These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
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This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\n
Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7363",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Cellulose",title:"Cellulose",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Cellulosic fibers are becoming increasingly important in many industrial sectors. Indeed, their availability, low cost, and durability make them suitable for application in various fields. This book presents important information about the structure of cellulose as well as its uses and applications. Topics covered include: the dynamic modeling of cellulose industry systems for biofuels in the United States; the integration of alternative raw materials to wood in biorefinery processes; the influence of size classification on the properties of cellulose materials; the chemistry of cellulose, its extraction, and its properties; cellulases; and enzymatic treatments for producing surface activation on cellulosic fibers.",isbn:"978-1-83968-057-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-056-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-058-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75244",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"cellulose",numberOfPages:130,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ed333d89928591f1a4b2710130fddee3",bookSignature:"Alejandro Rodríguez Pascual and María E. Eugenio Martín",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7363.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10086,numberOfWosCitations:70,numberOfCrossrefCitations:62,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:146,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:278,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 27th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 17th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 16th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 4th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 5th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"141654",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez Pascual",slug:"alejandro-rodriguez-pascual",fullName:"Alejandro Rodríguez Pascual",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/141654/images/system/141654.png",biography:"Since December 2011, Dr. Alejandro Rodriguez Pascual is a professor of Chemical Engineering Department in the University of Córdoba, Spain. \nHe has completed his Ph.D. from University of Córdoba, Spain, and\nstarted to work as a lecturer in University Pablo of Olavide, Spain. Dr. Pascual worked as a “Ramón y Cajal” researcher from 2007 to 2011. His scholarly activity consists of a wide range of academic journal articles, book chapters and books and he has also been serving as an Editorial Board Member for several journals.",institutionString:"Córdoba University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"269119",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria E.",middleName:null,surname:"Eugenio Martin",slug:"maria-e.-eugenio-martin",fullName:"Maria E. Eugenio Martin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/269119/images/system/269119.png",biography:"Dr. Martin is a Senior Researcher at INIA-CIFOR. Her research focuses mainly on the use of agricultural residues and annual plants for pulp and paper production and on the development of sustainable processes for the\nproduction of cellulose pulps applying the biotechnology specifically in\nthe processes of biobleaching and biopulping. She also started researching\nbiorefineries of lignocellulosic materials focusing mainly on the production of bioethanol and nanofibrillated cellulose. Dr. Martin is currently studying the use of both nanofibrillated cellulose and lignin in the production of biodegradable grasses, asphalts, graphene, etc. She has been the main researcher of three research projects from which two patents have been granted and is an author of more than 60 scientific articles and has participated in more than 40 national and international congresses.",institutionString:"INIA-CIFOR",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1415",title:"Polymer Chemistry",slug:"polymer-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"67376",title:"Insights from over 10 Years of Cellulosic Biofuel Modeling",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84874",slug:"insights-from-over-10-years-of-cellulosic-biofuel-modeling",totalDownloads:886,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We present insights gained from over 10 years of system dynamic modeling of the cellulose to biofuel industry in the United States. We use a publicly-available Biomass Scenario Model to explore the impact of logistics system, economies of scale, and shared industrial learning on the developing cellulose-to-biofuels industry in the United States. One theme from this study as well as from the work performed over the last decade is the importance of the movement of the system toward maturation, both in terms of the supply system and the conversion processes. Mature processes imply lower investment risk, better yields, and better process economics.",signatures:"Daniel Inman, Emily Newes, Brian Bush, Laura Vimmerstedt and Steve Peterson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67376",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67376",authors:[{id:"27234",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Inman",slug:"daniel-inman",fullName:"Daniel Inman"},{id:"38534",title:"Ms.",name:"Emily",surname:"Newes",slug:"emily-newes",fullName:"Emily Newes"}],corrections:null},{id:"69880",title:"Alternative Raw Materials for Pulp and Paper Production in the Concept of a Lignocellulosic Biorefinery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90041",slug:"alternative-raw-materials-for-pulp-and-paper-production-in-the-concept-of-a-lignocellulosic-biorefin",totalDownloads:1253,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The main source of cellulosic fibre used for pulp and paper production comes from wood, while non-wood fibres are used to a lesser extent. However, a renewed interest exists in the use of non-woody raw materials due to their abundance as source of low-cost fibres and because they are sometimes the only exploitable source of fibres in certain geographical areas, mainly in developing countries. Moreover, the great variety of characteristics, fibre dimensions and chemical composition of these alternative raw materials give them a great potential to produce different types of papers. On the other hand, the pulp and paper industry is an excellent starting point for the development of lignocellulosic biorefineries, possessing the necessary technology and infrastructure as well as extensive experience in lignocellulosic biomass transformation. Since its beginnings, the pulp and paper industry has been practicing certain aspects of the biorefinery concept, generating the energy necessary for the production of cellulosic pulp from the combustion of lignocellulosic waste and black liquors, recovering the chemical reagents used and generating high value-added products (e.g. tall oil) together with cellulosic pulp. However, the evolution of the pulp and paper industry to a lignocellulosic biorefinery requires technological innovations to make bioenergy and new bioproducts available alongside traditional products.",signatures:"María Eugenia Eugenio, David Ibarra, Raquel Martín-Sampedro, Eduardo Espinosa, Isabel Bascón and Alejandro Rodríguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69880",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69880",authors:[{id:"141654",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Rodríguez Pascual",slug:"alejandro-rodriguez-pascual",fullName:"Alejandro Rodríguez Pascual"},{id:"269119",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria E.",surname:"Eugenio Martin",slug:"maria-e.-eugenio-martin",fullName:"Maria E. Eugenio Martin"}],corrections:null},{id:"65563",title:"Influence of Size Classifications on the Structural and Solid-State Characterization of Cellulose Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82849",slug:"influence-of-size-classifications-on-the-structural-and-solid-state-characterization-of-cellulose-ma",totalDownloads:955,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Influence of size classification on the properties of cellulose materials has been a subject of neglect over the years. Researchers had the opinion that there exist no significant difference between the characteristics of bulk particulate materials and sizes of their constituents. However, it has been affirmed that increase in crystallinity index, increases the strength properties of cellulose materials. Therefore, there is need to establish the influence of size classification as it affects the properties of cellulose materials. This study focused on the influence of size classifications on the structural and solid State characterization of cellulose obtained from wood dust. The structure of the cellulose composed principally of crystalline cellulose (I and II) and amorphous cellulose. The crystallinity and the inter-planar spacing revealed different structural properties for the two size classifications. The elemental composition consists of Carbon (C), Oxygen (O), Sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl) with Carbon having the highest percentage. The surface morphology of the isolated cellulose appears fiber -like for the size classifications examined. The isolated cellulose exhibits good mechanical and solid state properties with promising applications in device utilization. Within the limit of the research, size classification is noted to influence the characteristics of the cellulose materials.",signatures:"Oluyamo Sunday Samuel and Adekoya Mathew Adefusika",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65563",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65563",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67083",title:"An Update on Overview of Cellulose, Its Structure and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84727",slug:"an-update-on-overview-of-cellulose-its-structure-and-applications",totalDownloads:2704,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:51,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is