Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
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Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
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"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"33",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Self Organizing Maps - Applications and Novel Algorithm Design",title:"Self Organizing Maps",subtitle:"Applications and Novel Algorithm Design",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Kohonen Self Organizing Maps (SOM) has found application in practical all fields, especially those which tend to handle high dimensional data. SOM can be used for the clustering of genes in the medical field, the study of multi-media and web based contents and in the transportation industry, just to name a few. Apart from the aforementioned areas this book also covers the study of complex data found in meteorological and remotely sensed images acquired using satellite sensing. Data management and envelopment analysis has also been covered. The application of SOM in mechanical and manufacturing engineering forms another important area of this book. The final section of this book, addresses the design and application of novel variants of SOM algorithms.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-546-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4526-4",doi:"10.5772/566",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"self-organizing-maps-applications-and-novel-algorithm-design",numberOfPages:716,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:null,bookSignature:"Josphat Igadwa Mwasiagi",publishedDate:"January 21st 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/33.jpg",numberOfDownloads:80682,numberOfWosCitations:144,numberOfCrossrefCitations:79,numberOfDimensionsCitations:149,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:372,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 20th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 18th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 22nd 2010",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 22nd 2010",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 21st 2010",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"16821",title:"Dr.",name:"Josphat Igadwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mwasiagi",slug:"josphat-igadwa-mwasiagi",fullName:"Josphat Igadwa Mwasiagi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/16821/images/1635_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mwasiagi was born in Kenya, where he received his basic and secondary education. Dr. Mwasiagi did his Bachelors degree in PSG College of Technology (Coimbatore-India). He graduated from China Textile University and Donghua University with a masters and doctoral degrees respectively. His doctoral thesis covered modeling of cotton fiber to yarn spinning process using Artificial Neural Network (ANN), modified ANN models and Extreme learning Machines (ELM) algorithms. His industrial work experience includes working in Thika Cloth Mills (Thika) and Rivatex (Eldoret) where he worked as a Spinning Manager. Dr. Mwasiagi joined Moi University in 1997, where he works as a senior lecturer, in the School of Engineering. His area of research includes natural products (fibers, dyes etc), garment design, industrial modeling, re-newable energy, cleaner production and industrial policy formulation. 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1. Introduction
NO is a small hydrophobic molecule which can easily diffuse through biological membranes [1]. In vivo, it is synthesized during the conversion of L-arginine to L-citrulline by nitric oxide synthase, with the help of co-factors such as the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, flavin mononucleotide, flavin adenine dinucleotide, and tetrahydrobiopterin [2].
The nitric oxide synthase (NOS) may be found in three different isoforms. Two of them, the endothelial and the neuronal NOS (eNOS, nNOS), require calcium/calmodulin to be activated and are responsible for the continuous basal release of NO. The third isoform, known as inducible NOS (iNOS), is calcium independent [3, 4]. Since NOS activity depends on the availability of its substrate and its co-factors, all these elements jointly determine the cellular rates of NO synthesis [5].
Substantial evidence indicates that NO is a crucial biological messenger involved in a wide variety of physiological and pathological processes in different systems in mammals, including the vascular, nervous, and reproductive system [1, 6].
2. NOS/NO duo in the reproductive system
The NOS/NO duo regulates key functions in both the female and male reproductive systems [6].
All three isoforms of NOS have been identified in the oviduct [7, 8], oocytes, and cumulus and corona cells [9, 10] of several species [7, 11, 12]. The expression of NOS isoforms differs during the estrous cycle in the follicles as well as in the oviduct [13]. Tao et al. [10] showed that the immunoreactivity of eNOS in early antral follicles was restricted to the oocyte and increased from small and medium to large follicle-enclosed oocytes. In contrast, no immunoreactivity for iNOS was found in primordial, early antral follicle, or the cumulus-oocyte complexes aspirated from small and medium follicles.
In the oviduct, the endogenous basal release of NO regulates its contraction and the ciliary beating of the ciliated epithelial cells and induces chemotaxis in human spermatozoa via activation of the nitric oxide/soluble isoform of guanylate cyclase/cyclic guanosine monophosphate pathway (NO/sGC/cGMP) [14–16]. NO forms a vital component of the oocyte microenvironment and has been positively implicated in meiotic resumption [17], in preventing oocyte aging and improving the integrity of the microtubular spindle apparatus in aged oocytes [18]. It may also contribute as an anti-platelet agent during implantation [19].
As far as the male gamete is concerned, research was first concentrated on determining the effects of NO-releasing compounds on sperm motility and viability. Low concentrations of sodium nitroprusside (SNP), an NO-releasing compound, stimulated sperm hyperactivation in mouse, fish, and hamster [20–22] and were beneficial to the maintenance of post-thaw human sperm motility [23]. On the other hand, high concentrations of NO-releasing compounds decreased sperm motility [20, 24–26].
Numerous studies have also been conducted to determine the presence and localization of NOS in sperm from several species (Table 1). For example, Herrero et al. [27] located nNOS in the head of freshly ejaculated human spermatozoa, with a more concentrated fluorescent staining toward the equatorial region. O’Bryan et al. [28] described the pattern of eNOS expression in human spermatozoa, finding that morphologically normal spermatozoa exhibited post-acrosomal and equatorial eNOS immunostaining. Interestingly, though, abnormally shaped sperm cells exhibited aberrant staining, especially in the midpiece and/or head region, which correlated negatively with the percentage of motile sperm.
Summary of in vitro studies and the techniques used to identify NOS isoforms in different species.
NOSs were revealed in mature mouse spermatozoa by means of biochemical techniques and Western blot. Herrero et al. [29] showed that mouse spermatozoa can synthesize L-citrulline, depending on the concentration of L-arginine present in the incubation medium while different concentrations of N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) inhibit the formation of the amino acid. Furthermore, when sperm protein extracts were incubated under denaturing and nonreducing conditions and then subjected to immunoblotting assay, a protein fraction of 140 kDa was recognized by the three anti-NOS antibodies.
Bull spermatozoa were examined for the presence of constitutive NOS [30]. NO generation seemed to be enhanced by L-arginine and abolished by the NOS-inhibitor, L-NAME. In addition, Meiser and Schulz [30] verified the presence of NOS in bull sperm cells by immunohistochemistry, which was confirmed by Western blot. Confocal laser microscopy localized nNOS-related immunofluorescence at the acrosome cap and the main part of the flagellum. The same technique also identified eNOS staining spread over the spermatozoan head. Moreover, when these findings were confirmed by Western blot, immunoreactive bands at 161 kDa (nNOS) and 133 kDa (eNOS) were identified.
Hou et al. [31] investigated whether boar sperm can generate NO, finding that porcine spermatozoa synthesized low levels of NO under noncapacitating conditions, but that the NO concentration almost doubled when sperms were capacitated. Furthermore, NO production was significantly inhibited when capacitated sperms were treated with L-NAME. In another study [32], Western blot analysis was performed to identify NOS enzymes in boar sperm samples. The immunoblots showed three distinct bands: ~160, ~130, and ~135 kDa, corresponding to nNOS, iNOS, and eNOS, respectively.
NO production was evaluated in stallion spermatozoa before and after freezing/thawing [33] by means of flow cytometry, after loading the sperm suspension with an NO detection probe. NO synthesis was positively correlated with sperm motility after thawing and, interestingly, the presence of egg yolk in the semen extender radically reduced the amount of NO produced. The authors further investigated in fresh and frozen/thawed stallion sperm the presence of NOS enzymes by Western blot, using anti-nNOS, anti-eNOS, and anti-universal NOS antibodies. Two bands of approximately 83 kDa and 96 kDa were labeled by the antibodies anti-nNOS and anti-eNOS, respectively. Moreover, the other antibody, which recognized an epitope present in all the NOS isoforms described so far, showed two similar bands of 84 and 92 kDa.
Recently, Liman and Alan [34] investigated the localization of NOS isoforms in spermatozoa within the intratesticular and excurrent duct systems of adult domestic cats. Overall, the spermatozoa head did not exhibit immunoreactivity. On the other hand, immunoreactivity for all three isoforms was observed in the flagellum, in the proximal cytoplasmic droplets of spermatozoa (located in the neck region) within the lumen of the intratesticular and efferent ducts, in the epididymal duct of the caput epididymis, and in the distal cytoplasmic droplets of spermatozoa (located at the mid-principal piece junction of the tail) within the lumen of corpus and cauda epididymis and the vas deferens.
