Hardening increments in aluminum alloys [5].
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Due to its relative low density and high strength, the 2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx aluminum alloys series are largely used in transportation industry to produce structural frames and components. These alloys find application in artificial aging condition which allows obtaining high mechanical properties, i.e. yield strength of 7075-T651 aluminum alloy as high as 500 MPa. However, when welding processes are used to perform a junction, a large amount of the heat input is dissipated, by heat conduction, throughout the base material close to the welding bead. This thermal dissipation induces localized isothermal sections where the thermal gradient have an important and detrimental effect on the microstructure and therefore on the mechanical properties of the welded joint (soft zone formation). This microstructural change affects the performance in service of the welded joints, since mechanical properties reduce drastically with respect to base material.
This chapter provides information about mechanical behavior of welded joints of aluminum alloys in terms of properties, determined by tensile, indention and fatigue tests, as well as, the fatigue crack growth conditions in different zones of the welded joints.
The precipitation hardening process requires that the second component in the aluminum alloy, is sufficiently soluble to allow extensive dissolution at an elevated temperature (solubilization treatment temperature) and that the solubility is considerably reduced at lower temperatures, such is the case of Al-Cu alloys (Figure 1) [1].
According to Figure 1, to induce precipitation hardening, the alloy is heated at a temperature higher than the solvus temperature to produce a homogeneous solid solution α, allowing dissolution of the second phase θ and eliminates the segregation of the alloy. Once, the solubilization temperature is reached, the alloy is cooling at high rate in order to limit the diffusion process of the atoms toward potential sites of nucleation. Finally, the supersaturated solid solution αss is heated at a temperature below the solvus temperature. At this temperature, the atoms have the ability to diffuse at short distances. Because the αss phase is not stable, the atoms of Cu diffuse at several sites of nucleation and a control precipitation could be formed. Precipitation hardening in metals is performed to produce a particulate dispersion of second phases to generate obstacles for the dislocation movement. The degree of hardening depends of the metallic system, the volume fraction and size of the particles and the interaction of the particles with dislocations. The interactions of the precipitated particles with dislocations are very important in terms of the magnitude of hardening. Some mechanisms have been established, involving particle bypassing by Orowan looping, bypass slip, or particle shearing. Figure 2, shows the forces acting on a mobile dislocation in a stressed metal containing a dispersion of second phase particles.
Aluminum-cooper phase diagram rich in aluminum showing the solubilization and precipitation process [1].
Balance of forces acting during particle resistance to dislocation movement [1].
Considering the equilibrium forces between the line tension T of the dislocation and the resistance force of the second phase particle F, it is obtained:
As F increases, so the bowing of the dislocations increases, i.e. θ increases. The magnitude of F is important in controlling the sequence of events. The dislocation line tension force is maximal when θ=90 º. If the particle is hard, such that F can be greater than 2T, then dislocations will bypass the particle either by Orowan looping or cross-slip and the particle will remain unchanged, i.e. non deformed (Figure 3).
Dislocation meets hard undeformable second phase particles: dislocation release at higher stresses may occur by Orowan looping or by cross-slip [1].
The actual strength of the particle under this circumstance becomes irrelevant, as the bypassing operation becomes dependent only upon the interparticle spacing. If, however, the strength of the particle is such that the maximum resistance force is attained before sin θ=1, then particles will be sheared and the dislocation will pass through the particle (Figure 4).
Dislocation motion may continue through second phase particles (particle cutting).
Therefore, it follows that, for a given interparticle spacing (given volume fraction and particle size), hard particles will give the maximum precipitation hardening, and this condition defines the maximum degree of hardening attainable. Soft particles give a lesser degree of hardening. Consideration of the relationship between the applied stress and the dislocation bowing, following Orowan [2], leads to the Orowan equation:
where Δτy is the increase in yield stress due to the particles, G the shear modulus of the matrix, b the Burgers vector of the dislocation, and L the particle spacing. The L in the Orowan equation is usually considered to be the distance between particles arranged on a square grid in the slip plane.
