Feedwater limitations prior to RO permeate.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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During his Fulbright experience, he also worked at the Hospital of University of Pennsylvania (HUP), Philadelphia and St Joseph’s Hospital, Chicago, USA with sub-specialty interest in rhinology and aesthetic nasal surgery. Dr BS Gendeh retired after 38 years government service as a consultant ENT surgeon at the National University of Malaysia Medical Centre (UKMMC) in 2014, and presently is a Visiting Professor at the Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery at UKMMC and is a resident ENT consultant at Pantai Hospital Kuala Lumpur since 2014. Is an executive member of numerous National and International bodies including Board Chairman of Malaysian American Commission on Educational Exchange (MACEE) from 2013-2015. Due to his vast contribution to the academia in research and clinical publication, he was elected as a Diploma of Fellowship Academy of Medicine Malaysia (FAMM) in October 2000, International Fellow of the Academy of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery in April 2004, Fellow of the Academy of Sciences Malaysia (FASc) in April 2016 and as Fellow of Malaysian Scientific Association (FMSA) in September 2017. He has written 96 scientific papers with more than 550 citations and editor/co-editor of 8 books and 37 book chapters an H index of 15.",institutionString:"Pantai Hospital Kuala Lumpur",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"71348",title:"Water Treatment and Desalination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91471",slug:"water-treatment-and-desalination",body:'\nWater treatment and purification are the procedures of getting rid of unfavorable chemicals, natural contaminants, as well as suspended solids from water. The aim is to deliver water for certain applications. Water is disinfected for drinking, but water treatment may also be intended for different purposes, including chemical, medical, pharmacological, or other industrial applications. This method includes the physical methods such as sedimentation, distillation, and filtration; biological methods e.g. slow sand filters or biologically activated carbon; chemical methods such as coagulation, flocculation, and chlorination in addition to the use of electromagnetic methods such as ultraviolet light.
\nDesalination has developed a management water alternative resource by allowing the use of oceans, the greatest reservoirs in the world. Desalination is implemented in more than 100 countries around the world, including the United Arab Emirates, Oman, Malta, Portugal, Greece, Italy, India, China, Spain, Cyprus, Saudi Arabia, Japan, and Australia. Worldwide, the desalination plant produces over 3.5 billion gallons per day of potable water. Seawater desalination technology, reachable for decades, made remarkable strides in many arid areas of the world such as the Middle East, the Mediterranean, and the Caribbean. The potential of an RO desalination plant has increased from 1990 to 2020 [1, 2, 3].
\nSeawater and brackish water are the two most important sources that include desalination technology. The seawater desalination area dominated the international industry specifically due to the outstanding abundance of saltwater resources. Rising wide variety of initiatives in the utility area are expected to improve seawater desalination market.
\nBrackish water is expected to obtain importance, with an increase in 29% of contracts inside the first half of 2017. However, the presence of constrained reservoirs of brackish water across the globe will probably result in a constrained market boom in this segment.
\nThe water desalination market place worldwide was estimated as USD 15.0 billion in 2017 and is anticipated to make out a wholesome increase with CAGR 7.8% over the projected period. Increasing water crisis throughout the world is the key aspect to drive the market needs for water desalination over the coming years [4, 5].
\nThe targets of a water treatment are to eliminate undesirable constituents in the water, making it useful for drinking or matching a specific purpose in industrial applications. Generally, different techniques are presented to eliminate the impurities including microorganisms, suspended solids, and organic materials and other dissolved inorganic or environmental tenacious pharmaceutical contaminants.
\nThe selection of the technique depends on the properties of the water to be treated, the treatment system capital cost, and the requirements predicted of the treated water. The methods discussed below are some of the regularly used methods in water treatment and distillation plants. A few or more may additionally now are not employed according to the treatment plant scale and the characteristics of (feed/source) water [6].
\nThe water to be treated must be drawn out from its source or directed into the piping system or storage tanks by pumps. To evade adjoining contaminants to the water, this bodily substructure ought to be made from excellent materials and assembled so that unplanned contamination does not take place.
\nThe initial stage in treating surface water is to take away large solids, for example, sticks, debris, leaves, and other massive specks that may affect the following purification/treatment steps. The majority of deep groundwater does not require screening before other purification steps.
\nThe pH value of natural water is close to 7, while seawater pH values vary from 7.5 to 8.4 in the moderate alkaline range. Water can have extensively fluctuating pH values reliant on the geology of the water aquifer or basin and they have an impact on of contaminant involvements. If the water is acidic (with a pH value less than 7), sodium hydroxide, lime, or soda ash can be employed to raise the pH at some point during the water treatment processes. The addition of lime increases the calcium ion concentration; as a consequence, the water’s hardness level is increased. For acidic waters, “compelled draft degasifiers” may be an advantageous method to increase the pH value, by way of stripping “dissolved carbon dioxide” from the treated water.
\nIncreasing the pH value of water (alkaline water) helps “coagulation and flocculation” processes to operate correctly and additionally supports reducing the risk of dissolving “lead” from pipes or from solder used in pipe fittings. Adequate alkalinity furthermore lessens the iron pipe corrosion in water. In some cases, to reduce pH, acid, such as carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid, or sulfuric acid, may also be added to alkaline water. Alkaline water (above pH 7.0) does no longer essentially indicate that some metals like lead or copper will not be dispersed from the plumbing gadget into pumped water. The probability of dissolving hazardous materials like lead in water is limited remarkably to defend surfaces of metal pipes as a result of the capability of water to precipitate “calcium carbonate.” The precipitate of calcium carbonate is a function of different parameters including pH, temperature, the mineral content, calcium concentration, and alkalinity.