3. Role of NO on sperm functionality
Several in vitro studies were conducted in order to determine the effects that NO has on sperm physiology (Figure 1). It has been shown that NO affects sperm motility [28, 35, 36], acts as chemoattractant [16, 37], regulates the tyrosine phosphorylation of different sperm proteins [38, 39], enhances the sperm-zona pellucida binding ability [40], and modulates the acrosomal reaction [41, 42].
Figure 1.
Some aspects of the sperm physiology modulated by the NOS/NO system. At physiological levels, endogenous NO has a beneficial role in maintaining sperm motility, enhances tyrosine phosphorylation, which, in turn, promotes the capacitation process. NO also increases the sperm-zona pellucida binding ability and leads to a rise in the percentage of reacted spermatozoa, especially in the presence of follicular fluid or protein-enriched extracts of follicular fluid.
In detail, NO seems to play an important role in the maintenance of sperm motility at physiological levels. A study [36] showed that the basal release of NO by spermatozoa from normozoospermic samples tended to be greater than that from asthenozoospermic samples, suggesting a physiological and beneficial role for endogenous NO in the preservation of sperm motility. These observations agree with a previous report that normozoospermic spermatozoa express more NOS and generate more nitrite than asthenozoospermic spermatozoa [35]. On the other hand, as previously mentioned, it has been shown that spermatozoa with an abnormal morphology show aberrant staining for eNOS, which was negatively correlated with the motility [28]. A detrimental effect on motility has also been reported by Rosselli et al. [24] and Weinberg et al. [25] when millimolar concentrations of exogenous NO donors were added to sperm samples.
It has been suggested that, upon approaching and entering the cumulus oophorus, both NO and progesterone, which are synthesized by the cumulus cells [9, 10, 43–45], provide a synergistic stimulus to mobilize stored calcium in the sperm neck/midpiece [46]. As a consequence, they can modulate flagellar activity and contribute to the hyperactivation that is vital for penetration of the oocyte vestments [47].
Interestingly, it has also been suggested that NO may exert a chemoattractant effect on spermatozoa. In fact, the percentage of mouse sperm migrating toward the medium containing an NO donor increased significantly [37]. Similar results were obtained when human spermatozoa were exposed to an NO donor [16]. In the latter case, the signal transduction pathway was also studied. It was proposed that NO exerts its chemoattractant effect through the activation of the NO/sGC/cGMP pathway, since the use of an NO scavenger and/or an sGC and cGMP-dependent protein kinase inhibitor reverted the NO donor-induced migration of sperm.
Since tyrosine phosphorylation in different sperm proteins is associated with the capacitation process [48], this aspect was investigated in order to further define the involvement of NO in capacitation. Herrero et al. [38] observed an increase in tyrosine phosphorylation when human sperm capacitation was accelerated by an NO-releasing compound. On the other hand, when sperm capacitation was inhibited by L-NAME, there was an attenuation in the tyrosine phosphorylation of sperm proteins. In addition, Thundathil et al. [39] reported that L-NAME prevented, and a NO donor promoted, the increase in threonine, glutamine, and tyrosine phosphorylation in human spermatozoa. Furthermore, the addition of L-arginine reversed the inhibitory effect of L-NAME on the capacitation and the associated increase in phosphorylation.
The correlation between NO and sperm-zona pellucida binding ability was investigated by Sengoku et al. [40], who reported that when treated with low concentrations of a NO donor, the number of spermatozoa which binds to the hemizona is higher than in sperm treated with a higher concentration. Additionally, a NO quencher lowered the enhancement of sperm binding by the NO donor.
NO also seems to modulate the acrosome reaction. The percentage of acrosome loss induced by human follicular fluid or by calcium ionophore was studied when human spermatozoa were capacitated in the presence/absence of NO-releasing compounds or NOS inhibitors [38]. NO donors induced sperm cells to respond faster to human follicular fluid, whereas NOS inhibitors decreased the percentage of acrosome reaction. Similar results were obtained by Revelli et al. [41], who showed that different NO-releasing compounds were able to increase the percentage of reacted spermatozoa in the presence of protein-enriched extracts of human follicular fluid. Also, hemoglobin, a NO scavenger, inhibited the follicular fluid–induced acrosomal reaction. In an in-depth analysis of the signaling pathway of the nitric oxide–induced acrosome reaction in human spermatozoa [42], the authors suggested that the acrosome reaction-inducing effect of exogenous NO on capacitated human spermatozoa is accomplished via the NO/sGC/cGMP pathway, which leads to the activation of cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG). In fact, both the intracellular cGMP levels and the percentage of reacted spermatozoa were significantly increased after incubation with SNP. Furthermore, the SNP-induced acrosome reaction was significantly reduced in the presence of sGC inhibitors, a reduction that was reversed by the addition of a cell-permeating cGMP analogue to the incubation medium. Finally, PKG inhibition reduced the SNP-induced acrosome reaction.
4. NOS-activating molecules
As previously stated, NOS activity depends on the availability of its substrate and co-factors [5]. However, the scientific literature does not include many studies on the molecules present in the female reproductive tract which may activate, in one way or another, NOS enzymes in spermatozoa.
Starting from follicular fluid samples, Revelli et al. [41] obtained a protein-enriched follicular fluid solution (PFF), which was then used to study its effects on NOS activity, citrulline synthesis, and acrosome reaction in human sperm. Interestingly, this study showed for the first time that the endogenous NOS activity of human sperm may be increased by PFF. Moreover, the authors demonstrated that PFF-mediated induction of sperm NOS activity leads to acrosome reaction in the same cells, thereby, establishing a link between follicle-derived substances, the activation of NO synthesis in sperm and biological responses.
Furthermore, the increase in NO synthesis mediated by PFF was not associated with a rise in the expression of NOS catalytic units, which is not surprising since specialized cells possess very poor, if any, transcriptional activity [41]. The authors hypothesized that PFF first determines the transient enzyme activation of sperm NOS, which is subsequently strengthened by a more stable modification of the enzyme.
However, more studies should be performed in order to identify the NOS-activating molecule(s) in the follicular fluid.
5. NO pathway in spermatozoa
In spermatozoa, NO acts via three main pathways (Figure 2) [13]. First, NO is able to activate sGC, leading to a rise in the intracellular levels of cGMP [49]. The latter activates the cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (CNG) localized in the flagellum of mammalian spermatozoa [50, 51]. These channels seem to play an important role in the sperm motility control, by allowing the entry of Ca2+ ions to the cytoplasm during the capacitation process of mammal sperm [50]. Their activation is one of the first events that occur during capacitation in the mouse spermatozoa [52]. cGMP also activates PKG [53, 54], which is involved in the serine/threonine phosphorylation of proteins that promote sperm capacitation and the acrosome reaction [55, 56]. Furthermore, since cGMP and cAMP compete for the catalytic sites of phosphodiesterases [57, 58], an increase in the intracytoplasmic cGMP concentration may inhibit cAMP degradation via cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase type 3 [59], thus increasing cAMP intracellular levels and activating protein kinase A (PKA). The latter leads to an increase in protein tyrosine phosphorylation [60].
Figure 2.
Representation of the main pathways through which NO acts in spermatozoa. NO leads to an increase in the intracellular levels of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) by activating the soluble isoform of guanylate cyclase (sGC). The cGMP can activate the cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (CNG) localized in the flagellum of mammalian spermatozoa, which regulate the influx of Ca2+ ions to the cytoplasm during the capacitation process and also activates the cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG), leading to the serine/threonine phosphorylation of different proteins. It can also inhibit cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) degradation via cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase (PDE), which leads to the activation of cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) and tyrosine phosphorylation. Furthermore, NO is involved in the tyrosine phosphorylation process in a direct manner, by activating adenylate cyclase (AC) and the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway. Finally, NO determines post-translational protein modification in spermatozoa via S-nitrosylation.
Second, NO is directly involved in tyrosine phosphorylation by modulating the cAMP/PKA and the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways. The cAMP/PKA pathway can be influenced by NO via activation of sGC (as described above), but it can also be regulated directly. In fact, S-nitrosylation of adenylate cyclase (AC) has been suggested as a possible mechanism of action of NO [61]. Low levels of NO may activate AC, consequently increasing the cAMP concentration and activating PKA [62]. However, high levels of NO can inhibit AC [61]. As far as the ERK pathway is concerned, NO reacts with the cysteine residues of the RAS protein, inducing its activation [35]. In turn, RAS triggers the RAF, MEK, and ERK1/2 complex, necessary for tyrosine phosphorylation [63].
Third, NO regulates the post-translational protein modification in spermatozoa via S-nitrosy-lation [64], a process similar to phosphorylation and acetylation [65, 66]. S-nitrosylation consists of the covalent incorporation of NO into thiol groups (-SH) to form S-nitrosothiols (S-NO), a modification that is selective and reversible [13].