one of the most ubiquitous organic polymers on the planet. It is a significant structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, various forms of algae and oomycetes. It is a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β(1 → 4) linked d-glucose units. There are various extraction procedures for cellulose developed by using different processes like oxidation, etherification and esterification which convert the prepared celluloses in to cellulose derivatives. Since it is a non-toxic, bio-degradable polymer with high tensile and compressive strength, it has widespread use in various fields such as nanotechnology, pharmaceutical industry, food industry, cosmetics, textile and paper industry, drug-delivery systems in treating cancer and other diseases. Micro-crystalline cellulose in particular is among the most frequently used cellulose derivatives in the food, cosmetics, pharma industry, etc. and is an important excipient due to its binding and tableting properties, characterized by its plasticity and cohesiveness when wet. Bacterial cellulose’s high dispensability, tasteless and odourless nature provides it with lot of industrial applications. Currently, about half of the waste produced in India contains about 50% cellulose which can be used productively. This chapter deals with the chemistry of cellulose, its extraction and its properties which help various industries to make the most of it.",signatures:"Praveen Kumar Gupta, Shreeya Sai Raghunath, Deepali Venkatesh Prasanna, Priyadharsini Venkat, Vidhya Shree, Chandrananthi Chithananthan, Shreya Choudhary, Krithika Surender and Keerthana Geetha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67083",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67083",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66517",title:"Microbial Cellulases: An Overview and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84531",slug:"microbial-cellulases-an-overview-and-applications",totalDownloads:3473,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:78,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cellulases are a complex group of enzymes which are secreted by a broad range of microorganisms including fungi, bacteria, and actinomycetes. In the natural environment, synergistic interactions among cellulolytic microorganisms play an important role in the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic polymer materials. In fact, it is the combined action of three major enzymes which determines the efficiency of this process. They are exoglucanases, endoglucanases, and β-glucosidase. Microorganisms produce these enzymes in a diverse nature which determines their efficiency in cellulose hydrolysis. During the cellulose degradation reaction, the enzyme targets the β-1,4-linkages in its polymeric structure. This is an essential ecological process as it recycles cellulose in the biosphere. The application of this same scenario for industrial purposes is identified as an emerging area of research. Biofuel production, textile polishing and finishing, paper and pulp industry, and lifestyle agriculture are among the key areas where cellulase enzyme shows a broader potential. The objective of this chapter is to discuss the structure, function, possible applications, as well as novel biotechnological trends of cellulase enzymes. Furthermore, possible low-cost, enzymatic pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic material in order to use it as an efficient raw material for biofuel production will be discussed.",signatures:"Sandhya Jayasekara and Renuka Ratnayake",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66517",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66517",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69764",title:"Multi-Finishing of Polyester and Polyester Cotton Blend Fabrics Activated by Enzymatic Treatment and Loaded with Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89750",slug:"multi-finishing-of-polyester-and-polyester-cotton-blend-fabrics-activated-by-enzymatic-treatment-and",totalDownloads:818,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present work discusses the possibility of applying enzymatic treatments for fabric surface activation that can facilitate the loading of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) onto polyester (PET) and polyester cotton blend (PET/C) fabrics prepared by sol-gel method. Activated polyester fabrics loaded by ZnO NPs were investigated by the use of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron dispersion emission X-ray (EDX) and Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The functionality of activated polyester fabrics loaded by ZnO NPs was evaluated by analyzing its antimicrobial activity and UV protection efficiency. Antimicrobial activity of activated polyester fabrics and loaded by ZnO NPs was tested against Gram-positive (Bacillus mycoides), Gram-negative (Escherichia coli), and nonfilamentous fungus (Candida albicans). The level of UV protection was verified by the UV protection factor (UPF) of polyester fabrics. Activated post-treated polyester fabrics exhibited outstanding antimicrobial and UV protection efficiency. The achieved antimicrobial function and UV protection on the polyester fabrics are durable with repeated laundering processes even after five washing cycles.",signatures:"Naser Gad Al-Balakocy, Khaled El-Badry and Talaat Mahmoud Hassan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69764",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69764",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7479",title:"Plastics in the Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"48f6da13cb26718adde3c690bb6fd924",slug:"plastics-in-the-environment",bookSignature:"Alessio Gomiero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7479.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217030",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alessio",surname:"Gomiero",slug:"alessio-gomiero",fullName:"Alessio Gomiero"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6387",title:"Polyester",subtitle:"Production, Characterization and Innovative Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3a1fd3a0981aecc295467e1d7650c1af",slug:"polyester-production-characterization-and-innovative-applications",bookSignature:"Nurhan Onar Camlibel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6387.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198613",title:"Dr.",name:"Nurhan",surname:"Onar Camlibel",slug:"nurhan-onar-camlibel",fullName:"Nurhan Onar Camlibel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10776",title:"Cellulose Science and Derivatives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"947660259ce1915c3cac58bf7d990424",slug:"cellulose-science-and-derivatives",bookSignature:"Arpit Sand and Sangita Banga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10776.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287032",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arpit",surname:"Sand",slug:"arpit-sand",fullName:"Arpit Sand"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7750",title:"Acrylate Polymers for Advanced Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"de343721338b474b64fae0339e85b4a7",slug:"acrylate-polymers-for-advanced-applications",bookSignature:"Ángel Serrano-Aroca and Sanjukta Deb",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7750.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202230",title:"Prof.",name:"Ángel",surname:"Serrano-Aroca",slug:"angel-serrano-aroca",fullName:"Ángel Serrano-Aroca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8357",title:"Organic Polymers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff2ffd663fed5810f0d78bf8487ade97",slug:"organic-polymers",bookSignature:"Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8357.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202274",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arpit",surname:"Sand",slug:"arpit-sand",fullName:"Arpit Sand"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9319",title:"Thermosoftening Plastics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"02c4a3b7dcd88ffbe6adcdc060c2465b",slug:"thermosoftening-plastics",bookSignature:"Gülşen Akın Evingür, Önder Pekcan and Dimitris S. 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1. Introduction
The improvement of effectiveness of pollutant removal from water and sewage using activated carbons has been a subject of numerous studies. The influence of adsorbate, adsorbent, solution properties, and experiment conditions on adsorption process has been analyzed.
Noteworthy is the impact of adsorbate properties on adsorption process such as solubility, molecule dimension, ability to dissociation, and physicochemical properties. Hydrophobicity which can be expressed by solubility is the main driving force of adsorption process of organics from aqueous solutions on activated carbons. The lower solubility of a pollutant is the highest adsorption on hydrophobic carbon is observed. Additionally, analyzing adsorption of pollutants from aqueous solutions on microporous materials, it is necessary to take into account molecule dimension due to a possible sieve effect. Moreover, the influence of functional groups on adsorbate aromatic ring on the differentiation of adsorptive affinity of organic compounds to activated carbon should be also regarded.
The influence of adsorbate substituents on adsorption mechanism is similar to that of surface groups of adsorbent. Depending on their nature, they can attract or repel electrons and affect the dispersive interactions between adsorbate aromatic ring and graphene layers of activated carbon. The adsorbate functional groups that are electron donors activate the aromatic ring by moving electrons toward it, and thereby they enhance the interactions between adsorbate molecule and π electrons of adsorbent graphene planes. On the other hand, the deactivating groups as electron acceptors reduce the electron density of aromatic ring; thus, interactions of adsorbate-adsorbent surface are weakened [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7].