Ashby [3] further developed his equation to take into account the interparticle spacing, and the effects of statistically distributed particles. The Ashby-Orowan relationship is given as:
Application of the Taylor factor for polycrystalline materials, expressing the microstructural parameters in terms of the volume fraction and real diameter and converting shear stress to tensile stress, yields [4]:
where Δσy is the increase in yield strength (MPa), G is the shear modulus (MPa), b is the Burgers vector (mm), f is the volume fraction of particles, and X is the real (spatial) diameter of the particles (mm). Table I presents the hardening effect in terms of yield strength for some aluminum alloys in annealed (O) and artificial age hardened conditions (T6).
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tYield strength (MPa)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\tAlloy\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAnnealed condition (O)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tArtificial age hardened condition (T6)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tDifference\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
2014 | \n\t\t\t97 | \n\t\t\t417 | \n\t\t\t320 | \n\t\t
6061 | \n\t\t\t55 | \n\t\t\t276 | \n\t\t\t221 | \n\t\t
7075 | \n\t\t\t103 | \n\t\t\t503 | \n\t\t\t400 | \n\t\t
Hardening increments in aluminum alloys [5].
The 2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx aluminum alloys are known to have a strong tendency to overage during welding, especially in fully aged condition (T6). A schematic representation of the microstructural changes in welding of aluminum alloys is shown in Figure 5 [6]. During welding the adjacent metal to the fusion zone (welding bead) is heated and the heat affected zone (HAZ) contents two principal zones. The zone of lower temperature near to the base metal is exposed to a range of temperatures where the aging phenomena and overaging may occur. The zone of higher temperature is treated by solubilization assuming high cooling rate, the effects are less severe, because the microstructure of the material will tend to age in natural manner. However, and isothermal zone appears at within the HAZ for which the obtained temperature is located between two well defined temperatures, i.e. the artificial aging temperature of the alloy and the solvus temperature. As a result a microstructural transformation takes places due to the thermodynamic instability of the precipitates. For instance, in the case of the 6061-T6 alloy, the over-aging in the HAZ is produced by the transformation of the β’’ (needle shape) precipitates into β’ (rod shape) precipitates according to the following precipitation sequence [7]:
Schematic representation of the microstructural changes in heat treatable aluminum alloys during a fusion welding process, a) cooling thermal cycle from peak temperature, and b) microstructure of the welded joint at ambient temperature [8].
Figure 6, shows the weld thermal cycles for gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process in a 6061-T6 (Al-Si-Mg) alloy at different preheat conditions and their correlation between the C precipitation curve. In this sense, Myhr et al. [9] studied the microstructural evolution during the cooling weld thermal cycle in Al-Si-Mg alloys (Figure 7). They determined that when the peak temperature Tp approaches 315 °C during a period of time of 10 s, the microstructure consists of a mixture of coarse rod-shape β’ and fine needle-shape β’’ precipitates as shown in Figure 7b and c. The transformation from β’’ to β’ precipitates occurs to an increasing extent with increasing peak temperatures. At Tp of 390 °C the β’ is the dominant microstructural constituent, as indicated in Figure 7d.
Correlation between weld thermal cycles in gas metal arc welds with three different preheating conditions, and the C precipitation curve for a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy [8].
TEM bright field images of microstructures observed in the <100> Al zone axis orientation after artificial aging and Gleeble simulation (Series 1), (a) needle-shaped β’’ precipitates which form after artificial aging, (b) mixture of coarse rod-shaped β´particles and fine needle-shaped β´´ precipitates which form after subsequent thermal cycling to Tp=315 °C (10 s holding time), (c) close up of the same precipitates shown in (b) above, and (d) coarse rod-shaped β’ particles which form after thermal cycling to Tp=390 °C (10 s holding time) [9].
In addition to the microstructural transformation, after welding porosity and liquation cracking could also exist, which affect directly the mechanical behavior of the welded joints.
Porosity in welds of aluminum alloys is very complicated to control, because of the high hydrogen diffusion in liquid aluminum (Figure 8), the environmental interaction and the high rate of solidification.
Hydrogen solubility in aluminum [10].