6. Function of S-nitrosoproteins in spermatozoa
An extensive study by Lefièvre et al. [64] described a large number of proteins present in the sperm of normozoospermic men, which can be subjected to S-nitrosylation in the presence of NO donors. Although the function of some nitrosylated proteins remains to be discovered, a considerable group of them are known to be metabolic proteins and proteins associated with energy generation and cell movement, suggesting a role for S-nitrosylation in sperm motility. This agrees with a previous proteomic analysis [67], in which the most abundant group was also involved in energy production.
Other considerable groups of proteins were those involved in signal transduction, which agrees with a role for S-nitrosylation in modulating the sperm function [64]. Interestingly, since sperms are generally assumed to be transcriptionally inactive, a small percentage of the S-nitrosylated proteins identified by Lefièvre et al. [64] was related to transcription. Previous proteomic studies in sperm also observed the presence of proteins involved in transcription [67, 68]. However, when comparing the human sperm S-nitrosoproteome with proteins identified during a proteomic study of sperm-oocyte interaction, only three proteins were found in common, suggesting that S-nitrosylation is not a regulatory mechanism employed during fertilization [64, 69].
It is known that the mobilization of Ca2+ stored in the sperm neck/midpiece is necessary for the hyperactivation process [46]. The Ca2+ store in the neck of the sperm coincides with the region occupied by the redundant nuclear envelope (RNE) [70] and in order to mobilize Ca2+ from this site, ryanodine receptors (RyRs), which are intracellular Ca2+-release channels involved in regulation of cytosolic calcium levels [71], need to be activated. These proteins contain a large number of thiol groups and are thus prone to S-nitrosylation by NO [64, 72, 73]. S-nitrosylation can potentiate the opening of RyRs [74–79], probably through the generation of the membrane permanent product S-nitrosocysteine [80]. It has been shown that an increase in Ca2+ induced by NO is accompanied by an increase in S-nitrosylation levels of endogenous RyRs [81, 82] while these Ca2+ channels may be inhibited under strongly nitrosylating conditions or at high doses of NO (Figure 3) [76, 79, 82]. Furthermore, progesterone acts synergistically with NO to mobilize Ca2+ in the sperm neck/midpiece by activation of RyRs [47], contributing to the hyperactivation process.
Figure 3.
S-nitrosylation process. NO acts on the thiol groups (-SH) of the cysteines in proteins to form S-nitrosothiols (S-NO). At the sperm neck/midpiece, the S-nitrosylation occurs in ryanodine receptors (RyRs) allowing the release of calcium from the redundant nuclear envelope (RNE), which is required for sperm hyperactivation. Adapted and modified from López-Úbeda and Matás [13].
Other examples of proteins which can undergo S-nitrosylation in sperm and have a known biological significance are the A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) [64]. Both AKAP3 and AKAP4 are present in the fibrous sheath of the sperm flagellum, control PKA activity and undergo phosphorylation during the capacitation process [83–85]. AKAP complexes also modulate the motility of sperm. In fact, phosphodiesterase inhibitors were seen to significantly increase sperm motility [86], whereas PKA-anchoring inhibitor peptides arrested sperm motility [87]. Since the effects of NO on sperm motility are well established, the S-nitrosylation of AKAPs would be an interesting subject for additional studies.
A number of heat shock proteins (HSPs) may also be targets of S-nitrosylation in sperm [64], and some of them have been reported to act as important modulators of sperm capacitation. For instance, Asquith et al. [88] reported that heat shock protein 1 and endoplasmin undergo tyrosine phosphorylation during mouse sperm capacitation, whereas Nixon et al. [89] suggested that they form part of a zona pellucida complex, allowing successful sperm-egg interaction in the same species. Heat shock 70 kDa protein 8 and heat shock protein 90α also undergo tyrosine phosphorylation during human sperm capacitation [83], but whether they function in a zona receptor complex is still unknown [64]. Furthermore, HspA2 has been shown to be a marker of sperm maturity [90], its expression in infertile men with idiopathic oligoteratozoospermia being lower than in normozoospermic men [91].
7. Concluding remarks
In recent years, our knowledge of the involvement of the NOS/NO system in mammalian fertilization has grown, and there is clear evidence that NO acts as a significant modulator of the male and female gamete. However, many aspects regarding the NOS/NO duo, such as the presence of NOS-activating molecule(s) in the fertilization site or how the biological function of the S-nitrosylated proteins changes, remain to be discovered. Shedding light on these mechanisms will increase our understanding of the etiopathology of subfertility/infertility problems and how such problems can be overcome.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by H2020 MSC-ITN-EJD 675526 REP-BIOTECH, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) and the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER), Grants AGL2015–66341-R.
\n',keywords:"nitric oxide, nitric oxide synthase, S-nitrosylation, spermatozoa, fertilization",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/54171.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/54171.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54171",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54171",totalDownloads:1238,totalViews:549,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 18th 2016",dateReviewed:"January 20th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 17th 2017",dateFinished:"February 21st 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Several in vitro studies have pointed to the importance of nitric oxide (NO) in the female and male reproductive system in mammals. Its functions vary from preventing oocyte aging, improving the integrity of the microtubular spindle apparatus in aged oocytes, modulating the contraction of the oviduct, to regulating sperm physiology by affecting the motility, inducing chemotaxis in spermatozoa, regulating tyrosine phosphorylation, enhancing the sperm-zona pellucida binding ability, and modulating the acrosomal reaction. In spermatozoa, NO exerts its functions in different ways, which involve key elements such as the soluble isoform of guanylate cyclase, cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), protein kinase A (PKA), adenylate cyclase, and the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway. Furthermore, NO leads to the S-nitrosylation of several sperm proteins, among them a substantial group associated with energy generation and cell movement, but also with signal transduction, suggesting a role for S-nitrosylation in sperm motility and in modulating the sperm function, respectively. In this chapter, an overview of how NO modulates the sperm physiology is presented, based on the knowledge acquired to this day.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/54171",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/54171",book:{slug:"nitric-oxide-synthase-simple-enzyme-complex-roles"},signatures:"Florentin-Daniel Staicu and Carmen Matas Parra",authors:[{id:"191932",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Matas",fullName:"Carmen Matas",slug:"carmen-matas",email:"cmatas@um.es",position:null,institution:null},{id:"191968",title:"MSc.",name:"Florentin-Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Staicu",fullName:"Florentin-Daniel Staicu",slug:"florentin-daniel-staicu",email:"fldaniel.staicu@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. NOS/NO duo in the reproductive system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Role of NO on sperm functionality",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. NOS-activating molecules",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. NO pathway in spermatozoa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Function of S-nitrosoproteins in spermatozoa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Concluding remarks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Pacher P, Beckman JS, Liaudet L. Nitric oxide and peroxynitrite in health and disease. Physiol Rev. 2007;87(1):315–424. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00029.2006.'},{id:"B2",body:'Halliwell B, Gutteridge JMC. Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine. 3rd ed. Clarendon Press, Oxford:1999.'},{id:"B3",body:'Griffith OW, Stuehr DJ. Nitric oxide synthases: properties and catalytic mechanism. Annu Rev Physiol. 1995;57:707–736. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.003423.'},{id:"B4",body:'Snyder SH. Nitric oxide. No endothelial NO. Nature. 1995;377(6546):196–197. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/377196a0.'},{id:"B5",body:'Rosselli M, Keller PJ, Dubey RK. 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Tyrosine phosphorylation activates surface chaperones facilitating sperm-zona recognition. J Cell Sci. 2004;117(Pt 16):3645–3657. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jcs.01214.'},{id:"B89",body:'Nixon B, Asquith KL, John Aitken R. The role of molecular chaperones in mouse sperm-egg interactions. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2005;240(1–2):1–10. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2005.06.004.'},{id:"B90",body:'Ergur AR, Dokras A, Giraldo JL, Habana A, Kovanci E, Huszar G. Sperm maturity and treatment choice of in vitro fertilization (IVF) or intracytoplasmic sperm injection: diminished sperm HspA2 chaperone levels predict IVF failure. Fertil Steril. 2002;77(5):910–918. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0015–0282(02)03073-X.'},{id:"B91",body:'Cedenho AP, Lima SB, Cenedeze MA, Spaine DM, Ortiz V, Oehninger S. Oligozoospermia and heat-shock protein expression in ejaculated spermatozoa. Hum Reprod. 2006;21(7):1791–1794. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/del055.'},{id:"B92",body:'Guevara I, Iwanejko J, Dembińska-Kieć A, Pankiewicz J, Wanat A, Anna P, Gołabek I, Bartuś S, Malczewska-Malec M, Szczudlik A. Determination of nitrite/nitrate in human biological material by the simple Griess reaction. Clin Chim Acta. 1998;274(2):177–188. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0009–8981(98)00060–6.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Florentin-Daniel Staicu",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Murcia, Spain