The research on effect of adsorbate properties on adsorption process is an extension of the studies already published in the paper [8]. The pesticides belonging to a group of chloride phenoxyacid derivatives were used as adsorbates in view of their common usage in agriculture and hence a high probability of infiltration to surface and underground waters. Their presence in water affects its quality, worsens its properties, and in some cases makes it unsuitable to consume. These pesticides show a carcinogenic activity on living organisms and a relatively long half-life time in the environment; therefore, the intensive study on their removal by adsorption process is very important for practical applications. The experimental studies include measurements of the adsorption isotherms and concentration rate profiles as well as their interpretation on the basis of the generalized Langmuir (GL) equation for equilibrium data and diffusion models (intraparticle diffusion model (IDM) and pore diffusion model (PDM)) and multi-exponential (m-exp) equation for kinetic data. Based on the obtained results, the correlations between adsorbate structure, its properties, and adsorption uptake and rate were analyzed. The evaluation of the theoretical equilibrium and kinetic equations and models based on a fitting quality and consistency with adsorption mechanism was also made.
2. Experimental
2.1 Materials and methods
The selected adsorbates comprise 21 compounds which are structurally differentiated with regard to the number, position, and type of the functional groups and length and spatial arrangement of the hydrocarbon part in a molecule. Not all of these substances are used as pesticides because of their low biological activity. However, due to complexity of the research issues, it seems to be reasonable to include them as a subject of the investigation.
Table 1 presents the physicochemical properties of the adsorbates collected on the basis of literature data or calculations using computer programs generally available. All the substances are analytical reagent grade purity. The chemical names and abbreviations of them are as follows: 4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (4-CPA); 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D); 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-CPA); 2,4,6-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,6-CPA); 4-chloro-3-methylphenoxyacetic acid (4-CMPA); 4-chloro-2-methylphenoxyacetic acid (MCPA); 2,4-dibromophenoxypropionic acid (2,4-BrPA); 2,4,6-tribromophenoxypropionic acid (2,4,6-BrPA); 2-(3-chlorophenoxy)propionic acid (3-CPP); 3-(4-chlorophenoxy)propionic acid (4-CP); 2-(4-chlorophenoxy)propionic acid (4-CPP); 2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)propionic acid (2,4-CPP); 2-(2,5-dichlorophenoxy)propionic acid (2,5-CPP); 2-(3,4-dichlorophenoxy)propionic acid (3,4-CPP); 2-(2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy)propionic acid (2,4,5-CPP); 2-(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)propionic acid (MCPP); 2-(4-chloro-3-methylphenoxy)propionic acid (4-CMPP); 2-(4-chlorophenoxy)-2-methylpropionic acid (CFA); 2-(4-chlorophenoxy)butanoic acid (4-CPB); 4-(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)butanoic acid (MCPB); and 2-(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)butanoic acid (4-CMPB).
Physicochemical properties of the studied pesticides, where pKa is the value based on partial charge distribution in a molecule, log D is the octanol-water coefficient at a given pH, log P is the partition coefficient of a compound between octanol and water, and Dmin and Dmax are measures between the most distant molecule atoms.
The microporous activated carbon F300 was used as adsorbent (SBET = 762 m2/g, Vt = 0.46 cm3/g, Vmic = 0.28 cm3/g; pHpzc ∼ 9.8). The characteristics of adsorbent are given in the paper [8]. The methodology of equilibrium and kinetic measurements is also described in the paper [8].
3. Results and discussion
3.1 Adsorption equilibria
3.1.1 Effect of type and number of adsorbate substituents
Substituents on benzene ring of aromatics have a great influence on adsorption process on activated carbon. It is not directly related to their interaction with an adsorbent but mainly with changes in molecular properties of adsorbed compound [19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. The crucial factors are the nature of the substituents, number, and their mutual position on benzene ring. In the study the adsorption process of compounds with substituents with electron-acceptor (▬Cl, ▬Br) and electron-donor properties (▬CH3) was analyzed. It is well known that substituents affect acid-base properties (pKa), water solubility, hydrophobicity (Kow), dipole moment, molecular weight, and spatial dimension in space of an organic compound. In turn, these properties affect a mechanism and a range of adsorption process. Nevertheless, solubility in water and hydrophobicity of substance most often play a superior role in adsorption process.
As pKa values of the studied pesticides are within the range of 1.50–3.70, thus, the buffers of pH = 1.81 or 10.38 were used to prepare the experimental solutions. Thus, the compounds in solutions were nearly undissociated and completely dissociated, respectively. In the case of the compounds of very low solubility, the studies at alkaline pH conditions were carried out. For the systems for which the adsorption process was carried out in acidic solutions, the isotherms both in the standard linear a = f(ceq) and reduced coordinates a = f(ceq/cs) are presented. The second form of presentation allows to study the affinity of a given type of compound to the activated carbon surface without the effect of solubility. In all the pictures, the experimental points and the theoretical isotherms using the generalized Langmuir equation are presented.
In Figures 1 and 2 the comparison of the adsorption isotherms of chlorophenoxyacetic and chlorophenoxypropionic acid derivatives with a different type and number of substituents on aromatic ring on activated carbon F300 at pH = 1.81 is shown. In the case of phenoxyacetic pesticides, relatively small changes in capacities are observed which can be arranged as follows: 2,4-D ∼ 4-CPA > MCPA. The differences in the course of adsorption isotherms for the phenoxypropionic pesticides are greater. Taking into account their affinity to the carbon F300, it looks as follows: 2,4-CPP ∼ 4-CPP > MCPP > 4-CMPP.
Figure 1.
The 2,4-D; MCPA; and 4-CPA adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 1.81 in linear (a) and reduced coordinate system (b).
Figure 2.
The 4-CPP; 2,4-CPP; MCPP; and 4-CMPP adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 1.81 in linear (a) and reduced coordinate system (b).
The solubility values were collected from literature, and partition coefficients between octane and water (Kow) were calculated using the Marvin 5.6.0.3 computer program taking into account conditions of adsorption process. For 2,4-D, 4-CPA, and MCPA, the solubilities are equal to 0.682, 0.957, and 0.825 g/dm3 while log D 2.46, 1.88, and 2.40, respectively. For the phenoxypropionic derivatives, 2,4-CPP, 4-CPP, MCPP, and 4-CMPP, the solubilities are 0.829, 1.475, 0.895, and 0.69 g/dm3, while the values characterizing hydrophobicity are 3.04, 2.45, 2.97, and 2.97, respectively. As one can see, there is no correlation between solubility/hydrophobicity and the adsorption affinity for the most systems. Analyzing the adsorption isotherms reduced by the solubility parameter, it can be concluded that only in the case of 2,4-D and MCPA, the differences in adsorption result from solubility/hydrophobicity. For other systems, solubility/hydrophobicity is not the only factor determining the effectiveness of adsorption process, and other factors should be considered.
The mechanism of adsorption process is mainly based on the dispersion or donor-acceptor interactions (pH = 1.81, thus both adsorbates and functional groups on active carbon surface are undissociated) and the local repelling electrostatic interactions between positively charged sites on adsorbent surface (as a result of attraction and localization of graphene plane electrons by oxygen functional groups) and a local positive charge in adsorbate molecule (as a result of electron-acceptor properties of chlorine on benzene ring). Generally, the more substituents in a molecule, the greater the local charge and stronger the local electrostatic interactions.