\nThe first step in most regular water treatment tactics is the adding of special chemicals to facilitate the elimination of suspended constituents found in water. These suspended constituents may originate from inorganic sources such as “clay” and “silt” or organic sources such as “algae,” “bacteria,” “viruses,” and other naturally occurring “organic matter.” Inorganic and natural particles make contributions to the turbidity and complexion of water.
\nAdding coagulants of inorganic nature such as “aluminum sulfate (or alum)” or “iron(III) salts” like “iron(III) chloride” may trigger countless instantaneous chemical and physical interactions. By using inorganic coagulants, the particles are neutralized in seconds at a very low cost. Also, iron and aluminum ions start to form precipitates containing metal hydroxide. The metal hydroxide precipitates conglomerate into larger particles under natural tactics such as Brownian action and throughout instigated mixing, which is denoted as the “flocculation process.” Amorphous metallic hydroxides are regarded as “floc.” Amorphous aluminum and iron(III) large hydroxide molecules adsorb and tangle suspended particles, leading to an easier removal of particles through consequent methods like filtration and sedimentation [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11].
\nAluminum hydroxides are fashioned inside a pretty limited pH range: 5.5 to about 7.7. Iron (III) hydroxide can shape over a higher pH vary consisting of pH degrees lower than are effective for alum, typically: 5.0 to 8.5.
\nIn literature, there is an interesting debate and a relative confusion over the utilization of the two terms, coagulation and flocculation: where does coagulation stop and flocculation take place? In plants used for water purification, a high energy is usually needed, speedy mix unit method (with a short detention time, usually in seconds) whereby the coagulant chemical compounds are delivered accompanied by basins of flocculation (detention instances vary from 15 to 45 minutes) at which large paddles or different gentle mixing low energy units to embellish the formation of floc. So, coagulation and flocculation methods continue once coagulants containing metal salt are added.
\nThe effectiveness of a sedimentation system depends on the suspended particles’ “settling velocity,” the volume/area of the tank, and the flow rate through the tank. Design sedimentation tanks are calculated within an overflow rate range between 0.5 and 1.0 gallons per minute per square foot (1.25–2.5 m per hour). Generally, sedimentation tank efficiency is not a feature of retention time or the tank depth. However, the tank should be enough to not disturb the sludge formed by water currents, and settled particle interactions are boosted. Near the sludge level on the bottom of the tank, the particle concentrations in the settled water amplify, and taking into consideration settling velocities can make bigger difference due to the accumulation of suspended particles. Typical retention time for sedimentation process diverges from 1.5 to 4 hours and tank depth varies from 10 to 15 ft. (3–4.5 m) [11].
\nDissolved air flotation is regularly employed to treat water when suspended particles do not settle down easily in the water by sedimentation. Following the coagulation and flocculation processes, the treated water is directed to the DAF system tanks. Diffusers of air on the tank’s base are used to create excellent bubbles of air attached to floc causing a suspended floating mass of the required floc. The floating floc blanket is eliminated from the floor and clear water is drawn from the base of the tank of DAF. DAF system is essential for water that contains algae blooms with low turbidity and high coloration [12, 13, 14, 15].
\nRapid sand filters are the most frequent types of filters used. Water flows vertically through the sand bed with “activated carbon” layer or “anthracite coal” above it. The upper layer eliminates natural components, affecting taste and odor. The gap within particles of sand is mostly bigger than the smallest particle suspended in water, making simple filtration not adequate. Majority of particles pass through the layers. However, some are trapped in the gap areas or adhere to the sand particles. Effective filtration depends on the volume of the sand filter. The filtration rate of the filter is the key for its proper operation: if the upper layer of sand filter blocks all the particles, the sand filter would rapidly clog [10, 16, 17, 18].
\nThe cleaning mechanism of the sand filter is done where water is directed rapidly upward via filtering the opposite direction (“back flushing or backwashing”) to dispose of set in or undesired particles. Preceding this step, compressed air may also be used to blow up the compacted media of filter to resource the “backwashing” process, known as air scouring. The contaminated water may be dumped, alongside the sludge produced in the sedimentation tank; alternatively, it could be recycled and mixed with the feedwater inflowing to the treatment plant, which is not regularly used because it reintroduces an expanded volume of contaminated water with bacteria into the feedwater.
\nPressure filters are usually used in water treatment plants. It works on the same concept as rapid gravity filters; the main difference is that the medium of the filter is contained inside a vessel where water is enforced under pressure through the filter medium. Benefits of gravity filters are [10, 12, 16, 17, 18] as follows:
Sieves much smaller particles than other sand filters do.
Sieves effectively all particles larger than their specified pore sizes.
Water flows through them quite rapidly.
They can endure a difference of pressure across them of around 2–5 atmospheres.
Easily cleaned “back flushed.”
Water may be saved/stored in the backside tanks for intervals between few days and several months allowing a natural process of biological purification to occur. This is particularly vital if the treatment is done through slow filters of sand. Storage tanks also furnish a safeguard against short periods of drought/water shortage or permit maintenance of water supply system at some point of temporary pollution incidents in the supply system.