Department of Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Murcia, Spain
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Gul Ozkaya",slug:"y.-gul-ozkaya"}]},{id:"38466",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species Act as Signaling Molecules in Liver Carcinogenesis",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species-act-as-signaling-molecules-in-liver-carcinogenesis",signatures:"María Cristina Carrillo, María de Luján Alvarez, Juan Pablo Parody, Ariel Darío Quiroga and María Paula Ceballos",authors:[{id:"142215",title:"PhD.",name:"Maria Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Carrillo",fullName:"Maria Cristina Carrillo",slug:"maria-cristina-carrillo"},{id:"142855",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria De Luján",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez",fullName:"Maria De Luján Alvarez",slug:"maria-de-lujan-alvarez"},{id:"142858",title:"BSc.",name:"Juan Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Parody",fullName:"Juan Pablo Parody",slug:"juan-pablo-parody"},{id:"142859",title:"Dr.",name:"Ariel Darío",middleName:null,surname:"Quiroga",fullName:"Ariel Darío Quiroga",slug:"ariel-dario-quiroga"},{id:"142861",title:"BSc.",name:"Maria Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Ceballos",fullName:"Maria Paula Ceballos",slug:"maria-paula-ceballos"}]},{id:"38459",title:"Lipid Peroxidation and Antioxidants in Arterial Hypertension",slug:"lipid-peroxidation-and-antioxidants-in-arterial-hypertension",signatures:"Teresa Sousa, Joana Afonso, António Albino-Teixeira and Félix Carvalho",authors:[{id:"131252",title:"Prof.",name:"Félix",middleName:null,surname:"Carvalho",fullName:"Félix Carvalho",slug:"felix-carvalho"},{id:"140800",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:null,surname:"Albino-Teixeira",fullName:"António Albino-Teixeira",slug:"antonio-albino-teixeira"},{id:"142410",title:"Prof.",name:"Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa",fullName:"Teresa Sousa",slug:"teresa-sousa"},{id:"142411",title:"MSc.",name:"Joana",middleName:null,surname:"Afonso",fullName:"Joana Afonso",slug:"joana-afonso"}]},{id:"38476",title:"Lipid Peroxidation and Reperfusion Injury in Hypertrophied Hearts",slug:"lipid-peroxidation-and-reperfusion-injury-in-hypertrophied-hearts",signatures:"Juliana C. Fantinelli, Ignacio A. Pérez Núñez, Luisa F. González Arbeláez and Susana M. Mosca",authors:[{id:"98613",title:"Dr.",name:"Susana",middleName:null,surname:"Mosca",fullName:"Susana Mosca",slug:"susana-mosca"}]},{id:"38455",title:"Lipid Peroxidation by-Products and the Metabolic Syndrome",slug:"lipid-peroxidation-by-products-and-the-metabolic-syndrome",signatures:"Nicolas J. Pillon and Christophe O. Soulage",authors:[{id:"139163",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",middleName:"Jean",surname:"Pillon",fullName:"Nicolas Pillon",slug:"nicolas-pillon"},{id:"139829",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:null,surname:"Soulage",fullName:"Christophe Soulage",slug:"christophe-soulage"}]},{id:"38475",title:"Region Specific Vulnerability to Lipid Peroxidation in the Human Central Nervous System",slug:"region-specific-vulnerability-to-lipid-peroxidation-in-the-human-central-nervous-system",signatures:"Alba Naudí, Mariona Jové, Victòria Ayala, Omar Ramírez, Rosanna Cabré, Joan Prat, Manuel Portero-Otin, Isidre Ferrer and Reinald Pamplona",authors:[{id:"139955",title:"Prof.",name:"Reinald",middleName:null,surname:"Pamplona",fullName:"Reinald Pamplona",slug:"reinald-pamplona"}]},{id:"38474",title:"Role of Lipid Peroxidation in the Pathogenesis of Age-Related Cataract",slug:"role-of-lipid-peroxidation-in-the-pathogenesis-of-age-related-cataract",signatures:"Bojana Kisic, Dijana Miric, Lepsa Zoric and Aleksandra Ilic",authors:[{id:"139383",title:"Prof.",name:"Bojana",middleName:null,surname:"Kisic",fullName:"Bojana Kisic",slug:"bojana-kisic"},{id:"150937",title:"Prof.",name:"Dijana",middleName:null,surname:"Miric",fullName:"Dijana Miric",slug:"dijana-miric"},{id:"150938",title:"Prof.",name:"Lepsa",middleName:null,surname:"Zoric",fullName:"Lepsa Zoric",slug:"lepsa-zoric"},{id:"150939",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ilic",fullName:"Aleksandra Ilic",slug:"aleksandra-ilic"}]},{id:"38462",title:"Lipid Peroxidation in Hepatic Fibrosis",slug:"lipid-peroxidation-in-hepatic-fibrosis",signatures:"Ichiro Shimizu, Noriko Shimamoto, Katsumi Saiki, Mai Furujo and Keiko Osawa",authors:[{id:"142420",title:"Dr.",name:"Ichiro",middleName:null,surname:"Shimizu",fullName:"Ichiro Shimizu",slug:"ichiro-shimizu"}]},{id:"38463",title:"Use of CoA Biosynthesis Modulators and Selenoprotein Model Substance in Correction of Brain Ischemic and Reperfusion Injuries",slug:"use-of-coa-biosynthesis-modulators-and-selenoprotein-model-substance-in-correction-of-brain-ischemic",signatures:"Nina P. Kanunnikova, Natalya Z. Bashun and Andrey G. Moiseenok",authors:[{id:"142487",title:"Prof.",name:"Nina",middleName:null,surname:"Kanunnikova",fullName:"Nina Kanunnikova",slug:"nina-kanunnikova"},{id:"142491",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalya",middleName:null,surname:"Bashun",fullName:"Natalya Bashun",slug:"natalya-bashun"},{id:"142503",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey",middleName:null,surname:"Moiseenok",fullName:"Andrey Moiseenok",slug:"andrey-moiseenok"}]},{id:"38464",title:"Lipid Peroxidation and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers – A Toxicological Perspective",slug:"lipid-peroxidation-and-polybrominated-diphenyl-ethers-a-toxicological-perspective",signatures:"Mary C. Vagula and Elisa M. Konieczko",authors:[{id:"141806",title:"Dr.",name:"Mary",middleName:null,surname:"Vagula",fullName:"Mary Vagula",slug:"mary-vagula"},{id:"150947",title:"Prof.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Konieczko",fullName:"Elisa Konieczko",slug:"elisa-konieczko"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73513",title:"New Generation Aero Combustor",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93916",slug:"new-generation-aero-combustor",body:'
1. Introduction
What are new generation aero combustors?
Aero gas turbine engine combustors have been developed over 80 years. It does not matter if it is a civil engine combustor, or military engine combustor. They are all developed under one line, that is, towards higher performance, higher reliability, and lower fuel consumption.
On 1977, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) published a document named “Control of Aircraft Engine Emissions”. Since then aero combustors have entered a new era, it is that of low emissions combustors. The requirements for low emissions are different for civil aero combustor versus military aero combustor. For civil aero combustors, their emissions are regulated by ICAO Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CEAP) [1]. The standard has been developed from CEAP 1, CEAP 2, CEAP 4, CEAP 6, now it is CEAP 8. It is getting more and more restrictive. Now-a-days, any civil aero engine thrust higher than 26.7 KN must be in accordance with the CEAP 8 standard. Their emissions of nitrous oxide (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), unburnt hydrocarbon (UHC), and smoke shall all be controlled. Actually, an aero engine company is required to report the percentage their engine combustor will produce of each type of emission lower than the corresponding CEAP specified.
Because of the requirement of continuous improvement for reduction of fuel consumption, civil aero engines have development in two aspects. An aero engine as a propulsion unit has propulsion efficiency. This is to increase bypass ratio. On the other aspect, an aero engine is also a thermal engine, it has thermal efficiency. The way to improve its thermal efficiency is to increase the pressure ratio of the engine (at the same time, increase turbine inlet temperature appropriately). Thus, for several decades engine pressure ratio has been going up all the time, from nearly 10, then 20, 30, 40, 50, and pressure ratio 60 aero engines has been certified, will be in service soon. New generation civil aero engines will achieve a high pressure ratio of 70.