Another aspect concerns a spatial structure of compounds, as the ones with substituents in a para-position have better access to adsorbent micropores. In particular, this applies for halogenophenoxyacetic acids, where the hydrocarbon part is not branched, like in β-halogenophenoxypropionic acids. Therefore, the capacities for 4-CPA and 2,4-D, as well as for 4-CPP and 2,4-CPP, are similar, although comparing the solubility and log D values, one could assume a different situation. A simple explanation is a symmetrical structure of 4-CPA, which means that its molecular volume is smaller than for 2,4-D which enables a better access and greater packing density in the adsorptive space. In a group of phenoxypropionic acid derivatives, the 4-CPP and 2,4-CPP adsorptions are higher than for MCPP and 4-CMPP. The molecules of all these compounds have at least one ▬Cl group causing a weak deactivation of aromatic ring in the ortho- and para-position and strong deactivation in the meta-position. Consequently, the electron density of benzene ring is decreased, and the interactions of adsorbate-carbon surface are weakened. Moreover, MCPP and 4-CMPP molecules have additional ▬CH3 group that activates weakly aromatic ring in the ortho- and para-position, resulting in the electrons shift toward the ring. Thus, the interactions of adsorbate ring electrons with π electrons of adsorbent graphene planes are increased. The total effect is a result of at least partial compensation of two types of the functional groups. Therefore, the structural properties of these compounds do not explain clearly the differentiation of their adsorption affinities to activated carbon. An essential factor may be the influence of a position of the electron-acceptor group relative to the electron-donor group on the interactions of adsorbate-adsorbent as well as the steric effect.
In Figure 3, the comparison of the adsorption isotherms of chloro- and bromophenoxyacetic derivatives from solutions at pH = 10.38 is presented. The adsorption decreases in the series: 2,4,6-BrPA > 2,4-BrPA > 2,4,6-CPA ∼ 2,4-D > 4-CPA > MCPA. At alkaline conditions the electrostatic interactions are predominant in adsorption mechanism due to dissociated forms of both the adsorbate and the adsorbent functional groups. The repulsive forces between the pesticide anions and negatively charged adsorbent groups appear. However, a halogen with the electron-withdrawing properties on benzene ring decreases the total electron charge of the aromatic ring and shows a local positive charge. The obtained effect results in the creation of local attractive interactions which decrease the electrostatic repulsion between adsorbate and adsorbent. If a degree of halogen substitution increases, the strength of interactions increases, and it leads to stronger adsorption on active carbon. This explanation is true if substituents in a molecule are of the same type, e.g., bromine or chlorine. Comparing the adsorption affinities in the systems with different substituents, it can be observed that the compounds containing bromine show a stronger affinity for the adsorbent surface compared to compounds with chlorine, regardless of a number of substituents in molecule. In the case of MCPA containing a methyl group with electron-donor properties, the weakest adsorption is observed. Increase of the electron density within aromatic ring raises the electrostatic repulsion with the negatively charged surface of the activated carbon. A similar effect is observed in the case of phenoxypropionic acid derivatives with a different halogen substituent in the para-position at acidic pH.
Figure 3.
The 2,4-D; 2,4-BrPA; 2,4,6-CPA; and 2,4,6-BrPA adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 (a). The 4-CPA; 2,4-D; and MCPA adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 (b).
In Figure 4a a comparison of the adsorption isotherms for 2,4-D, 2,4,5-CPA, and 2,4,6-CPA, i.e., the compounds with a differentiated number and position of chlorine atoms on benzene ring, is presented. Similar adsorption is observed for 2,4-D and 2,4,6-CPA, whereas for 2,4,5-CPA the process is significantly greater. 2,4-D shows the weakest hydrophobic properties; its molecule contains two chlorine atoms. The other two compounds 2,4,5-CPA and 2,4,6-CPA are characterized by the similar log D values, but they contain three chlorine atoms. Therefore, the differences in adsorption affinity to adsorbent should be attributed to the steric effect. In the group of chlorophenoxypropionic acids differentiated in terms of a number of substituents in a molecule, the adsorbate affinity to the adsorbent active sites increases in the order 2,4,5-CPP > 2,4-CPP > 2,5-CPP > 4-CPP (Figure 4b). The octanol/water partition coefficient values (log D) for these compounds at pH = 10.38 are 0.15, −0.46, −0.46, and −1.06, respectively. 2,5-CPP is weakly removed at a given pH than its isomeric form 2,4-CPP although its hydrophobicity should promote the adsorption process. Probably an arrangement of the substituents in 2,5-CPP leads to difficulties in diffusion of the adsorbate molecules into small pores of adsorbent that consequently decreases adsorption.
Figure 4.
The 2,4-D; 2,4,5-CPA; and 2,4,6-CPA adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 (a). The 4-CPP; 2,4-CPP; 2,5-CPP; and 2,4,5-CPP adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 (b).
The comparison of the 4-CMPA and 4-CPA (pH = 10.38) adsorption isotherms (Figure 5) shows that removal of the methyl group weakens the adsorption affinity. Similar behavior occurs for their phenoxypropionic and phenoxybutanoic homologs, for which the adsorption of 4-CMPP > 4-CPP and 4-CMPB > 4-CPB (Figures 6 and 7). The observed trend fully coincides with the hydrophobicity of pesticides. For the series of 4-CMPA and 4-CPA, log D is −1.12 and −1.63, respectively; for 4-CMPP and 4-CPP, log D is equal to −0.55 and −1.06, respectively, while for 4-CMPB and 4-CPB, this parameter is −0.03 and −0.54, respectively.
Figure 5.
The 4-CPA and 4-CMPA adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 in linear (a) and reduced coordinate system (b).
Figure 6.
The 4-CPP and 4-CMPP adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 in linear (a) and reduced coordinate system (b).
Figure 7.
The 4-CPB and 4-CMPB adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 in linear (a) and reduced coordinate system (b).
3.1.2 Effect of substituent position on aromatic ring
The adsorption affinity of organics depends on a number and type of substituents, as well as on their position on the benzene ring. This is related to the occurrence of the steric and inductive effects of adsorbate. The courses of adsorption isotherms measured at alkaline pH for 2,4,5-CPA and 2,4,6-CPA (Figure 8) and 2,4-CPP and 2,5-CPP (Figure 9a) indicate that the less symmetric distribution of electron charge density in benzene ring is, the stronger adsorption affinity is observed. Therefore, higher affinities for 2,4,5-CPA and 2,4-CPP than for 2,4,6-CPA and 2,5-CPP are found. Analyzing the solubility of these substances, one can say that this parameter is not a main factor controlling the adsorption process.
Figure 8.
The 2,4,5-CPA and 2,4,6-CPA adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 in linear (a) and reduced coordinate system (b).
Figure 9.
The 2,4-CPP and 2,5-CPP adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 (a). The 2,4-CPP; 2,5-CPP; and 3,4-CPP adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 (b).
As results from Figure 9b at basic conditions for the isomers of dichlorophenoxypropionic acid, their affinity to the activated carbon increases as follows: 3,4-CPP > 2,4-CPP > 2,5-CPP. The strongly adsorbed compound is characterized by two adjacent chlorine atoms with electron-acceptor properties, causing the overlap of local positive charges in the benzene ring. The negatively charged oxygen groups on the carbon surface interact electrostatically with the positive local charge of the pesticide rings, intensifying the adsorption process. The interactions of other compounds with F300 are disturbed by the steric effect due to the position of substituent at the second carbon in the ring and in the case of 2.5-CPP additionally due to a symmetrical distribution of the σ+ charge. This explains the differentiation in adsorption of these compounds.