When a fusion welding process in aluminum is performed, the hydrogen diffusion in melted metal could be as high as 1.00 cm3/g, this fact produces the formation of gas bubbles. If we consider the bubble formation in liquid metal as schematically represented in Figure 9, the bubble begins to ascend when the surface tension is overcome by the buoyant force, which tends to push the bubble to the free surface.
Gas bubble growth due to the diffusion in liquid phase.
The critical radius rc for the separation of the bubble from the solid-liquid interface can be determined by means of the following expression [11]:
where κ is the detaching angle of the bubble, σ* the interfacial energy between liquid and gas (~ 1 Jm-2 for the majority of the gas-metal systems), g the constant gravity force and ρl-ρg the difference between liquid and gas densities. Considering that densities of liquid aluminum and hydrogen at melting point of aluminum are approximately 2380 kgm-3 and 0.0256 kgm-3, respectively, and κ=100°, the rc is roughly 700 μm. It is to say that gas bubbles formed during welding process have to be greater than 700 μm to overcome the surface tension of the solid-liquid interface. Additionally, a low solidification rate is needed to allow the gas bubble coalescence and reach this critical value. However, in a real situation the cooling thermal cycle of the fusion zone in welding, is very fast, as demonstrated in [8] (Figure 10), and porosity formation is present as shown in Figure 11.
Profile of the temperature measured in the weld pool on a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy GMAW weld [8].
Weld pool porosity on a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy welded by GMAW.
Liquation in welds of aluminum alloys can occur in the partially melted zone (PMZ). The PMZ is the region outside the fusion zone where grain boundary liquation occurs during welding. Figure 12 shows a portion of the PMZ in GMAW of 6061-T6 aluminum made with high silicon content filler metal (ER4043).
Microstructure of a 6061-T6 aluminum, welded by GMAW with ER4043 filler metal, showing the PMZ, and grain boundary liquation.
The liquation phenomenon occurs along grain boundary, although it can be presented in the grain interior. When liquation is presented, cracking can occur along grain boundary because of the tensile strains generated during welding. The weld metal composition is determined by base metal and filler metal compositions, as well as, the dilution ratio. The dilution ration is related with the amount of filler metal diluted with the base metal to form the weld metal. Metzger [12] observed liquation cracking in full penetration, gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) on a 6061 alloy made with Al-Mg filler metal at high dilution ratios, but not in similar welds made with Al-Si filler metals at any dilution ratio. Huang et al. [13] have conducted studies on liquation cracking in the PMZ of full penetration welds of a 6061 alloy. They found that liquation cracking occurred in GMAW welds when an ER5356 (Al-Mg) filler metal is employed but not with an ER4043 (Al-Si).
The hardness of a material represents the plastic deformation resistance by indentation. The hardness number H, is given by the ratio between the applied load P, and a representative area A, of the residual indent:
For usual indentation, the Vickers hardness number HV, using a pyramidal square based indenter is calculated considering the true contact area. The relation of HV is given by:
where, sometimes, HV is expressed in MPa if P is given in N and d, the indent diagonal, in mm. But usually HV is given as a number and the conditions of load used.
Concerning instrumented indentation tests (IIT), which allow to plot a load-depth curve, the calculation of a hardness number can use the maximum distance (maximum indentation depth\n\t\t\t\t\thm, reached by the indenter during the indentation test) or the contact depth which is the indentation depth\n\t\t\t\t\thc, taking into account the deformation of the indent under load and calculated using the method of Olive and Pharr [14].
Classical indentation has been used to determine the hardness evolution in precipitation hardening aluminum alloys welds [8, 15, 16]. Ambriz et al. [8] determined Vickers microhardness profiles and mapping representation in welds of 6061-T6 aluminum alloy (Figure 13).
a) Vickers hardness profile determined with 1 N of applied load throughout the welded joint and b) Vickers hardness map over the welded joint [8].