Conclusion: a new generation civil aero combustor is a high pressure low emissions combustor.
For a military aero engine, the most important development target is to have a higher thrust-to-weight ratio. In order to improve thrust-to-weight ratio, the engine shall have higher turbine inlet temperature (or higher combustor fuel air ratio, FAR) and increase the engine pressure ratio appropriately. Thus, the military aero combustor FAR has been increased from lower than 0.02 to 0.03, to 0.038, to 0.046. The new generation military aero combustor will have FAR, 0.051. Notice that a high FAR combustor is also called a high temperature rise combustor.
Conclusion: new generation military aero combustor is high FAR combustor.
2. Design of high FAR combustor
For a military aero combustor, there is no 30% power condition, no 85% power condition, and no maximum cruise condition. There is a ground idle condition, maximum power condition (or 100% power condition) and cruise conditions at different altitudes and different Mach numbers. There is a high altitude idle condition. Particularly there is low altitude not-so-low Mach number penetration dash condition. In this condition, the combustor inlet pressure may be even higher than at the take-off condition. The inlet air temperature is very close to the take-off condition and FAR is only a little lower than take-off condition. At this condition, liner wall temperature higher than that at take-off condition is possible.
Don Bahr [2] reported that there are two major problems for high temperature rise combustor design; they are idle lean blow out (LBO) and liner cooling. According to present author’s experience, it is true that these two issues are critical for high FAR combustor design and development. But there are other issues too. The design reported in this chapter is mainly from reference [3].
2.1 Idle LBO
For military aero combustor idle LBO issues, the present author proposed several design approaches. One approach is that, there is a concentric “twin” combustion zone concept. That is, the pilot fuel air combustion zone is at the center, main fuel air combustion zone is surrounding the pilot fuel air combustion zone, with some separation. Significantly, a reduction of the main air quenching effect on pilot fuel air combustion is performed. This is the way to improve idle LBO. The annular combustor has several fuel air modules, the fuel air module configuration is shown in Figure 1. This multiple swirler dome design is very different from reference [4]. The pilot fuel air module consists of a pressure swirl fuel nozzle and an axial air swirler. The main air module has a distance radially away from pilot module. This distance is from pilot module exit diameter to the inner diameter of main module annular exit. In this design it is 0.95 in.
Figure 1.
Fuel-air module [3].
The second design approach for solving idle LBO issue is the combustion zone aerodynamics. As shown in Figure 1, the main air module consists of two portions, one third is non-swirling air on inner side and two thirds is swirling air. The pilot module air is having weak swirling. Together with the separation distance, the combustion zone aerodynamics is shown in Figure 2. The combustion aerodynamics is low swirling. But in the present design, there is combination of swirling air and non-swirling air, which is rather different from reference [5]. The key feature is that the main air flow is just slipping and passing through pilot air recirculation without mixing with pilot air, that is the most important factor for reducing main air quenching effect on idle condition pilot fuel air combustion.
Figure 2.
Air flow pattern [3].
The third design approach for solving idle LBO issue is design of pilot fuel air combustion. Pilot fuel air combustion, pilot air alone module and pilot fuel nozzle are designed at idle condition, not at maximum condition. For high FAR combustor, its idle condition FAR is higher than idle FAR for civil combustor. At the idle condition, if only the pilot fuel is working, when approaching flame out, the pilot fuel nozzle pressure drop will be very low, which is harmful for LBO (it is not practical that at idle condition pilot fuel nozzle pressure drop is extremely high, such as higher than 200 psig). Thus, it needs main fuel to be open to work together with pilot fuel combustion. At the idle condition, its fuel flow is split at 70% pilot fuel and 30% main fuel. 70% idle fuel flow together with pilot module air to form an idle pilot fuel combustion at equivalence ratio 1.2 and based on this design criteria to determine pilot air fraction within the combustion air. At idle condition, 30% main fuel with co-flowing air to provide idle main fuel combustion equivalence ratio 1.2 to determine co-flowing air amount. At idle condition, the main fuel injection pressure drop is very low, main fuel jet spray with co-flowing air is collapsed with pilot fuel combustion. Pilot fuel nozzle operation is designed at idle. At idle condition pilot fuel nozzle pressure drop is 120 psig. Based on this design approach to determine pilot fuel nozzle flow number (FN). There is a flow divider valve between the pilot fuel nozzle and the main fuel injector. The crack pressure for this flow divider valve is a critical design parameter. It needs to have an initial choice, then after both pilot fuel and main fuel design finished for the whole power condition range, it may be modified several times. Pilot fuel nozzle spray angle is 90 degree. The pilot air module inlet swirler is a thin curved blade low swirling axial swirler. The inlet effective flow area (ACd) is much higher than exit ACd to let the exit be the flow metering device.
High FAR combustor idle LBO design is related to many aspects. There are several design choices which must be balanced, making many times modification to have an all-round good solution. These design choices are:
Idle condition, main fuel-pilot fuel division
Idle condition, pilot fuel combustion equivalence ratio (determine pilot combustion air fraction).
Idle condition main fuel and coaxial flowing air FAR ratio (determine co-flowing air amount)
Idle condition, pilot fuel nozzle pressure drops (determine pilot nozzle flow number)
Idle condition, main fuel injection pressure drops
Flow divider valve crack pressure (affect at maximum condition, difference of injection pressure drop between pilot nozzle and main fuel injector, affect required maximum pump pressure capability)
Maximum condition pilot fuel and main fuel division (determine maximum condition pilot fuel combustion and main fuel combustion equivalence ratio)
The final design shall have good idle LBO, appropriate maximum condition pilot fuel and main fuel combustion equivalence ratio (none of them may exceed 1.2), and a maximum fuel nozzle pressure drop which is not higher than 800 psig.
Conclusion: with these design measures, a high FAR combustor idle LBO problem is solved [3].
2.2 Design of maximum condition
Design of maximum condition is to reach both pilot fuel and main fuel combustion near stoichiometric combustion to determine the total combustion air fraction [3]. For example, if the combustor FAR is 0.051, combustion air is 75% to have combustion FAR 0.051/0.75 = 0.068, which is an equivalence ratio of one. Then the main fuel combustion air fraction is total combustion air minus the pilot combustion air fraction.
Main fuel air combustion design is concentrated on main fuel injection. As shown in Figure 1, main fuel is co-axial air flowing plain jet fuel injection. There is an angle, between main injection center line and module center line, which is 15 degree in this design. This injection angle is a critical design choice. At the low power condition, main fuel injection pressure drop is very low, main fuel will not penetrate far away, thus main fuel will burn with pilot fuel combustion. At maximum power condition, main fuel injection pressure drop is very high, the spray will penetrate radially out to meet main air to form direct mixing combustion. Here the design idea is to make use of the change of penetration to suit low power condition and high-power condition [3]. That is the reason why the main fuel injection must be with an angle relative to module center line. Main fuel injection pressure drop at maximum condition is very high, hopefully higher than 600 psig. Somewhere between 40% to 60% power condition, there will be a situation the main fuel spray will detach from the pilot fuel combustion to form a separate main fuel air combustion zone. Main fuel penetration and mixing with main air is critical to form non-visible smoke, to have non-luminous flame, to have high efficiency at maximum power condition. Because of the need for high penetration, the main fuel injector is not a hole, but a section of straight tubing of diameter 0.03 in. Notice that the present author does not call main fuel injection as co-axial air blast atomization, but rather air co-flowing plain jet injection. In studies on such injection, it was found that under very low liquid injection pressure drop, it is air blast atomization, at medium injection pressure drop, it is air assist atomization, with very high liquid injection pressure drop, it is air retard atomization. Air retard atomization is a new term. It is a case where air does not help atomization of a finer drop size, but hurts atomization by becoming a coarser drop size. Actually, this is good. This is because with very fine droplets, the spray cannot penetrate far out, while for main fuel combustion, at high power condition, penetration is more important than drop size. But it is not the more penetration the better, for fuel injection the present author shall take atomization, penetration, dispersion and fuel air mixing all four aspects into consideration.
Notice that the circumferential distribution of main fuel injectors may be uniform or may be non-uniform. For example, main fuel injector positioning may start other than 12 o’clock position. The different main fuel injector circumferential arrangement is for minor adjustment of exit radial temperature and FAR profile because there is no dilution air.
3. Other issues
3.1 Combustion efficiency
High FAR combustor has a combustion efficiency issue. Some designer mentioned that for high FAR combustor, at maximum power condition, its efficiency can only be 98%, it is because of chemical dissociation. The present author has studied chemical dissociation. It will have significant effect on efficiency at higher temperature. For aviation kerosene and air combustion, at stoichiometric fuel air ratio, the effect of chemical dissociation will not be so much. Thus, for well-organized high FAR combustion, its combustion efficiency shall be higher than 98%.