\nIn many vegetations, the influent water is used to be chlorinated in order to decrease the boom of fouling organisms on the pipes and the used tanks. Because of the attainable negative first-class effects, this has largely been discontinued.
\n\n
There is no single technique of desalination. The earliest methods were based totally on distillation or thermal evaporation of seawater on a large scale. Some initial distillation plants have been employed for the desalination brackish water, but high cost prevented substantial implementation of this method in different regions around the world.
\nThe foremost exclusion was few countries in the Arabic Gulf region where excess or less expensive strength is existing. Started in the 1970s, more plant life has been hooked up the use of membranes. Membrane technologies were employed to desalinate both brackish water and seawater, though they are more typically used to desalinate brackish water since cost relatively increases with the water’s salt content.
\nVarious membrane technologies can withdraw microorganisms and many natural contaminants. Also, membrane typically has lower capital costs and requires much lower energy compared to thermal systems. However, thermal desalination systems are distinguished with producing water containing decreased salt content compared to membrane (typically much less than 25 mg/l (ppm) total dissolved solids (TDS) as produced in thermal systems in contrast to around 500 ppm in water produced from membrane systems).
\nThe different types of desalination technology include the following:
Distillation
Multistage flash (MSF) distillation
Multiple-effect distillation (MED)
Vapor-compression (VC)
Ion exchange
Membrane processes
Electrodialysis (ED)
Reverse osmosis
Nanofiltration (NF)
Membrane distillation (MD)
Forward osmosis (FO)
Others
Distillation is the most established desalting process where MSF technology is regularly used for seawater desalination. “Dual-purpose” (electric power and potable water production) applications are performed using thermal desalination processes, as well as thermal processes are used for applications that are not applicable to be performed by RO or electrodialysis reversal (EDR), for example, feedwater with high salinity (greater than 50,000 mg/l TDS) or where the feedwater conditions would negatively affect the performance and the membrane life. Recent developments in the MED and VC technologies have led to lower capital costs and reduced amount of auxiliary power consumed, which make these processes cost-effective to MSF distillation [26, 27, 28].
\nGenerally, multi-stage flash distillation (MSF) and reverse osmosis (RO) desalination processes account for about 80% of the world’s desalination water production capacity. In the Middle East (particularly Arabian Gulf countries), MSF units are widely used and represent over 40% of the world’s desalinated water production capacity. In North Africa, MSF and RO desalination plants seize about 40% each of the desalination market (shown in Figure 1).
\nMSF desalination technology.
The multiple-effect distillation process can be applied in different capacities; for example, small MED plants with a capacity limit to 500 m3/day were acquainted with the desalination topic in the 1960s. Continuous technological improvements prompt the increase in unit production capacity. The typical number of stages adopted ranges from 8 to 16 stages [28] (shown in Figure 2).
\nMED schematic diagram.
Vapor-compression distillation technology is commonly employed for seawater desalting plants within small to medium scale. There are two methods of VC: mechanical vapor-compression (MVC), which is usually electrically driven, or a thermal vapor-compression (TVC). Vapor-compression plants have been built in a variety of configurations [28, 29].
\nElectrodialysis desalination process is in some way similar to “ion exchange” treatment process, but it differs in utilizing both cation and anion selective membranes to separate charged ions as shown in Figure 3. Improvements to ED process, an electrodialysis reversal process, were introduced where it utilizes regular automatic polarity reversal, which helps in decreasing fouling process [30, 31, 32].
\nIon exchange in electrodialysis unit.
Water is handed between a negative electrode and a high-quality electrode. Ion exchange membranes permit solely high-quality ions to transfer toward the negative electrode from the feedwater and negative ions to the positive electrode. Similar to ion exchange treatment process, pure water is produced by deionization. Complete elimination of ions from water is likely to occur if the proper settings are met. Normally, a reverse osmosis system is used for water pretreatment to eliminate natural contaminants, and carbon dioxide is removed with gas switch membranes. Treatment efficiency of 99% is possible if the feed stream is fed to the RO system.
\nReverse osmosis (RO) membrane is known as hyper filtration and is the supreme filtration known. Reverse osmosis allows the removal of small particles and dissolved organic matter. It is also employed to purify different fluids including glycol and ethanol, rejecting other ions and contaminants preventing them from passing through the membrane. Reverse osmosis is commonly used in water treatment. Reverse osmosis is employed to generate water that meets the required specifications needed in place [20, 22, 24].
\n\n\n
\nReverse osmosis membrane is a semipermeable membrane allowing fluid that is to be purified to permit through the membrane and rejecting contaminants in the reject stream. Most reverse osmosis systems use cross flow mechanism to decrease membrane cleaning periods. As the fluid flows through the reverse osmosis membranes, the downstream, remove the reject away from in concentrated reject water (brine) [33, 34, 35, 36].
\nThe reverse osmosis process is a pressure-driven process to drive the fluid through the membrane using pressure pump. The pressure increases as the driving forces increase. So, the required driving force increases as the concentration of the reject stream increases.
\nReverse osmosis is able to reject proteins, particles, bacteria, salts, sugars, dyes, and other contaminants that are distinguished with a molecular weight greater than the 150–250 daltons range. The reverse osmosis separation of ions is assisted by charged particles. This means that charged dissolved ions will more likely be rejected by the membrane compared to uncharged ones, like organics. The particle will be mostly rejected as the charge and the particle size increases.