The comparison of the isotherms for 4-CMPP and MCPP at alkaline pH (Figure 10a) gives information that a shift of methyl group position on aromatic ring from ortho- to meta-position does not affect adsorption process. The same situation is observed for their homologs from the phenoxybutanoic group; the adsorption affinity of both compounds to activated carbon is similar (Figure 10b).
Figure 10.
The 4-CMPP and MCPP adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 (a). The 4-CMPB and MCPB adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 (b).
3.1.3 Effect of structure of hydrocarbon chain in adsorbate molecule
To analyze the impact of hydrocarbon chain structure on the adsorption process, the systems with chlorogenic phenoxyacetic derivatives and their homologs—phenoxypropionic and phenoxybutanoic derivatives—were studied. The graphs are grouped with regard to hydrocarbon chain structure, while the aromatic part of molecules is the same. In the case of adsorption processes carried out at pH = 10.38, the adsorption affinities of the studied compounds are as follows: 2,4,5-CPA > 2,4,5-CPP (Figure 11a), 2,4-D > 2,4-CPP (Figure 11b), MCPP ∼ MCPB (Figure 12a), 4-CMPA > 4-CMPP > 4-CMPB (Figure 12b), and 4-CPA ∼ 4-CP > 4-CPP ∼ 4-CPB > CFA (Figure 13). For the systems for which it was possible to measure the adsorption process at pH = 1.81, the adsorption affinities of pesticides are 2,4-D ∼ 2,4-CPP (Figure 14), MCPA > MCPP (Figure 15), and 4-CPA > 4-CPP > CFA (Figure 16).
Figure 11.
The 2,4,5 CPA and 2,4,5-CPP adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 (a). The 2,4-D and 2,4-CPP adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 (b).
Figure 12.
The MCPP and MCPB adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 (a). The 4-CMPA; 4-CMPP; and 4-CMPB adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 (b).
Figure 13.
The 4-CPA; 4-CPP; 4-CP; 4-CPB; and CFA adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 10.38 (a). The MCPP and CFA adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 1.81 (b).
Figure 14.
The 2,4-D and 2,4-CPP adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 1.81 in linear (a) and reduced coordinate system (b).
Figure 15.
The MCPA and MCPP adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 1.81 in linear (a) and reduced coordinate system (b).
Figure 16.
The 4-CPA; 4-CPP; and CFA adsorption isotherms on F300, pH = 1.81 in linear (a) and reduced coordinate system (b).
Analyzing the coefficient Ko/w values, one can say that the adsorption mechanism is more dependent on physicochemical properties of the adsorbates related with their spatial structure of hydrocarbon part rather than on the total hydrophobicity. For example, in the case of pesticides with decreasing adsorptive affinity to activated carbon, 4-CPA, 4-CPP, and CFA at pH = 1.81, log D is −1.12 < −0.55 < −0.03. Relatively smaller influence of the hydrophobicity of these compounds on their adsorption process is confirmed in most cases by the adsorption isotherm course in the reduced coordinates. The above hypothesis is focused on two factors related with a hydrocarbon chain structure of halogen phenoxycarboxylic derivatives: a number of carbons forming a hydrocarbon chain and arrangement of carbons in a chain. Considerations on adsorption of the pesticides with different number of aliphatic carbon atoms are concerned on phenoxyacetic, phenoxypropionic, and phenoxybutanoic derivatives. In the case of phenoxypropionic and phenoxybutanoic derivatives, the hydrocarbon parts form branched chains. Merely 4-CP has an unbranched chain. 4-CP and its phenoxyacetic homolog 4-CPA were used to compare the adsorption affinity of adsorbates with unbranched hydrocarbon chain (Figure 13a). The other compounds which form the homologous series were used to analyze the adsorption of molecules with different number of carbons in a branched aliphatic chain. On the basis of adsorption isotherms of the abovementioned pesticides, one can conclude that a number of carbon atoms in unbranched hydrocarbon chain do not affect the adsorbate affinity to the activated carbon surface. The increase of a number of carbon atoms in branched hydrocarbon chain for the most homologous series results in a decrease in adsorption or occasionally does not affect it at all. These observations apply to the adsorption systems studied at acidic and basic conditions. According to the Lundelius principle, the more developed structure of compounds from the same homologous series, the greater adsorption should occur [16]. The lack of compliance of the obtained results with the Lundelius principle indicates that there are also other factors. The adsorbent is characterized by a microporous structure with the highest contribution of pores with a diameter of 4.5–9 Å. Minimal diameter of the compounds calculated using the Marvin Space 5.6.0.3 program is in the range of 4.33–6.36 Å, while their maximal diameter is in the range of 7–9.87 Å. Thus, smaller adsorbent micropores may have been inaccessible especially for the homologs with the highest molecular sizes. CFA and 4-CPB are hydrocarbon chain isomers (Figure 13a), and they differ in an order of the respective aliphatic carbon atoms. This in turn is related with the differences in spatial structure of the molecules. Adsorption capacity for 4-CPB is higher than for CFA, which results from stronger adsorption of the substance with less branched aliphatic part. The comparison of the 4-CP and 4-CPP adsorption (Figure 13) confirms the thesis that hydrocarbon part linearity enables better adsorption. Linearity of the compound structure is related with poorer solubility compared to its branched isomer. Therefore, stronger adsorption of 4-CP compared to 4-CPP is mainly due to their solubility differentiation as evidenced by the overlapping isotherms in the reduced coordinates. Among the pesticides there are also structural isomers differentiated with regard to both phenolic and hydrocarbon part. This applies to CFA and MCPP for which the CFA adsorption is weaker (Figure 13b). The isopropyl group as the side branch of hydrocarbon chain has decisive influence on limiting the adsorbate-adsorbent interactions.
3.2 Analysis of experimental isotherms by means of the GL isotherm
All the studied experimental systems were analyzed by the generalized Langmuir isotherm equation (GL) [24, 25, 26] that for the specific values of heterogeneity parameters are reduced to four equations: Langmuir (L, m = n = 1), Langmuir-Freundlich (LF, 0 < m = n ≤ 1), generalized Freundlich (GF, 0 < m ≤ 1, n = 1), and Tóth isotherm (T, m = 1, 0 < n ≤ 1). These isotherms were obtained from the global integral equation assuming that the Langmuir isotherm is a local one. In the optimization procedure, a method of the minimal sum of square deviations of adsorption values was used assuming the limitation of adsorption capacity (am ≤ 20 mmol/g) and the equilibrium constant K (K ≤ 105 l/mmol). Table 2 presents the parameters of this equation, the correlation coefficients R2, and standard deviations SD(a).