3.2 Exit distribution
Notice here the title is only exit distribution, not exit temperature distribution. In reference [6], it was reported that for high FAR combustor exit temperature radial profile is different from exit FAR radial profile, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Difference between temperature defined and FAR defined radial distribution parameter [6].
If Figure 3 is a true situation in the engine, that is very harmful. This is because the over rich combustion gas entering turbine, meeting with turbine cooling air, will result in additional burning which can totally destroy local turbine cooling. But this was some work done more than 20 years ago. At that time the combustion organization for high FAR combustor was poor. Combustion was rather non-uniform. From present design, the high FAR combustion is well organized, there will not be such severe difference. The temperature defined radial profile and FAR defined radial profile will be of same shape. But the point reported in reference [6] is very important. It shows that to delete some extremely rich pockets in the combustor exit is of very high importance. It also shows in addition to temperature defined exit radial profile, there shall be FAR defined exit radial profile.
3.3 Visible smoke
High FAR combustor must avoid visible smoke. This requirement is not only for the maximum condition, it is for all operational conditions. For smoke reduction, fuel additives method cannot be used [7]. To avoid maximum condition visible smoke, design at maximum condition combustion fuel air ratio is stoichiometric, particularly pilot fuel combustion shall not be over rich, avoid any possible local over rich pocket, and the whole combustion FAR shall be uniform. In reference [2], Don Bahr reported the number one issue for high temperature rise combustors is the contradiction between high power condition visible smoke and idle LBO. As mentioned in this chapter, if the idle LBO problem is to be solved, then the design may significantly increase combustion air fraction, such as for combustor FAR 0.051, combustion air is 75%. Then the combustor cannot have primary air holes. Also, there is no dilution air holes. That brings liner configuration greatly changed. Also needs to use other design measures to have exit distribution adjusted.
3.4 High altitude ignition
As combustion air fraction is significantly increased, there is a high altitude ignition issue. For a high FAR combustor, it is required to have 35000 ft reliable ignition. It is more severe than civil aero combustor requirement, which usually has a 30000 ft ignition. Also, it is not only required to have ignition, it must provide engine with quick pull-up. That is after high altitude ignition, the combustion efficiency must be appropriately good for pull-up.
Two major design measures for high altitude ignition are:
Enlarge the liner cross sectional area. Liner cross sectional area is, at least equal to 12 times combustion air ACd
Using small FN pilot fuel nozzle. That is the reason why at idle condition pilot fuel nozzle injection pressure drop at least 120 psig
3.5 NO2 issue
A high FAR combustor has a special issue, that is exhaust nitrogen dioxide (NO2). This is an environmental issue, NO2 is toxic. When NO2 exhausted to atmosphere it will combine with water vapor to form nitrous acid (HNO2) and nitric acid (HNO3), they are volatile micro matter. But for military combustor, it is related to visible exhaust.
NO2 is a brown color gas, at 50 ppm volume concentration, it is visible. It has been seen in previous aero engine operation with afterburner working. Thus, the design requirement is that combustor exhaust raw NO2 concentration lower than 50 ppm (not converted to 15% oxygen concentration). In combustor, chemical reaction mainly generates NO, but under some conditions NO will be converted to NO2. Chemical reaction NO plus HO2 will become NO2 plus OH. That will be the case when high temperature combustion gas meets cold air temperature 1100 degree F. Particularly if in combustor there is some UHC, UHC will accelerate the NO2 formation reaction. Notice that if soot particle combined with NO2 their visible concentration limit will be lower than when each of them counting separately. To control NO2 from a high FAR combustor, the combustor designer needs to do three things:
Manage to reduce the total NOx level [8]. This is very difficult. At stoichiometric combustion, NOx is at 1000 ppm level. Even with rather low NO2 over NOx ratio, which is about 8%, NO2 is at 80 ppm level
Avoid direct contact between high temperature combustion gas with cold cooling air
Try to reduce UHC
3.6 Cooling
Reference [9] is important for liner cooling. The author reported it is not right try to make use of air flow passing through liner wall material absorbing heat to solve liner cooling issues, which was the way Lamilloy developer used.
For high FAR combustor, liner cooling is another very big issue. The present author cooling design is effusion cooling with brand new cooling hole configuration. Experiments have proven they are much more effective than conventional cooling configuration.
3.6.1 Outer liner cooling
The outer liner cooling configuration is shown in Figure 4 [3]. The same configuration may also be used for tubular combustor. It is a tangential hole, but not totally tangential, it is a compound angle tangential hole. As shown in Figure 5, the axial direction angle is to prevent the upstream air jets impinging the downstream cooling air jets. 15 degree angle is only an example. The designed axial direction angle shall be based on axial spacing and circumferential spacing. It is Arctan (H/3*S), as shown in Figure 5. From cooling hole center line to the wall inner surface there is a short distance. The minimum distance is half hole diameter. Of course, if the hole is perfectly tangential to the inner wall that is the best. Because it will be the most compact air flow. Depending on liner wall manufacturing, this distance may be more than half hole diameter. For a machined tubular liner, it is half the hole diameter plus 0.005 in. For a large diameter liner formed by sheet metal rolled and welded, this distance may be half hole diameter plus 0.02 in, depending on the liner roundness to avoid laser drilling blind hole.
Figure 4.
Cooling hole configuration for annular or tubular liner [3].
Figure 5.
Design of the axial direction angle in compound angle tangential inlet cooling hole configuration [3].
Such cooling configuration design is based on the present author’s long-time cooling study. The most important concept for liner cooling is not how to have cooling air passing liner wall internal passage absorbing more heat, such as Lamilloy (or Transply). That is no good. It is how to form a compact cooling air layer sticking on wall surface. The present author’s cooling design is based on such concept. The compound angle tangential cooling hole will form such a thin, compact air layer sticking on wall surface, to force the convective heat transfer from hot wall to the lower temperature cooling air layer, instead of from gas to wall.
Of course, the longer cooling hole length is helpful for liner cooling. As shown in Figure 6, by author’s own calculation, if liner diameter 25 in, cooling hole diameter 0.02 in, hole center line to inner wall surface is 0.03 in, cooling hole length, as defined by the hole center line length, is 0.8 in. This is good for liner cooing. It shall be stressed that the major advantage of this cooling design is not the long hole length. Instead, it is the cooling effectiveness. For a properly designed and manufactured cooling hole arrangement, very often the cooling effectiveness is 100%. From video an air layer is spirally flowing around the liner surface. That is why the cooling effectiveness is very good. The major weakness of Lamilloy is not its air passage inside of liner material is too short, it is the hole exit flow vertical to the wall surface, there will be more mixing of cooling air with the combustion gas, thus cooling effectiveness is low.
Figure 6.
Tangential compound angle cooling hole length changed with the distance from hole centerline to liner inner surface for tubular and outer annular liner, hole diameter 0.02”.
For outer liner or tubular liner compound angle tangential cooling hole the discharge coefficient can be 0.86. The discharge coefficient depends on laser drilling. If the laser drilled hole likes something “dog bite”, then the discharge coefficient will be lower. If laser drilling technology is available for even smaller holes, it is desirable to have smaller hole but more number of holes.
3.6.2 Inner liner cooling
Inner liner cooling is very different from outer liner cooling. Because if using the same configuration, the cooling air will flow away from the wall surface to mix with combustion gas, which is very bad for cooling result.
Inner liner cooling configuration design is based on one concept that two compound angle tangential flowing air jets impinged at wall surface to form a pure axial direction cooling air layer. The design is shown in Figure 7 [3]. The impinged two jets must have axial direction angle. As shown in Figure 8 this axial direction angle must be larger than a certain value to avoid the impinged jets forming reversed flow. The minimum axial direction angle depends on liner diameter. Of course, no need to have axial direction angle greater than the necessary one.
Figure 7.
Cooling hole configuration for inner liner [3].
Figure 8.
For inner liner cooling hole, there must be axial direction angle [3].
In a conventional combustor there are machined cooling air rings, which has one advantage, which is that the cooling air is flowing in the axial direction. However, the machined ring has a lip, which is life limiting factor. Now the newly designed inner liner cooling configuration has truly axial direction flow cooling air, but without a life limiting factor.
Such inner liner cooling configuration is very good. But it brings some challenges to laser drilling. Particularly drilling very small holes.
Such cooling designs are suitable for high FAR combustor, suitable for low emissions combustor, actually suitable for all kind gas turbine combustors.