A significant difference for the hardness of weld metal, and HAZ with respect to base material was observed. This indicates that mechanical properties after welding will be different. It should be noted a soft zone formation in both sides of the welded joint, the hardness decrease in the soft zone is around 43% with respect to base material. This characteristic is the result of the thermodynamic instability of the β’’ needle-shaped precipitates (hard and fine precipitates) promoted by the high temperatures reached during the welding process. Indeed the temperatures reached during the welding process are favorable to transform the β’ phase, rod-shaped according to the transformation diagram for the 6061 alloy (Figure 6).
Considering the hardness heterogeneity of the welded joints, instrumented indentation tests (IIT) was performed in base metal, weld metal and HAZ (soft zone). Figure 14, shows the evolution of the applied load as a function of indentation depth for 6061-T6 and 7075-T651 aluminum alloys welds.
Load-depth curves for a) 6061-T6 aluminum alloy (1 N of applied load) and b) 7075-T651 aluminum alloy (0.1 N of applied load).
Moreover, from the instrumented indentation tests it is possible to calculate the elastic modulus which is deduced by the inverse of the unloading curve (1/S) as a function of the inverse of the contact indentation depth (1/hc) (equation 6).
where
To calculate ER it is needed to determine a corrective factor due to Hay et al. [17]. This coefficient is only dependent on the Poisson’s ratio, then considering a constant value of νm=0.3 for any region of the welded joint (base material, weld metal and HAZ), it is obtained a value of 1.067 for γ. In this condition, the slope is only linked to the reduced modulus by 0.1653/ER. Considering 1140 GPa and 0.07 for the elastic modulus and the Poisson’s ratio for the indenter material, respectively, it is possible to determine the elastic modulus of the different zones of the welded joints (Table II), by means of the following equation:
where\n\t\t\t\t\tEm and νm are the elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the material and Ei and νi the elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the indenter, respectively.
Additionally, the yield strength σy and hardening exponent n can be obtained by indentation tests (Table II) as suggested by Ambriz et al. [18], by means of the following expression:
where P is the applied indentation load, P0 shift indentation load, E elastic modulus, h true indentation depth into material.
Instrumented indentation test allows to determine the properties given in Table II. Yield strength values determined by instrumented indentation are similar to those obtained by micro-traction test (Figure 16). It means that it is possible to characterize a local zone in a welded material by instrumented indentation where it is not possible by global test (tensile test).
\n\t\t\t\tMaterial\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tEIIT (GPa)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tσy (MPa)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tP0 (N)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Base metal | \n\t\t\t98.6 | \n\t\t\t266 | \n\t\t\t0.46 | \n\t\t\t0.015 | \n\t\t
Weld metal | \n\t\t\t78.0 | \n\t\t\t133 | \n\t\t\t0.48 | \n\t\t\t0.022 | \n\t\t
HAZ | \n\t\t\t87.4 | \n\t\t\t106 | \n\t\t\t0.46 | \n\t\t\t0.016 | \n\t\t
Mechanical properties obtained by instrumented indentation test for a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy welds [18].
On the other hand, the elastic modulus obtained by instrumented indentation does not correspond with those reported in tension or compression tests for aluminum alloys (68-72 GPa) and it is not possible to establish a clear difference between weld metal and HAZ. In fact in a recent study, Chicot et al. [19] established that the elastic modulus obtained by instrumented indentation corresponds to a bulk modulus. This was explained by the fact that for the case of indentation, the elastic and plastic strain is triaxial, whereas in tensile test, the strain used to determine the elastic modulus is uniaxial.
As possible to deduce from indentation test (Figure 13), the tensile mechanical properties of aluminum alloys welds hardened by precipitation, are not homogeneous along the welded joint. Tensile properties in welds obtained by several welding processes of this alloys have been studied. For instance, V. Malin [15] studied the relation between weld thermal cycles and the microstructural transformation with tensile properties of a 6061-T6 alloy welded by GMAW. In their research, tensile tests samples were taken from the welded joint as shown in Figure 15. It is to say, a global structure effect was considered during tensile test.
(a) Effect of hardness on HAZ failure location in 6061-T6 tensile specimen [15], and b) tensile sample showing the failure zone on a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy.