System, pH (type of isotherm)
am
m
n
log K
R2
SD(a)
4-CPA/F300, pH 1.81 (T)
3.34
1
0.40
1.59
0.957
0.087
4-CPA/F300, pH 10.38 (GL)
1.25
0.25
0.78
−0.35
0.940
0.043
2,4-D/F300, pH 1.81 (T)
3.69
1
0.35
1.81
0.968
0.079
2,4-D/F300, pH 10.38 (GF)
1.19
0.35
1
0.14
0.960
0.035
2,4,5-CPA/F300, pH 10.38 (GF)
1.29
0.25
1
0.01
0.907
0.054
2,4,6-CPA/F300, pH 10.38 (GF)
1.07
0.38
1
0.46
0.923
0.036
4-CMPA/F300, pH 10.38 (GF)
15.11
0.17
1
−7.25
0.936
0.030
MCPA/F300, pH 1.81 (GF)
3.09
0.34
1
−0.45
0.937
0.110
MCPA/F300, pH 10.38 (GF)
20
0.20
1
−7.04
0.766
0.064
2,4-BrPA/F300, pH 10.38 (GF)
1.83
0.33
1
−0.49
0.957
0.046
2,4,6-BrPA/F300, pH 10.38 (GL)
20
0.32
0.29
−3.71
0.949
0.056
3-CPP/F300, pH 1.81 (L)
1.92
1
1
0.93
0.948
0.082
4-CP/F300, pH 10.38 (GF)
20
0.24
1
−5.53
0.955
0.033
4-CPP/F300, pH 1.81 (L)
2.02
1
1
0.96
0.977
0.058
4-CPP/F300, pH 10.38 (GF)
20
0.18
1
−7.73
0.939
0.031
2,4-CPP/F300, pH 1.81 (T)
2.41
1
0.48
1.79
0.96
0.081
2,4-CPP/F300, pH 10.38 (GF)
1.02
0.32
1
0.181
0.916
0.035
2,5-CPP/F300, pH 10.38 (T)
1.32
1
0.29
2.94
0.896
0.032
3,4-CPP/F300, pH 10.38 (GF)
1.03
0.22
1
0.05
0.937
0.026
2,4,5-CPP/F300, pH 10.38 (GL)
1.07
0.56
0.75
0.83
0.942
0.041
MCPP/F300, pH 1.81 (T)
2.83
1
0.40
1.67
0.951
0.083
MCPP/F300, pH 10.38 (GF)
1.12
0.11
1
−1
0.822
0.034
4-CMPP/F300, pH 1.81 (GF)
2.60
0.34
1
−0.41
0.961
0.070
4-CMPP/F300, pH 10.38 (GF)
12.90
0.16
1
−7.35
0.949
0.026
CFA/F300, pH 1.81 (GF)
2.02
0.66
1
0.53
0.995
0.061
CFA/F300, pH 10.38 (GF)
20
0.21
1
−7.03
0.928
0.030
4-CPB/F300, pH 10.38 (GF)
10.42
0.15
1
−7.81
0.952
0.022
MCPB/F300, pH 10.38 (GL)
4.65
0.45
0.08
5
0.934
0.025
4-CMPB/F300, pH 10.38 (T)
1.02
1
0.59
1.54
0.923
0.027
Table 2.
Values of parameters of the generalized Langmuir equation characterizing the experimental systems.
The parameters for two systems correspond to the simple L isotherm equation which is characteristic for energetically homogeneous system. For the other systems, satisfying optimization using the T and GF equations or the general form of the GL isotherm was obtained. The GL equation corresponds to the quasi-Gaussian function of adsorption energy distribution; the heterogeneity parameters characterize the extension of this function toward the higher (m < 1) and lower (n < 1) adsorption energies (if m ≠ n, the energy distribution is asymmetrical, m the smaller and n the greater heterogeneity). The Tóth equation is represented by the asymmetrical quasi-Gaussian function of the adsorption energy that is extended toward low energies, whereas the GF isotherm corresponds to the exponential function with the characteristic minimal energy. The applied equations show slightly different behavior in the area of low and high adsorption. For low concentrations, only the T isotherm reduces itself to the Henry’s equation, while the other isotherms to the classic Freundlich equation. In the range of high concentrations, all the equations show typical Langmuir behavior; however, the GF equation reaches the maximum adsorption most quickly. For many experimental systems, in limited ranges of concentration and adsorption, various types of isotherms may exhibit similar behavior; hence, they can describe the same data well. Unequivocal selection of the model can be made on the basis of precise experimental data in a wide range of concentrations and adsorptions (required range depends on the system heterogeneity). In the case of experimental systems, the choice of theoretical adsorption isotherm should be considered as approximate one because it is based on the standard deviation values obtained in the optimization procedure within a limited measurement range and with relatively large scattering of experimental points (adsorbent inhomogeneity).
Analyzing the heterogeneity parameters which characterize the experimental systems, one can conclude that in most cases they achieve values much lower than one. It indicates a significant impact of the energetic heterogeneity. Attention should be paid to high values of the adsorption capacity for several experimental systems. In the case of experimental isotherms with a narrow range of relative adsorption θ, the adsorption optimization method by using the adsorption capacity limit (20 mmol/g—reaching this value or even a lower value of 10 mmol/l indicates that the determined capacity is unrealistic; consequently the value of the constant K is not also reliable) leads to the achievement of minimal SD for high values of the parameter am. The best results for the generalized Freundlich isotherm were obtained due to the specific features of this equation. Figure 17 presents the results of model calculations for dependence of the isotherm slope in logarithmic coordinates (φ = lna/lnθ) as a function of the surface coverage θ for the GL and GF equations. For the GL equation, it can be described [25, 26] as
Figure 17.
Model dependencies of the adsorption isotherm slope in logarithmic coordinates, φ = lna/lnθ, as a function of surface coverage θ for the GL (left side) and GF (right side) equations for various values of the heterogeneity parameters m and n.
φ=dlnadlnceq=m1+Kcn=m1−θn/mE1
Analyzing the calculated curves, one can observe the different nature of the GF equation in relation to the other isotherms being special cases of the GL isotherm. For the LF equation (m = n = 0.5), the slope φ is always a linear function of the relative adsorption (Figure 17a); for other types of GL isotherm, a shift of the slope always takes place at lower values of the coverage than for GF. The GF equation shows the weakest initial slope of the dependence φ on the coverage. Additionally, the stability ranges of slope φ strongly depend on a value of the heterogeneity parameter m; for the systems with high heterogeneity (m = 0.2), this area clearly increases (Figure 17b). In particular, for m = 0.2 the slope remains almost constant—a decrease of 5% occurs until relative adsorption of 0.55 is achieved, while for θ < 04 a shift of the slope does not exceed 1%.
The above observations are confirmed by the results of model calculations presented in Figure 18 as the dependences of relative slope φ/φθ = 0 as a function of surface coverage θ for the GL type equation and the dependences of surface coverage θ corresponding to the specific relative slope φ. A distinguish type of variability of these dependences for the GF equation is observed in comparison to the other GL isotherms. It means that in the case of GF isotherm a widest range of the steady slope φ corresponding de facto the Freundlich isotherm is followed by a rapid change of isotherm character into a typical isotherm with the adsorption plateau. Many of the experimental systems exhibit typical behavior for the Freundlich isotherm—despite existence of the adsorption limitations (due to the limited pore volume). This behavior perfectly explains the above analysis. Other factors affecting such behavior comprise a multilayered nature of some isotherms and intermolecular interactions in the surface phase (it can lead to the increase of the linearity range φ—especially for the LF or Tóth isotherms) [26].
Figure 18.