4. High pressure low emissions combustor design
For a very high pressure civil aero combustor, it cannot use lean pre-vaporized-premixed (LPP) combustion. Because for an engine of pressure ratio 70, its combustor inlet conditions (inlet temperature and inlet pressure) are so high that the autoignition delay time is extremely short, that will not provide any useful reduction of NOx, but suffer very high risk of auto-ignition. From reference [10], auto-ignition delay time for aviation fuel at high pressure and high inlet temperature were obtained (pressure at 40 atm, temperature at 900 K, not so high as up to pressure ratio 70). The present author derived a calculation model, the pre-ignition chemical reaction and heat release were correlated by fitting the prediction to the experimental data. Then using the model to predict auto-ignition delay time for pressure 70 engine combustor inlet condition. The delay time is 0.31 msec. With a safety factor of 2, the usable premixing time is 0.155 msec. That is really no meaning to design an LPP combustion. Thus, it can only be non-premixing combustion. But for low NOx, at high power condition, fuel and air shall still be well mixed. Then it must be direct mixing combustion. Actually, for a high FAR combustor, it is also direct mixing combustion. The difference between these two direct mixing combustions is that, for a low emissions combustor, it is lean direct mixing (LDM) combustion, for high FAR combustor, it is stoichiometric direct mixing combustion.
4.1 LDM vs. LDI
More than 20 years ago, someone suggested using lean direct injection (LDI) combustion. The suggestion was very simple, only a sketch. Actually, direct fuel injection was not a new concept. All conventional aero combustors (except vaporizer combustor) have fuel direct injection. There was no explanation from LDI suggestion, how to design a combustor for low emissions. Later on, several fuel air module configurations were proposed and tested. Unfortunately, the emissions were no good. Even more trouble is the fact that these fuel air module configurations cannot be integrated on to engine combustor.
Present author proposed lean direct mixing concept. The concept has put stress on one thing that the major design approach shall be concentrated on how to improve high power condition fuel air direct mixing. And the fuel air module proposed by the present author, is based on basic mixing concept, with realistically mechanical design, it can truly be integrated on to engine combustor.
Conclusion: for high pressure low emissions combustor, it is LDM, not LDI.
4.2 Mixing concept
For good fuel air mixing, fuel and air shall have close contact. There must be small scale mixing. Thus, the fuel air module shall be of small size. From many years combustion research, combustor design and development, combustor test, the present author has defined one very good and simple small size fuel air module. It is one single axial flow air swirler, and in the center position, there is a simple pressure swirl fuel nozzle. Such combination will offer good efficiency and flame stabilization at low conditions (such as idle condition) with near stoichiometric combustion, while at high power condition, it is very close to premixing situation, if it is lean burn, it offers low emission index (EI) of NOx. There is a fundamental reason. At a high power condition, fuel injection pressure is high, atomization spray drop size is fine, with high air temperature, fuel evaporation is rather quick. Then with appropriate air swirling, fuel air mixing is good. The flame zone cannot distinguish if it as a pre-vaporized, premixed fuel air mixture in a premixed module, or if it is mixed out of module during the flowing process before reaching the flame zone. For combustion these two cases do not have a significant difference. That is the reason why at a high power condition, with high pressure, such small size one single axial air swirler plus one simple pressure swirl fuel nozzle will provide very good NOx output. Because of its small size, that means the whole combustor must have large number of modules. In this case, fuel air modules arrangement on dome and their installation on combustor must have good design.
4.3 Direct mixing fuel air module design
The direct mixing fuel air module for high pressure low emissions combustor is shown in Figure 9 [11]. The design is very simple. At the inlet there is an axial swirler of low swirling strength, geometrical swirling angle is 35 degree, with thin swirler curved blade of thickness 0.045 in. It is suggested using 0.88 for swirler discharge efficient. In the center there is a simple pressure swirl fuel nozzle. The module has a convergent section of half angle 45 degree at exit. The fuel nozzle exit surface is at the throat section (0.02 in) downstream side. There is a very short divergent section of half angle 75 degree. It is not for aerodynamics, such as a “swirl-venturi”. It is for a structural purpose, in the module floating design. The module exit has a cross sectional area ACd smaller than the inlet ACd. That makes the exit a metering device.
Figure 9.
Fuel-air module [11].
4.4 Arrangement of fuel air modules on dome
The arrangement of large number fuel air modules on dome is shown in Figure 10. All fuel nozzles are of same size, all air-alone modules are aerodynamically the same and all the same size. Air-alone modules are staying on dome, only fuel nozzles are installed from air casing. This design idea is from the GE LM 6000 industrial low emissions combustor [12]. In the LM 6000, there are large number of premixed fuel (natural gas) and air modules. As they are premixed modules, the size is big, thus the opening on air casing is rather large. For the present design, the module is not premixed, only fuel nozzle is passing through air casing, the opening can be much smaller.
Figure 10.
On dome fuel-air module arrangement [11].
In Figure 10, altogether there are 80 fuel air modules. Distributed in three rows. From outer liner towards inner liner, they are 32, 32, 16 modules. The whole combustor is having three stages, as shown in Figure 10, first stage is idle condition, 16 modules are working. Second stage is from 20% power condition to 50% power condition, 32 modules working. Third stage is from 50% power condition to 100% power condition, all modules are working.
4.5 Installation of fuel nozzles on dome
Fuel nozzles are not installed individually. They are installed in cluster nozzles. There are two types of cluster nozzle. One is three fuel nozzles in one cluster, the other is two fuel nozzles in one cluster. Because the fuel nozzles in one cluster are all in the same stage, so inside the cluster stem there is only one fuel line. That will simplify the cluster nozzle. The cluster of three fuel nozzles is shown in Figure 11. From liner axial direction, the cluster is close to one fuel nozzle size. The opening on air casing is not big, as shown in Figure 12, it is only an ellipse of one inch times two inches, much smaller than the opening on LM 6000 air casing. It is because of two reasons: first, in this design only the fuel nozzle passes through the air casing. The air-alone module does not pass through the air casing. In the LM 6000, fuel injector and air module together pass through the air casing. Second, in this design in one cluster, nozzles are all in the same stage, that makes cluster simplified and reduces the size. During installation, in one three nozzle cluster, three nozzles shall be installed onto dome to match three air module center holes, that requires very accurate manufacturing and accurate assembly. The same situation for two nozzle cluster installation. This is the reason as shown in Figure 9, there is a floating design. It allows the air-alone module moving in either direction 0.03 in. In this design, only the middle row air-alone modules are welded with dome without floating design, other air modules are all with floating design to make the assembly easier.
Figure 11.
Cluster of 3 nozzles [11].
Figure 12.
Opening on air casing for cluster fuel nozzles [11].
4.6 Air distribution and liner cross sectional area
For a high pressure low emissions combustor, its air flow distribution is combustion air 75% and cooling air 25%. The liner layout has no primary air holes, no dilution air holes. Liner cross sectional area is designed by 12 times combustion air ACd, or it can also be designed as liner average Mach number 0.02. The Mach number is defined by that, air flow rate is combustion air, sonic velocity is defined by inlet air temperature, air density is defined by inlet air pressure, inlet air temperature.
Notice the design choices will always need several times modification, make good balance between the following items:
Liner average diameter (affect total number of modules and the circumferential spacing between modules)
For module installation, the required minimum floating distance (may affect the locations of modules with floating design)
The key item is the total number of fuel air modules. That will affect the ACd for each air module and module size, also affect fuel nozzle flow number and whole fuel air module arrangement on dome.
4.7 Fuel nozzle design
Fuel nozzle is designed for the maximum condition. At the 100% condition, the nozzle injection pressure drop is between 400 psig and 800 psig. At the idle condition, fuel nozzle pressure drop is 120 psig. At all operational conditions, such as before one new stage is opened, nozzle pressure drop shall not be higher than 800 psig and just after a new stage is opened, nozzle pressure drop is not less than 100 psig.
Since it is for a high pressure low emissions combustor, there needs to be a fuel pump with very high pressure capacity.
The control of fuel staging is simple on-off valve.
4.8 90-degree sector combustor design
90 degree sector combustor design is shown in Figure 13, which is a rectangular shape, not a fan shape. Previously a 90 degree sector was usually cut from a full annular combustor, the cost was a whole full annular combustor. And the traversing gear to measure exit temperature distribution is complicated. From present author’s experience, using a rectangular 90 degree sector will not affect the combustor development, its aerodynamics will not be affected. Two side walls are water cooled with no effect on air distribution. The combustion data will be taken from the middle 60 degree sector. The rectangular 90 degree sector design idea is taken from reference [13]. In reference [13], the recommended 90 degree rectangular sector is shown in Figure 14, which was designed by the present author.