\nWhen a semipermeable membrane is used to separate two water (or other solvent) volumes, water is going to flow from the low solute concentration side to the high solute concentration side. By applying an external pressure on the higher concentration side, the flow could be stopped or reversed.
\nIn such a case, the phenomenon is called “reverse osmosis.” If there are solute molecules only on one side of the system, then the pressure that stops the flow is called the osmotic pressure. The movement of a “solute molecule” within a solvent is overdamped by the solvent molecules that surround it. In fact, the solute movement is wholly determined by fluctuations of the collisions with nearby solvent molecules. So, the average thermal velocity of the molecules is the same as if they were free in the gas phase.
\nThe solute transfers momentum to a wall when the solute is blocked by the wall, and consequently, a pressure on the wall is generated. The pressure on the wall will be the same as the ideal gas pressure of the same molecule concentration, which is attributed to the fact that the velocity is the same as that of free molecule. Therefore, the osmotic pressure π can be calculated by Van’t Hoff formula equation (1):
\nwhere c is the molar solute concentration, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. This formula is the same as the pressure formula of the ideal gas.
\nDue to their modular design concept, RO desalination has a wide range of capacities from large capacities as 395,000 m3/day to small units down to 0.1 m3/day.
\nThe membrane surface fouling throughout operation reduces the membrane productivity, and if the fouling conditions continue, the salt rejection will suffer. There are three sources for membrane fouling: particles entrained in feedwater, build-up of sparingly soluble minerals, and by-products as a result of growth of microorganisms [25].
\nA frequent cleaning is required to handle these conditions, which is costly and leads to a shorter service life of the membrane elements. In general, the suspended solids should be eliminated from the feed to the membranes, and for the membrane plant to function well, a suitable pretreatment for the feed is needed. Sparsely soluble minerals are mainly barium and silica, and these contribute to hardness. Microorganism’s growth is most pronounced within the temperature range of 30–45°C [36, 37, 38].
\nThe following are the feedwater limitations prior to the RO membranes set by the permeate manufacturers. The pretreatment process should take into consideration the following guidelines that are shown in Table 1.
\nFeed iron, aluminum, and manganese | \nNot more than 0.05 mg/l | \n
---|---|
Feed bacteriological content | \n0 | \n
Feed chlorine or other oxidants | \n0 | \n
Feed SDI after filtration | \n<3 | \n
Feed organic content (TOC, BOD5, COD) | \n0 | \n
Feed oil, hydrocarbons, grease content | \n0 | \n
Feed H2S | \n0 | \n
Suspended solids | \n<1.0 mg/l | \n
Feed barium, strontium, fluoride | \nTraces | \n
Feedwater limitations prior to RO permeate.
Nanofiltration is accomplished using a membrane with a pore size of 0.5 and 2 nm and operating pressures between 5 and 40 bars. NF is used to treat solutions that contain organic molecules, sugars, and multivalent salts. Charged nanofiltration membrane rejects ions with negative charge, such as phosphate or sulfate. Non-charged nanofiltration membrane rejects dissolved matter and uncharged in accordance of the shape and size of the molecule, while for positively charged ions, the rejection is affected by the membrane charge and according to the membrane fouling mechanism [17, 32, 34].
\nThough NF membrane started at the end of the 1970s, NF membrane was used in the 1980s as a separating membrane system, mainly aiming at softening and organic removal. NF membranes have been used commonly in the 1990s. After that, the use ranges of nanofiltration membranes have expanded massively in different applications. Large plants were constructed using NF membranes, for example, the Mery-sur-Oise plant in France (140,000 m3/day of permeate) in the 1990s.
\nNF membranes are produced by many membrane manufacturers. The membrane materials are mostly made of polymers like poly-ether-sulfones, aromatic poly(acrylonitrile), polyamides, and poly(phenylene oxide) as well as from different alterations of them. The enhanced permeate flux, the wider membrane pores and less retentive is the membrane.
\nNF membranes comprise of an active skin layer, which determines the properties of separation, and the structure that supports the porous layer, attributing to the membrane’s mechanical strength. The skin layer of the membrane could be connected to the support structure integrally, such as membranes prepared via “phase inversion” (immersion precipitation) process. These membranes have distinguished pores in the nanometer range at the active surface layer. Also, the skin layer can be considered as an extra layer of coating on a tailor-made support structure. The Torell-Meyer-Sievers model (TMC) and the hybrid model assumed a dense skin layer, while the space-charge model and the Donnan-Steric Pore model (DSPM) assumed a porous skin layer. The models were applied in predicting the mechanism of rejection in NF membranes in aqueous solutions [33, 34, 35].
\nNF process is widely used in many industries including treatment of drinking water as well as treatment of wastewater. Operating conditions including temperature, pressure, and pH can affect the energy consumption of NF, which can be reduced by optimizing these parameters. Many researchers studied the effect of operating temperature on the neutral solutes and water transport across NF membranes. The mass transfer and pressure drop are directly affected by the operating parameters and the energy consumption as well. A comparison was done by employing NF process to process streams in the temperature range (T > 50°C) compared to NF at normal temperatures (T 25°C). The high-temperature process stream alters the separation operation attributed to the changes in the active layer of the membrane, which are temperature-dependent. Also, the temperature may affect directly or indirectly a change in viscosity, causing different effects like increased water flux, reduced pressure drop, and increased external mass transfer (lower concentration polarization) [33, 34, 35].