Model dependences of relative slope φ/φθ = 0 as a function of surface coverage θ for the GL equation at various values of heterogeneity parameters m and n (left side, the deviations φ ± 5% are marked) and model dependences of the surface coverage θ corresponding to relative shift of slope φ for the GF equation (right side).
Referring to a general problem of accuracy of the determination of adsorption isotherm parameters, it should be emphasized that a key problem is to determine the adsorption capacity am that for every optimization is in fact the extrapolated value and as a result the most susceptible to error. Simultaneously, the error in am determination is transferred to other parameters. For the experimental data in a range of low adsorption, it is possible to achieve a relatively high accuracy of determination of the heterogeneity parameter m and the aggregated value (corresponding to an adsorption coefficient in the Freundlich equation), lnkF ≈ m lnK + lnam. Unfortunately, the accuracy of determination of the adsorption equilibrium constant lnK depends not only on lnam but also on a value of m (error of am determination increases for small m because lnK = [(m lnK + lnam)-lnam]/m). When the adsorption data can be described well by the Freundlich isotherm (no systematic deviations from linearity in the logarithmic coordinates), this means that there are not points in the experimental data from which a reliable value am could be calculated. It would be possible only if the experimental isotherm shows a change of the slope in the logarithmic coordinates. On the other hand, a greater accuracy of the determination of the adsorption capacity am and heterogeneity parameter n can be obtained mainly for the data in a range of high adsorption.
It should be stated that a fully reliable optimization of the theoretical model can be obtained if the experimental data are distributed evenly in a range of both low and high concentration/adsorption regions. It is important that the range of relative adsorption is symmetrical in relation to θ = 0.5 (e.g., from the point of view of isotherm parameter analysis, the range θ = 0.1–0.9 is much better than 0.01–0.1 or 0.9–0.99). Unfortunately, the measurements in both ranges are burdened with a relatively large experimental errors—for low concentrations a problem is related to the apparatus quality (e.g., the signal noises), and for high ones, the main barrier is a necessity of dilution preparation (or necessity of changing the measurement method) and slight changes in solution concentration due to adsorption near to a saturation point of the surface phase with the adsorbate.
3.3 Adsorption kinetics
In order to investigate an effect of the adsorbate properties on adsorption rate, the measurements of adsorption kinetics for selected systems were conducted. As the activated carbon is characterized by high porosity, it seemed reasonable to include diffusion effects in a kinetic description. The Crank model (intraparticle diffusion model) in a standard form as well as in a simplified one is a fundamental model of intraparticle diffusion process. The full IDM model takes into account the changes of adsorbate concentration during adsorption process and a spherical shape of adsorbent particles with a radius r [27]:
where ueq is the relative adsorbate uptake at equilibrium, F is the adsorption progress, pn is the non-zero roots of tan pn function, D is the effective diffusion coefficient, and r is the adsorbent particle radius.
However, for the analyzed experimental kinetics, the full IDM equation describes the data very poorly (the curves and points are marked as “Crank” in Figure 19). The Crank model analysis for MCPP/F300 at pH = 2 was chosen and presented as representative for all experimental systems; the quality of optimization of all of them was very similar. If effective concentration of the adsorbate in a surface layer is different than in a volume phase, it can be assumed that ueq is also a fitting parameter. If concentration during adsorption process remains almost constant, ueq is close to 0, and then one gets a simplified form of the Crank model [8, 28, 29, 30]:
Figure 19.
The comparison of the optimization using the Crank model (Crank) and the optimization neglecting a relation of a parameter ueq of the Crank model with concentration change during adsorption process (Crank, opt. Ueq) for the MCPP adsorption data on F300 at pH = 2. The figure shows deviations for both optimizations (triangles).
F=1−6π2∑n=1∞1n2exp−π2n2Dtr2E3
As one can see, the adsorption data can be described quite satisfactorily by using the simplified form of Crank model. It should be assumed that as a result of the rapid initial adsorption stage, the outer part of the granules becomes an adsorbate reservoir providing constant conditions for adsorbate penetration inside the granules. The standard deviation of concentration for the simplified Crank model decreased 3–5 times compared to the full IDM model. In turn, the obtained values of parameter D/r2 of the order 10−3–10−5 are acceptable, while those determined on the basis of the full model IDM were unsatisfactory. Nevertheless, nonlinearity of experimental data in the initial range in c ∼ t1/2 coordinates (linearity is the fundamental assumption of all variants of the Crank model) proves that this model is not suitable for the description of the adsorption process for the studied systems
In practice, a somewhat better choice was the McKay model (pore diffusion model) [31]. It additionally takes into account a resistance during adsorbate transfer through adsorbent surface layer and assumes that the adsorbate evenly penetrates the granules, and a clear boundary between an area in which adsorption equilibrium is established, and the one without adsorbate is formed:
Here, x=1−F13 is an auxiliary variable; X=11−ueq13 is the parameter; and B = 1 − Bi, Bi is the Biot number, where Bi = Kfr/Dp, Kf is the external mass transfer coefficient, Dp, is the effective pore diffusion coefficient, and τs is the dimensionless model time, where τs=c0/ρtaeq·Dp/r2·t and ρt is the particle density.
As shown in Figure 20, the McKay model describes quite well the kinetics of experimental systems in the initial range, and it does not exhibit the same feature as the IDM model. The initial part of curve is a characteristic for typical adsorption systems. However, in the subsequent stage of experiment, one can see significant discrepancies between the model and data, because this model predicts that the system comes to equilibrium after a finite time (curve bend corresponds to reaching the equilibrium state). It is reflected in the increase of the standard deviations with time, inversely to the IDM model. It should be added that obtaining an acceptable optimization using the McKay model was associated with treating a parameter ueq (total adsorbate loss from solution) as the optimized parameter regardless of equilibrium concentration, the same assumption as for the simplified Crank model.
Figure 20.
Comparison of the optimization procedure using the McKay model to the adsorption pesticides data on F300 at pH = 2.
Very good results in the analysis of the kinetic data were obtained for the multi-exponential equation (Figure 21). This equation describes kinetics as an independent parallel series of first-order processes or approximation of follow-up processes [8, 32, 33, 34]. Generally, the multi-exponential equation characterizes well enough the experimental systems with a heterogenous pore structure or a complex pore system with differentiated pore distribution. A mathematical form of the multi-exponential equation is as follows:
Figure 21.
Comparison of the optimization using the multi-exponential equation to the experimental data in the coordinates: relative concentration c/co ∼ time and c/co ∼ time1/2.
F=1−∑i=1nfiexp−kit,∑i=1nfi=1E6
where n is the number of exponential terms and the coefficient fi (i = 1, 2, …, n) is the fraction of adsorbed equilibrium amount corresponding to the adsorption process characterized by the rate coefficient ki.
Both the experimental and optimized concentration profiles for the studied systems are presented in two coordinate systems: the relative concentration (c/co) ∼ time (t) and relative concentration (c/co) ∼ square root of time (t1/2). The latter form of presentation allows precisely to depict the fit quality in a broad range of measured concentrations.