Figure 13.
Sector combustor of 20 fuel-air modules.
Figure 14.
Sector test combustor (shown with 3 fuel injectors) [13].
5. Combustor performances
This high pressure low emissions combustor design has good combustion performances. First, the high power condition EI NOx is good, which is very close to a well-developed LPP system. The high pressure EI NOx can be easily obtained by single module tubular combustor test.
High altitude ignition is good, because as shown in Figure 10, the fuel nozzle spray for ignition is rather close to ignitor and there is no other air in-between spray and ignitor.
Flame stabilization is good. Idle LBO is good for two reasons:
The combustion equivalence ratio for working fuel air module is 1.2
As shown in Figure 10, at idle condition there are 8 modules working as a group in one combustion zone. There is not much non-working module air quenching effect. Particularly there are two working module flames which are protected by the surrounding flames. They support each other, make the idle LBO a very good one.
For the 30% power condition, as the designed working modules combustion equivalence ratio is close to one, which is good flame stabilization for the storm weather heavy rain test.
As it is non-premixed, lean direct mixing combustion with low swirling, there will not be severe combustion instability.
For exit temperature distribution, the pattern factor is low. Because there is small scale mixing, it is close to uniform heat release combustion.
For the exit radial profile, this design has its natural feature for good radial profile. If there needs some minor adjustment, the designer may easily move the two fuel nozzle cluster and related air modules radially just a little bit.
One additional advantage for this combustor design is that, for high pressure low emissions combustor development, very often there is a lack of such a high pressure and high air flow rate test facility to run up to the 100% power condition. When there are such facilities, the running cost is very high. For this combustor design, only 1.25% of 100% power condition air flow is required for single module tubular combustor test. That is, the designer can run a large number of tests to verify the effect of pressure, air temperature, FAR on EI NOx to correlate an equation of
EINOx=fP,T,FARE1
That gives the designer opportunity to study the combustion in depth.
6. Summary of this chapter
The new generation civil aero combustor is a high pressure (such as 70 atm) low emissions combustor. The new generation military aero combustor is a high FAR (such as 0.051) combustor. For combustion organization, they are both direct mixing combustion. For the civil combustor, it is a lean direct mixing combustion concept. For the military combustor, it is a stoichiometric direct mixing combustion concept. They both require a high combustion air fraction, such as 75%. The liner will have no primary holes, no dilution holes. Cooling air is reduced to 25%. There must be advanced cooling technology. The liner design for the new generation aero combustor has been reported in this chapter. New generation aero combustor also needs some more technology development.
As 75% air coming into liner through dome, there needs to be a new inlet diffuser design. The new diffuser design for the new generation aero combustor will be reported somewhere else by the present author
The new generation aero combustor needs a new liner material, which is ceramic matrix composites (CMC). Such technology is available. For further development, two problems need to be solved. One is how to drill tiny small cooling holes on CMC. The other is how to connect CMC with metal parts. For the second problem, there needs a transition region, from metal gradually change to CMC, then CMC part can easily weld or connect to metal parts
The new generation aero combustor will require to be fabricated with additive manufacturing (or 3-D printing manufacturing). Such technology is available. It needs further development to be used for liner dome parts, in addition to fuel nozzles, currently made by such technology
New generation aero combustor shall have laser ignition technology. This technology is not available now. It will be particularly useful for high altitude ignition. Such technology shall be developed in the future.
\n',keywords:"low emissions combustor, high FAR combustor, fuel air module design, liner cooling design, lean direct mixing combustion, idle LBO",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73513.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73513.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73513",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73513",totalDownloads:123,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 9th 2020",dateReviewed:"September 7th 2020",datePrePublished:"November 16th 2020",datePublished:"February 17th 2021",dateFinished:"October 8th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The purpose of this study is to identify the technology for next generation aero combustors, and to propose totally new combustor design approaches. Next generation aero combustors need very high combustion air fraction, that brings idle lean blow out (LBO) problem. The present study suggests several measures to solve this problem, including: pilot and main two concentric combustion zones with separation, aerodynamic design to have main air slipping by pilot combustion zones, etc. For high fuel air ratio (FAR) combustor, the present authors propose using angled main fuel co-axial air plain jet injection. Make use of different penetration to meet the need for low power and high power conditions. For low emissions combustor, the present authors use small scale close contact fuel-air mixing with fuel staging to have low emissions at the same time to have good idle, good high altitude ignition, etc. Brand new cooling designs are proposed for outliner and inner liner. This chapter is mainly a survey of present author’s own research. The results of this study will provide guideline for the development of next generation aero combustors.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73513",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73513",signatures:"Jushan Chin and Jin Dang",book:{id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",fullTitle:"Renewable Energy - Technologies and Applications",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",publishedDate:"February 17th 2021",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-001-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-000-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-002-3",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"323759",title:"Prof.",name:"Jushan",middleName:null,surname:"Chin",fullName:"Jushan Chin",slug:"jushan-chin",email:"jschin2016@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"326768",title:"Dr.",name:"Jin",middleName:null,surname:"Dang",fullName:"Jin Dang",slug:"jin-dang",email:"dangj1@uci.edu",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Design of high FAR combustor",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Idle LBO",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Design of maximum condition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Other issues",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Combustion efficiency",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Exit distribution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3 Visible smoke",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.4 High altitude ignition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.5 NO2 issue",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.6 Cooling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.6.1 Outer liner cooling",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.6.2 Inner liner cooling",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. High pressure low emissions combustor design",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.1 LDM vs. LDI",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.2 Mixing concept",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.3 Direct mixing fuel air module design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.4 Arrangement of fuel air modules on dome",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.5 Installation of fuel nozzles on dome",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"4.6 Air distribution and liner cross sectional area",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"4.7 Fuel nozzle design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"4.8 90-degree sector combustor design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23",title:"5. Combustor performances",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"6. Summary of this chapter",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Secretariat IC. Annex 16—Environmental Protection Volume II—Aircraft Engine Emissions. ISBN 978-92-9231-123-02008; 2008'},{id:"B2",body:'Bahr DW. Technology for the Design of High Temperature Rise Combustors. Journal of Propulsion and Power. 1987 Mar;3(2):179-86'},{id:"B3",body:'Chin J. Suggestions on High Temperature Rise Combustor. In AIAA Propulsion and Energy 2019 Forum 2019 (p. 4327)'},{id:"B4",body:'KRESS E, Taylor J, Dodds W. Multiple Swirler Dome Combustor for High Temperature Rise Applications. In 26th Joint Propulsion Conference 1990 (p. 2159)'},{id:"B5",body:'Johnson MR, Littlejohn D, Nazeer WA, Smith KO, Cheng RK. A Comparison of the Flowfields and Emissions of High-swirl Injectors and Low-swirl Injectors for Lean Premixed Gas Turbines. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute. 2005 Jan 1;30(2):2867-74'},{id:"B6",body:'Van Erp CA, Richman MH. Technical Challenges Associated with the Development of Advanced Combustion Systems. In RTO Meeting Proceedings 1999'},{id:"B7",body:'Liscinsky D, Colket M, Hautman D, True B. Effect of Fuel Additives on Particle Formation in Gas Turbine Combustors. In 37th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit 2001 (p. 3745)'},{id:"B8",body:'Sturgess, G, Zelina, J, Shouse, D, Roquemore, W. Emissions Reduction Technologies for Military Gas Turbine Engines. Journal of Propulsion and Power 2005; 21(2):193-217'},{id:"B9",body:'Andrews GE, Asere AA, Hussain CI, Mkpadi MC, Nazari A. Impingement/Effusion cooling: Overall Wall Heat Transfer. In Turbo Expo: Power for Land, Sea, and Air 1988 Jun 6 (Vol. 79214, p. V004T09A036). American Society of Mechanical Engineers'},{id:"B10",body:'Guin C. Characterization of Autoignition and Flashback in Premixed Injection Systems. In RTO Meeting Proceedings 1999'},{id:"B11",body:'Chin J. Design of Aero Engine Lean Direct Mixing Combustor. In AIAA Propulsion and Energy 2018 Forum 2018 (p. 4921)'},{id:"B12",body:'Leonard, G, Stegmaier, J. Development of an Aeroderivative Gas Turbine Dry Low Emissions Combustion System. Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 1994; 116(3):542-546'},{id:"B13",body:'NASA Glenn Research Center. Technology Readiness Levels. CAEP/6-IP/4 Appendix A'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jushan Chin",address:"jschin2016@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Long-term archiving
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Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+5,200 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
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+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 150 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 128,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,200 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 150 million downloads
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