\nMembrane distillation can be defined as a procedure of water desalination membrane presently in constrained commercial use. Membrane distillation represents a hybrid process of distillation and RO using a hydrophobic synthetic membrane to allow the drift of water vapor across the membrane pores and to prevent the solution. The vapor pressure difference of the liquid across the membrane is the pressure difference [39, 40, 41].
\nMembrane distillation utilizes the temperature difference across a membrane to vaporize water from a brine solution and condense clear condensate on the chilled side.
\nForward osmosis is quite a recent commercial process used for water desalting using a gradient of salt concentration (osmotic pressure) as the driving force through the membrane. If or in case the feed (e.g., seawater) is at one side of the membrane, on the other side of the membrane, there is the higher osmotic pressure “draw” (reusable) solution. As a natural migration process, the water from the feed solution will migrate to the draw solution deprived of employing an external pressure through the membrane. Then, the diluted solution is treated to separate the draw solution from the product [22, 35], as shown in Figure 4.
\nForward osmosis.
We conclude this chapter with a definition of some water treatment and desalination processes used, and we discussed several methods for removing pollutants from water, for example, coagulation and flocculation, sedimentation, clarification, and filtration. As for removing soluble salts, we mentioned some other methods, including ion exchange, thermal processes, and membranes. And also biological issues are removed by disinfection.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
MSF | multistage flash distillation |
MED | multiple-effect distillation |
VC | vapor-compression |
ED | electro-dialysis |
RO | reverse osmosis |
NF | nanofiltration |
MD | membrane distillation |
FO | forward osmosis |
EDR | electro-dialysis reversal |
TDS | total dissolved solids |
MVC | mechanical vapor-compression |
TVC | thermal vapor-compression |
DAF | dissolved air flotation |
π | osmotic pressure |
c | molar solute concentration |
R | gas constant |
T | absolute temperature |
TMC | Torell-Meyer-Sievers model |
DSPM | Donnan-steric pore model |
The policy of promoting and increasing the use of wood biomass as a renewable energy source affects the increase in the amount of wood biomass ash (WBA) produced [1]. Comprehensive statistics on the annual production of WBA in the European Union are not available. However, Austria, Denmark, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Sweden account for about 2.9 million t/y of biomass ash [2], while a survey conducted in Croatia revealed that about 25,414 t/y of produced WBA is landfilled [3]. Existing data estimated that Europe will generate up to 15.5 × 107 tons of WBA in 2020 [4], highlighting the urgency of strategic foresight in waste management. Currently, WBA is underutilized in the EU and mostly disposed of in landfills [5, 6, 7, 8], resulting in additional costs and risks to the environment. The cost of biomass ash disposal ranges from 100 to 500 EUR/ton [9, 10]. About, 1.7 million EUR per year are paid for the disposal of WBA in Austria [11]. In the future, an increase in the cost of landfilling in the form of waste taxes or disposal fees, as well as difficulties in acquiring new landfills and stricter EU landfill directives, may be expected. Unsystematic management of WBA can lead to environmental pollution and potential risks to human health: WBA can be easily transported through the air and consequently cause health problems related to the respiratory system of the population living in the vicinity of the landfill [12], while uncontrolled landfilling of WBA can lead to groundwater pollution through leaching of heavy metals from WBA or infiltration of rainwater [13]. European policies promote and stimulate green innovations in the reuse of waste as secondary raw materials to boost the market and new green business opportunities [14]. It is, therefore, necessary to find ways and methods for the application of WBA that are environmentally sound and economically justified. Previous studies [15, 16, 17, 18, 19] have shown that the resulting WBA can be reused in certain industries due to their properties and chemical composition, especially in the concrete industry. However, existing regulations and standards currently preclude the use of WBA in the concrete industry [20, 21].
The objectives of this chapter are: (1) to determine what types of combustion technologies are currently in use and what types of WBA are produced by each combustion technology, the properties of these WBAs, and the factors that most influence WBA properties, as well as the physical and chemical properties that could influence the use of WBA in cement composites; (2) to assess the influence of WBA as a cement replacement on the properties of cement composites in the fresh and hardened states; (3) to provide a brief overview of the environmental impact of the use of WBA in the mortar and concrete mixes; and finally (4) to identify the market opportunities and readiness for reuse of a new potential supplementary cementitious material (SCM).
There are several factors that affect the quality and quantity of WBA obtained by using wood biomass in power plants. Based on [22], these factors can be divided into three main groups as shown in Table 1. According to Table 1 and a detailed review of the literature, it is necessary to highlight (1) the type of biomass used for power generation, (2) the plant technology used, (3) the combustion temperature, (4) the location of WBA collection, and (5) the conditions of WBA storage. In the following, the influence of these parameters on the characterization of WBA is discussed in detail.
Group of influence | Formation process | Influence | Time of formation | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Primary | Natural | Biomass—type Biomass cultivation area soil condition and type combustion technology | Before and during plant growing, and cutting | [13, 15, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29] |
Secondary | Anthropogenic (technogenic) | Temperature of combustion location of WBA collecting | During combustion | [13, 15, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30] |
Tertiary | Natural | Disposal and transportation | During disposal and transportation of WBA | [22, 26] |
Groups of influence contributing to the chemical composition of WBA (adapted from Vassilev et al. [22]).