Analyzing the values of adsorption half-time and time needed to reach a nearby equilibrium state, one can state that the kinetics of studied pesticides on a given type of carbon material is relatively slow as a result of the micropore predominant contribution in the adsorbent structure. The kinetic curves for the selected adsorbates can be set from the fastest to the slowest ones in order: 2,4-CPP > MCPP > MCPA > 3-CPP > 2,4-D > 4-CPP. The differences are not very significant, but it is clearly noticeable that adsorption of compounds with hydrocarbon chain of propionic acid is faster compared to their homologs of acetic acid, i.e., 2,4-CPP > 2,4-D and MCPP > MCPA. This is undoubtedly a result of the increase of the hydrophobic interactions between the adsorbate and activated carbon surface (pHpzc ∼ 9.8). These interactions along with dispersive ones are the main mechanism of adsorption process in aqueous systems at fixed pH = 2. One can say that in the case of these pairs of compounds, differences in a length of the hydrocarbon chain (a molecule dimension as well) do not affect differentiation of the diffusion rate in the microporous structure of activated carbon. Completely reverse trend in the adsorption capacity for these compounds determined on the basis of equilibrium isotherms was observed. The shorter hydrocarbon chain of adsorbate, the greater adsorption capacity for a given compound due to possibility of greater packing in the adsorbent structure.
Additionally a comparison of the adsorption kinetics for the studied systems is presented as spectrum of m-exp optimized parameters in the coordinate system: the adsorbed amounts ai versus the adsorption half-times t05,i, for respective exponential terms (Figure 22). The spectra are similar in shape and consist of 3–5 terms depending on differentiation in the rate of particular stages of the adsorption process. The faster the kinetics, the greater the adsorbed amounts ai for the lower adsorption 26 half-times t05,i and larger corresponding rate coefficients.
Figure 22.
Distributions of adsorbed amounts versus adsorption half-times determined from the multi-exponential equation.
Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Lublin, Poland
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Given that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
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\n\n
In cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
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Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81998",title:"Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation",slug:"understanding-the-neuropathophysiology-of-psychiatry-disorder-using-transcranial-magnetic-stimulatio",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103748",abstract:"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe and non-invasive tool that allows researchers to probe and modulate intracortical circuits. The most important aspect of TMS is its ability to directly stimulate the cortical neurons, generating action potentials, without much effect on intervening tissue. This property can be leveraged to provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Using multiple patterns of stimulations (single, paired, or repetitive), different neurophysiological parameters can be elicited. Various TMS protocol helps in understanding the neurobiological basis of disorder and specific behaviors by allowing direct probing of the cortical areas and their interconnected networks. While single-pulse TMS can provide insight into the excitability and integrity of the corticospinal tract, paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS) can provide further insight into cortico-cortical connections and repetitive TMS (rTMS) into cortical mapping and modulating plasticity.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar and Nand Kumar"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. 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He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. 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Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. 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\r\n\tSustainable approaches to health and wellbeing in our COVID 19 recovery needs to focus on ecological approaches that prioritize our relationships with each other, and include engagement with nature, the arts and our heritage. This will ensure that we discover ways to live in our world that allows us and other beings to flourish. We can no longer rely on medicalized approaches to health that wait for people to become ill before attempting to treat them. We need to live in harmony with nature and rediscover the beauty and balance in our everyday lives and surroundings, which contribute to our well-being and that of all other creatures on the planet. This topic will provide insights and knowledge into how to achieve this change in health care that is based on ecologically sustainable practices.
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\r\n\tThis topic is dedicated to the efforts and promotion of UNESCO SDG4, the UNESCO initiative on the future of education, and the need for a new social contract for education. It aims to disseminate knowledge on policies, strategies, methods, and technologies that increase the resilience and sustainability of the development of the future of education and the new social contract for education. It will also consider the global challenges such as globalization, demographic change, digital transformation, climate change, environment and the social pillars of sustainable development.
\r\n
\r\n\tResponses to the pandemic and the widespread discontent that preceded it must be based on a new social contract and a New Global Deal for education that ensures equal opportunities for all and respects all people’s rights and freedoms (UNESCO; 2021). Such a new social contract, as proposed by UNESCO, must be based on the general principles underlying human rights - inclusion and equality, cooperation and solidarity, and collective responsibility and interconnectedness - and be guided by the following fundamental principle: Ensure that everyone has access to quality education throughout their lives.
\r\n
\r\n\tWe face the dual challenge of delivering on the unfulfilled promise of ensuring the right to quality education for every child, youth, and adult, as well as fully realizing the transformative potential of education as a pathway to a more sustainable collective future. To achieve this, we need a new social contract for education that eliminates inequities while transforming the future. This new social contract must be based on human rights and the principles of non-discrimination, social justice, respect for life, human dignity, and cultural diversity. It must include an ethic of care, reciprocity and solidarity. The new social contract builds on inclusiveness, equity, lifelong learning, SDG, collaboration and personal learning in a global context for democracy.
\r\n
\r\n\tAt an international level, the adoption of the Open Educational Resources recommendation and the Open Science recommendation represents an important step towards building more open and inclusive knowledge societies as well as the achievement of the UN 2030 Agenda. Indeed, implementing the recommendations will help to achieve at least five more Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that are intertwined with the topic of this book series, namely SDG 5 (Gender equality), SDG 9 (Industry, innovation and infrastructure), SDG 10 (Reduced inequalities within and across countries), SDG 16 (Peace, justice and strong institutions) and SDG 17 (Partnerships for the goals).
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\r\n\tGlobally, the ecological footprint is growing at a faster rate than GDP. This phenomenon has been studied by scientists for many years. However, clear strategies and actions are needed now more than ever. Every day, humanity, from individuals to businesses (public and private) and governments, are called to change their mindset in order to pursue a virtuous combination for sustainable development. Reasoning in a sustainable way entails, first and foremost, managing the available resources efficiently and strategically, whether they are natural, financial, human or relational. In this way, value is generated by contributing to the growth, improvement and socio-economic development of the communities and of all the players that make up its value chain. In the coming decades, we will need to be able to transition from a society in which economic well-being and health are measured by the growth of production and material consumption, to a society in which we live better while consuming less. In this context, digitization has the potential to disrupt processes, with significant implications for the environment and sustainable development. There are numerous challenges associated with sustainability and digitization, the need to consider new business models capable of extracting value, data ownership and sharing and integration, as well as collaboration across the entire supply chain of a product. In order to generate value, effectively developing a complex system based on sustainability principles is a challenge that requires a deep commitment to both technological factors, such as data and platforms, and human dimensions, such as trust and collaboration. Regular study, research and implementation must be part of the road to sustainable solutions. Consequently, this topic will analyze growth models and techniques aimed at achieving intergenerational equity in terms of economic, social and environmental well-being. It will also cover various subjects, including risk assessment in the context of sustainable economy and a just society.
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\r\n\tIf we aim to prosper as a society and as a species, there is no alternative to sustainability-oriented development and growth. Sustainable development is no longer a choice but a necessity for us all. Ecosystems and preserving ecosystem services and inclusive urban development present promising solutions to environmental problems. Contextually, the emphasis on studying these fields will enable us to identify and define the critical factors for territorial success in the upcoming decades to be considered by the main-actors, decision and policy makers, technicians, and public in general.
\r\n
\r\n\tHolistic urban planning and environmental management are therefore crucial spheres that will define sustainable trajectories for our urbanizing planet. This urban and environmental planning topic aims to attract contributions that address sustainable urban development challenges and solutions, including integrated urban water management, planning for the urban circular economy, monitoring of risks, contingency planning and response to disasters, among several other challenges and solutions.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Sustainable Development",id:"24"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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