The failure zone after tensile test was localized in the HAZ (soft zone) where the hardness of the welded joint is minimal, this result is in agreement with Ambriz et al. [20].
Considering the hardness profile evolution, the true stress-strain curves in weld metal and HAZ (soft zone) of a 6061-T6 alloy welds were determined by means of micro-traction test [18]. The individual behavior is presented in Figure 16, as well as, its respective comparison with base metal.
True stress-strain curves for 6061-T6 alloy, weld metal and HAZ.
The HAZ presents a reduction of the tensile strength with respect to base metal and weld metal of around 41 and 19%, respectively. This aspect was related to the over-aging phenomenon and it is explained in terms of the microstructural transformation (Figure 5), and precipitation sequence. Although, weld metal shows higher tensile strength than HAZ, a lower ductility is observed for weld metal. This characteristic was attribute to the porosity formation during the solidification and the high silicon content of the filler metal (ER4043) which, when mixed with the melted base metal, leads to a microstructure of eutectic silicon, which is a brittle phase that adversely affects the tensile mechanical properties of the welded joint. A summary of tensile mechanical properties for 6061-T6 and 7075-T651 aluminum alloys welds are presented in Table III.
Material | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tE\n\t\t\t\t (MPa)a\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tσy\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t (MPa) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tσu\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t (MPa)b\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tε\n\t\t\t\t (%)c\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tH\n\t\t\t\t (MPa)d\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t\td\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
6061-T6 | \n\t\t\t68 | \n\t\t\t279 | \n\t\t\t310 | \n\t\t\t14.0 | \n\t\t\t408 | \n\t\t\t0.08 | \n\t\t
6061-T6 (weld metal, ER4043) | \n\t\t\t68 | \n\t\t\t151 | \n\t\t\t226 | \n\t\t\t4.00 | \n\t\t\t464 | \n\t\t\t0.20 | \n\t\t
6061-T6 (HAZ, soft zone) | \n\t\t\t68 | \n\t\t\t120 | \n\t\t\t183 | \n\t\t\t13.0 | \n\t\t\t300 | \n\t\t\t0.16 | \n\t\t
7075-T651 | \n\t\t\t72 | \n\t\t\t530 | \n\t\t\t568 | \n\t\t\t8.00 | \n\t\t\t794 | \n\t\t\t0.08 | \n\t\t
7075-T651 (weld joint, ER5356) | \n\t\t\t68 | \n\t\t\t165 | \n\t\t\t260 | \n\t\t\t2.80 | \n\t\t\t677 | \n\t\t\t0.25 | \n\t\t
Tensile mechanical properties of 6061-T6 and 7075-T651 aluminum alloys welds (GMAW).
a Best linear fitting from mean stress-strain curves; bObtained from
Fatigue or fatigue damage is the consecutive modification of the materials properties with respect to the application of a cyclic stress, which can conduct to the fracture. Under uniaxial cyclic loading conditions it is possible to distinguish a stress ratio R determined by a maximal and minimal stress as follow:
As a function of σmax and σmin, we can obtain the constant component of the stress (amplitude stress σa) and the mean value of the stress (mean stress σm) by different loading conditions (Figure 17).
Some practical applications involve cyclic loading at a constant amplitude, but irregular loads as a function of time are commonly encountered. In this case, we will discuss some results in terms of a constant amplitude loading. The simplest fatigue test consists of subjecting a specimen to a cycling loading (different levels of stress amplitude σa), at a constant frequency and measured the number of cycles to failure Nf. The representation of stress level as a function of Nf gives the S-N curve or Wöhler curve. A schematic representation of a Wöhler curve is shown in Figure 18.
Solicitation loading in uniaxial fatigue, a) completely reversed stressing (σm=0), b) asymmetric repeated stressing (σm ≠ 0), and c) zero to tension stressing (σmin=0).
Representation of a Wöhler curve, and different fatigue domains [21].