One of the factors that could have an influence on the properties of WBA is the area of biomass cultivation and the condition and type of soil [24], but this influence is not very large. From the tertiary group of influences, it appears that ash from wood biomass undergoes certain chemical processes during its collection and disposal. The plant technology, i.e., the technology of wood biomass combustion in the power plants, as one of the factors affecting the physical and chemical properties of the produced WBA, is divided into grate combustors, fluidized bed combustors, and pulverized fuel combustors [10]. Three different types of WBA can be generated in a power plant [26, 31, 32, 33, 34]: bottom ash (1) collected at the bottom of the chamber (bottom WBA); fly ash, which may be a relatively coarse fraction, (2) collected from cyclones or boilers; and a relatively fine fraction of fly ash, and (3) collected from electrostatic precipitators and bag filters (Figure 1). In some power plants bottom ash and fly ash are collected in one container as mixed WBA.
WBA classification based on WBA collection in power plants (adapted from Obernberger et al. [
In grate combustion technology, 60–90% of the WBA from the bottom of the furnace is formed on the grate, while in fluidized bed combustion, fly WBA is the dominant ash formed [37, 38, 39]. The particles from the bottom of the furnace are larger than the fly WBA [7, 40]. This can be observed from Figure 2, which shows the particle size distribution of WBAs [41] and cement, and the grading curve of the bottom WBAs and aggregate (particle size 0–4 and 4–8 mm) per the combustion technology. The authors [41] proposed a cumulative grading curve for all particle sizes of the bottom WBAs as they were sieved through a 1 mm sieve to eliminate impurities and larger fractions. Grate combustion has a higher influence on the particle size distribution of the fly bottom WBAs where a generally large diversity of granulometric curve of bottom WBA compared to aggregate can be seen in Figure 2. Grate-fired systems are designed to cope with a degree of the sintering and partial fusion of the ash on the grate. Poor fuel distribution, relatively poor air distribution, and local high temperature on the grate can lead to the formation of relatively large ash agglomerates that reduce combustion efficiency [42]. This occurrence could lead to larger particles of the WBA sample [43]. It can also be inferred from Figure 2 that the particles of bottom WBA from fluidized bed combustion technology and pulverized fuel combustors are smaller than those of bottom WBA from grate combustion power plants.
Particle size distribution of fly WBA (F) (published in Carević et al. [
The WBA produced at the bottom of the combustion chamber is often mixed with mineral impurities such as sand, stones, and soil contained in the biomass, as well as sintered ash particles. In addition to the coarse and fine fraction of the fly WBA inside the plant, smoke dust of the finest fraction is also emitted together with the flue gases [35]. In fluidized bed combustion, the lower WBA consists of sand particles, mainly quartz, added during combustion, inorganic components (soil or small stones), and unburned biomass fraction [32, 38]. Modern solutions of the combustion system on the grate may include a continuously moving and water-cooled grate, which consequently means that wet ash removal is performed from the bottom of the furnace [44]. In view of the above, it is very important to know what type of technology is used and at what location in the power plant the WBA is collected to further characterize the WBA. The choice of plant technology has a significant impact on the chemical composition of the WBA: fluidized-bed technology uses additives such as quartz sand as bed material, which can have a positive impact on the chemical composition of the WBA and contributes to a high SiO2 content compared to other combustion technologies [10, 45, 46]. The morphology of WBA (Figure 3) mostly showed non-uniform structure, inhomogeneous particle surface, and particles with different shapes, which could lead to higher water absorption and have a corresponding negative effect on the workability of the cement composites [28, 47, 48].
Morphology of the WBA.
Figure 4 compares the chemical composition of 46 samples of different ash types collected from the power plants: fly, bottom ash, and mixed ash. WBA is expected to contain a higher proportion of CaO than pozzolanic oxide, the sum of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 (median values for CaO were 48.61% compared to 13.49% for pozzolanic oxide for all WBA samples), indicating lower pozzolanic activity and pronounced hydraulic activity [23]. Higher alkali levels (K2O and Na2O) can also be observed, which may be reflected in the mechanical and durability properties of cement composites with WBA [49]. This is particularly pronounced in the fly WBA samples. Alkali is an integral part of the characterization of untreated biomass and in woody biomass, alkalis are bound to the organic structure, so their higher content in WBA was expected. High alkali content can cause high porosity in the hardened cement matrix, resulting in lower strength and durability [15, 23, 25]. Since the CaO content is higher in all WBA specimens, free CaO is expected, a significant amount of which can cause volume instability (swelling) during the hydration process and the formation of cracks [33, 50, 51]. As shown in Figure 4, the fly WBA showed the highest median LOI value (15.3 wt.%) which is significantly higher than the maximum value allowed by EN 450-1 (Category C < 9 wt.%) [20]. Unburnt carbon and inorganic compounds can significantly affect the properties of concrete (workability, setting time, mechanical properties) [52].
