropical lake. She has conducted various research on lakes and wetland for more than 12 years.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"186733",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Fierro",slug:"pablo-fierro",fullName:"Pablo Fierro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Concepción",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"187083",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio",surname:"Valdovinos",slug:"claudio-valdovinos",fullName:"Claudio Valdovinos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"187084",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Vargas-Chacoff",slug:"luis-vargas-chacoff",fullName:"Luis Vargas-Chacoff",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"187085",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Bertran",slug:"carlos-bertran",fullName:"Carlos Bertran",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"187102",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",surname:"Ionete",slug:"roxana-ionete",fullName:"Roxana Ionete",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"193709",title:"Dr.",name:"Saim",surname:"Suratman",slug:"saim-suratman",fullName:"Saim Suratman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"194297",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreea Maria",surname:"Iordache",slug:"andreea-maria-iordache",fullName:"Andreea Maria Iordache",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. 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He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. 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I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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