In Figure 18, it is possible to identify different domains: (i) Low cycle fatigue. In this case a high stress level is applied on the sample (normally over the yield strength of the material). Because of the high deformation during the test, the number of cycles to failure tends to be lower (102 to 104). (ii) High cycle fatigue. This is related with an elastic behavior on a macro scale of the sample, i.e. the stress level is not higher than the yield strength of the material. The failure is expected for a large number of cycles, for instance, more than 105. In fact the boundary between low and high cycle fatigue is not well defined by a specific number of cycles. The most important difference is that low cyclic fatigue is associated with macro-plastic deformation on each loading cycle. When the stress level in high cycle fatigue is applied, a fatigue limit or endurance limited is presented, which is represented by an asymptote in the Wöhler curve. In some metallic materials it could be obtained when the number of cycles is in the order of 106 to 107. (iii) Fatigue gigacycle. This domain corresponding with a very high number of cycles and it has been observed that fatigue limit tends to decrease when the number of cycles increases.
It is well known that fatigue damage is a surface phenomenon as indicated by Forsyth [22], who determined the presence of reliefs linked to the formation of localization deformation bands named persistent bands. The surface topography is traduced by the formation of intrusions and extrusions as shown schematically in Figure 19.
Intrusions and extrusions formation in the free surface due to the alternating slip, micro-cracks nucleation, and principal crack formation from micro-cracks [21].
For a uniaxial tensile test, these bands resulting in the formation of micro-cracks (state I in Figure 19), which are orientated at 45 degrees with respect the traction axe. Only certain grains are affected by the formation of those bands. The persistent bands orientation and the formation of cracks on the state I, are important in the case of uniaxial and multiaxial loading. Brown and Miller [23, 24] introduced a useful notation in multiaxal loading for facets A and B, which are schematized in Figure 20.
Directional aspect of the fatigue damage. Importance of the stress field orientation with respect to the plans surface, and the free surface of the material (hatch zones) [23, 24].
The type B facets provides a shearing vector which enters into the material, and they are more dangerous than type A facets, from which the shearing vector is tangent to the free surface of the sample. The intrusions and extrusions formation associated to the slip persistent bands, as well as, the micro-propagation of cracks in the state I are of interest at a distance of the grain size (small fatigue cracks). Thus, considering that micro-cracks are related with the crystallography aspect, once the crack encounters the first grain boundary it begins to bifurcate according to state II and the propagation at a perpendicular direction of the principal stress is obtained.
Additionally to the fatigue damage mechanism mentioned previously, in the case of welding, the stress concentration factor due to the geometry of the welding bead has a special importance. In this sense, Ambriz et al. [20] has been quantified the effect of the welding profile generated by modified indirect electric arc (MIEA) technique on the fatigue life of a 6061-T6 aluminum alloy. In order to determine the stress concentration factor Kt in MIEA welds, a characteristic welding profile was measured as specified in Figure 21.
Stress concentration points in MIEA welds and their corresponding dimensions. α=angle formed by the weld reinforcement with plates, r=notched radius, t=height of the weld reinforcement, w=width of the welding profile and h=thickness of the plates.
Subsequently, uniaxial fatigue test a cyclic loading with a sinusoidal wave form at a frequency of 35 Hz and load ration R=0.1 was applied in atmospheric air at room temperature. The fatigue limit (77 MPa) was calculated employed the Locati method, and Wöhler curve (Figure 22) was plotted between 77 and 110 MPa.
Wöhler curve for 6061-T6 aluminum alloy welds by MIEA and data found in literature [25] for the single V groove joint.
Figure 22 shows the maximum stress σmax, as function of number of cycles to failure Nf, obtained from the fatigue test of the welded joints. The experimental results were fitted according to the following expression:
where A, and b are experimental values determined by fitting curve.
Regarding the geometry of the welding profile, comparison of the fatigue performance exhibited by MIEA welds with the results reported in the literature [25] for a single V joint configuration for the same aluminum alloy shows a significant improvement in fatigue life for the MIEA welded samples. The Kt effect on the crack initiation and failure is shown in Figure 23.
Typical macrograph of the fatigue failure on MIEA welds.
Considering that, if the loading condition promotes the formation of a principal crack (Figure 19), it will grow according to the power law region as shown schematically in Figure 24.