Boxplots of chemical parameters from the WBA database (N = 46) by WBA type [
A review of the available literature leads to the conclusion that the application of WBA significantly depends on its properties, which depend primarily on the characteristics of the biomass used, i.e., the type of biomass, the plant technology, the combustion temperature and the location of ash collection and storage. For this reason, the chemical composition causes variation in the properties of the tested cement composites. The use of WBA in the cement composites leads to an increase in water demand, which may be related to the morphology of WBA (irregular particle shape and fineness), free CaO and alkali content, and LOI values [43, 53]. According to [23], increasing the content of WBA as a cement replacement resulted in decreased workability of cement pastes, while water treatment (washing of WBA) had a positive effect on the workability of cement mixtures due to physical modification: treatment by washing decreased the average ash particle size, porosity, and specific surface area of WBA. Increasing the proportion of WBA in mortar mixes prolonged the setting time, while cement pastes with a WBA content of 15% should be dimensionally stable despite the high content of CaO minerals in WBA (free CaO and MgO) [43]. The effect of WBA on the hydration of binders was studied by monitoring the heat release with isothermal calorimetry, where the induction period is prolonged by the addition of WBA regardless of the type and chemical properties of WBA [54]. Mixtures with WBA exhibit a slower increase in strength. However, with time the compressive strength increases so that after 28 days the compressive strength of the samples with 5 and 10% WBA is equal to or higher than that of the reference samples without ash (Figure 5). The effects of higher proportions of WBA on compressive strength have been shown to be unfavorable in studies. Therefore, it is not recommended to increase the proportion of WBA in structural concrete to more than 20% [16, 55, 56].
Compressive strength: (a) after 7 days; and (b) after 28 days [
In addition to the mechanical properties of cement composites with different proportions of WBA, tests of durability properties are also important. Capillary absorption is defined as the transport of fluids due to surface tension that occurs in capillary pores. Capillary pores are the main pathway through which water and other aggressive substances penetrate cementitious composites and cause permanent problems. Therefore, capillary absorption testing is often used as one of the tests and quality assessments of cementitious composites to select a suitable concrete/mortar for the construction of structural elements exposed to liquids containing aggressive substances (usually chloride or sulfate) during wetting/drying cycles. In studies [13, 43] that investigated the absorption of concrete with different proportions of WBA, an increase in absorption with WBA content was observed (an average increase in capillary absorption of up to 2.27% for mixes with 15% WBA content compared to the reference mix). The reason for the correlation between lower compressive strength and lower resistance to capillary absorption is the negative influence of the porous structure on these properties of the concrete [57]. The results of gas permeability showed the same trend as the capillary absorption coefficient: on average, the gas permeability of mortars with a WBA content of 5% decreased by 3.1%, while the cement replacement with 10 and 15% WBA increased by 12.41 and 24.31% compared to the reference mortar [58]. The researchers [59] suggested the addition of silica fume and they found that after 28 days, the gas permeability of mortar samples with 8% WBA and 7.5% silica fume decreased by 6.6%. Chlorides are one of the main causes of corrosion and deterioration of reinforced concrete structures. Based on the results presented in [43, 58], a decrease in the chloride diffusion coefficient can be seen for all mixtures with fly WBA, except for the sample with one type of WBA, which is related to the WBA particle size.
To make WBA a valuable resource for the construction industry, technical requirements must be established. The purpose of these requirements is to enable concrete producers to ensure consistent quality and predictable behavior of the product without adverse effects on the durability and mechanical properties of the concrete [18]. Therefore, the overall effect of individual physical and chemical properties of the WBAs used on the mechanical properties and durability of cement composites was determined by evaluating the individual effects of the physical and chemical properties relative to the reference mix [58]. This study was carried out to provide concrete producers with a preliminary recommendation on the main WBA properties to be checked during reuse (Table 2).
Property | Standard | Influence |
---|---|---|
Humidity | HRN EN 1097-5 | Self-hardening |
Visual examination | Visual examination | Durability properties: no resistance to freezing and thawing cycles (e.g., pieces of wood, etc.) |
Grading | HRN EN 12620 or HRN EN 933-10 | Defines the type of use (aggregate or mineral admixture) |
LOI content | HRN EN 196-2 | Setting time, water requirement, durability properties |
SO3 content | HRN EN 196-2 | Durability properties, corrosion, volume instability |
Na2Oeq content | HRN EN 196-2 | Alkali-aggregate reaction |
MgO content | HRN EN 196-2 | Volume instability (swelling, cracking) |
Free CaO content | HRN EN 196-2 | |
Cl− content | HRN EN 1744-1 or HRN EN 196-2 | Corrosion |
Recommended WBA properties that to be checked before use in concrete production [60].
In the construction sector, the use of industrial by-products as substitutes for natural raw materials is encouraged. When using alternative materials obtained as by-products from other industries, it is necessary to consider the environmental factor. One of the basic requirements for construction includes “hygiene, health, and environment” under the European regulation for construction products [61]. The assessment of the environmental impact of cement-based construction products is usually based on the determination of leaching, i.e. the potential release of ingredients such as trace elements (heavy metals) or organic compounds into the environment when the products come into direct contact with water or soil. The estimation of pollutant release can be done by standard short-term leaching tests and long-term tests [62, 63]. The Technical Committee of CEN TC 351 has developed laboratory tests to check the leaching of hazardous substances into nature using demineralized water as a leaching agent [63].
The authors [25, 41, 64] found that the concentration of heavy metals such as Zn, Cd, Pb, and Hg is higher in fly WBA samples than in bottom samples. Therefore, the leaching/stabilization behavior of cementitious composites prepared with fly WBA should be analyzed. According to the leaching results obtained by the author [65] for the observed heavy metals (Zn, Cd, CR, Cu, Ni, Pb) on monolithic specimens using 3 types of fly WBA (Figure 6), it was concluded that the leaching of heavy metals was acceptable, i.e., less than the limits according to the Dutch guidelines of the Soil Quality Ordinance [66] (limits for finished building materials according to the Soil Quality Ordinance for Cd: 3.8 mg/m2; Cr: 120 mg/m2; Cu: 98 mg/m2; Ni: 81 mg/m2; Pb: 400 mg/m2; Zn: 800 mg/m2). The same was confirmed by the authors [55, 67] when using ash from the combustion of pure wood biomass. This is explained by the ability of the cement matrix to physically and chemically bind contaminated elements (heavy metals) within the hydrate structure [68].
Values of cumulative leaching in mg/m2 for different metals (M-Fi-mortar mix with 15% of fly WBA) [
In order to explore the market readiness and capacity for using WBA as SCM in the concrete industry, a questionnaire was conducted among 11 concrete producers (SMEs) from Croatia with an approximate annual concrete production of at least 12,000 m3 to a maximum of 300,000 m3. The purpose of the questionnaire was to conduct a qualitative study of concrete and cement production and the views of SMEs on the reuse of WBA in their plants. According to the results of the survey, the most common strength classes in concrete production are C25/30 and C30/37 (each represented by 91%), followed by 64% of concrete use of strength classes C20/25, C35/45, and C40/50 (Figure 7a). The compressive strength of concrete is a common and important property in the design of concrete structures. In addition to compressive strength as a basic property of concrete, all respondents indicate water permeability. Other main properties most tested on hardened concrete are freeze-thaw resistance with or without de-icing salt (82%), wear resistance (82%), and chemical resistance (73%).
(a) Concrete production share with respect to the compressive strength class; and (b) cement type share in the concrete production.
The average amount of cement used in concrete ranges from 295 to 340 kg per 1 m3 of concrete. 27% of the respondents use mineral admixtures in the production of concrete namely silica fume, coal fly ash, and metakaolin. The most common types of cement used in concrete production are shown in Figure 7b (multiple answers were possible): of the 15 types of cement on the market, blended cements are the most common: CEM II /A(B)-M(S-V) and CEM II /A(B)-S with 45% of use, CEM II /A(B)-M(S-LL, V-LL) with 27%, CEM II /A(B)-LL with 18% and CEM III /A(B, C), with 18%. Blended cements contain waste products as SCMs to replace clinker as the main source of CO2 emissions in concrete production [69]. By using SCMs could result in CO2 reduction of about 400 million tons per year [70]. These can be easily replicated as a possible circular solution for WBA management, which was recognized by concrete producers: 55% of respondents are familiar with the problem of WBA management and 91% of them are interested in using WBA in their plants. Concrete producers emphasized ensuring a consistent chemical and physical WBA quality to ensure the quality of the concrete produced.
Considering the current quantities of WBA in Croatia (25,414 tons per year [3]) and the data from the questionnaire analysis of cement and concrete production, all WBA can be used in cement and concrete production with regular quality control. For example, if 10% of cement is replaced by WBA, it is possible to reuse 1500 t of WBA per year in only one concrete plant with an average production of 50,000 m3 concrete/year. This means that in the four concrete plants the whole amount of the finer WBA can be used, while the coarser fraction can be used as a substitute for the fine fraction of aggregates (sand).
According to all observed trends, waste ash from wood biomass combustion is expected to increase and the regulatory framework for waste management is becoming more stringent. In the design and planning phase of biomass power plants, it is important to determine the amounts of WBA generated and to find sustainable solutions for WBA management during the life cycle of the power plant. In the concrete industry, there is a high potential for substitution of certain components by adequate alternative materials, and in that context, the use of WBA has been examined. This paper presents comprehensive research of the properties of WBA necessary for its use as SCM in concrete. Based on the review of existing research and results of experimental testing shown in the paper, it can be expected that WBA reduces the workability of the cement composites, noting that cement replacement up to 10% has no significant effect on the consistency. This is probably due to the morphology of WBA, high alkali content, and LOI values. Increased setting time can also be expected, although results vary depending on the type of WBA used. For WBAs with a high CaO content, it is necessary to check the free CaO as it may affect the volume stability and durability properties of the cement composites. The comparison of the compressive strength of mortars and concretes shows a significant variability and influence of the different WBAs used on the compressive strength after 28 days with a tendency to decrease the compressive strength with a higher proportion of WBA.
The main logistical and long-term challenges that need to be considered when establishing an industrial symbiosis for sustainable WBA management are to ensure consistent WBA quality (proper storage and transportation of WBA from power suppliers to concrete producers); different types of WBA collection in power plants (e.g. mixing with water), which could affect WBA properties (self-hardening) and the need for additional pre-treatment of some WBA samples (e.g., grinding and/or screening) due to inefficient combustion of wood biomass or due to wood impurities, which could negatively affect durability properties.
The results given in this chapter were conducted under two projects: Transformation of Wood Biomass Ash into Resilient Construction Composites-TAREC2 (IP-2016-06-7701) funded by the Croatian Science Foundation and the project Development of innovative construction products with biomass ash financed by European structural and investment funds for a 2014–2020 financial period (grant number KK.01.2.1.01.0049).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He is also Member of the Laboratory of genetic, animal and feed resource and member of Animal science Department of INAT. He graduated from Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur, University of Carthage, in 2002 and completed his masters in 2006. Dr. M’HAMDI completed his PhD thesis in Genetic welfare indicators of dairy cattle at Higher Institute of Agronomy of Chott-Meriem, University of Sousse, in 2011. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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