Fatigue crack growth regimes as function of ΔK.
The fatigue crack growth rate da/dN, as function of stress intensity factor range ΔK in different zones of the welded joint (base metal, weld metal and HAZ) has been studied previously [26, 27]. The results were conducted on compact type specimens (CT) applying a constant amplitude cycling load with a sinusoidal wave form at a frequency of 20 Hz, a load ratio R of 0.1 and a load range of 2.5 kN in atmospheric air at room temperature. The ΔK was computed by means of the following equation:
where a is the crack length of the sample (initial crack of 8 mm), W the width for the crack propagation, and B the thickness of the sample (5 mm in this case).
Considering the stable crack growth propagation region shown in Figure 24, the experimental results of a were plotted in da/dN versus ΔK graphs according to the following expression:
where C and m are constants obtained from the fitting curve. Table IV summarizes the best fitted values for C and m, and their correlation factor.
\n\t\t\t\tMaterial\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tC\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tR2\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
6061-T6 (rolling) | \n\t\t\t5.00×10-7\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2.426 | \n\t\t\t0.89 | \n\t\t
6061-T6 (transverse) | \n\t\t\t3.97×10-8\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t3.320 | \n\t\t\t0.97 | \n\t\t
Weld metal | \n\t\t\t2.63×10-14\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t8.550 | \n\t\t\t0.92 | \n\t\t
HAZ | \n\t\t\t3.77×10-9\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t6.650 | \n\t\t\t0.89 | \n\t\t
Fitting constants obtained from experimental values (Figure 25) [27].
Figure 25, shows the fatigue crack growth for base metal (6061-T6) in the rolling and transverse to rolling direction.
Fatigue crack growth rate as function of ΔK, a) 6061-T6 base metal, b) weld metal, and c) HAZ.
This graph shows that the microstructural characteristics (anisotropy) does not have an important influence in terms of fatigue crack growth as could be expected, taking into account that yield strength in rolling direction is higher than transverse direction. However, this is not the case for weld metal and HAZ (Figures 25b and c), in which the crack tends to propagate faster than that in base metal. In the case of weld metal (Figure 25 b), the faster crack growth rate in comparison with base metal is related to the low toughness due to the high silicon (~ 5.5 wt. percent) content provided by the filler metal during welding. Similarly, for the HAZ it is possible to observe that the crack growth is faster than base metal, aspect which is attribute to the microstructural transformation of fine needle shape precipitates β’’ into coarse bar shape precipitates β’ produced by the thermal effect.
Mechanical behavior in welds of precipitation hardened aluminum alloys are still under development and the softening phenomena in the heat affected zone should be better understood. Valuable information could be obtained by the precise understanding of the weld thermal cycles in conjunction with the C transformation curve and its microstructural effect in mechanical properties. In this sense, our research group is conducting experiments to control the weld thermal cycle by means of localized chillers and heaters in the fusion zone and heat affected zone to observe the mechanical properties evolution of the welded joints.
If we look at history and especially last century, there were some remarkable incidence happened which leave every lasting impact on our daily life. Moreover, these incidence changes our overall behaviors, as well. Among these incidents was an era of the First and Second World War, then the cold war and 9/11. However, the invention of recent technologies such as mobile phone communication, artificial intelligence, and the internet of things profound effect on our daily life. Besides all wars and inventions, the ongoing pandemic crises of Covid-19 will have permanent and everlasting impacts on our lives, even if we can control it immediately. In terms of economy, due to pandemic crises of Covid-19, IMF predicts that the world economy would contract with 3%; however, the revised estimated figure for the contraction of the global economy is 4.9 to 5.5% in 2020. One of the critical factors, which decline rapidly due to Covid-19, is the tourism sector.
\nAccording to the estimate, the international labor organization tourism sector created approximately 330 million jobs worldwide, and it is 10.3% of the total global employment. The tourism sector creates jobs; promote local economic development and culture. In terms of career, it contributes to direct and indirect jobs for young people and women. Globally, tourism is an essential source of employment. There are some distinctive characteristics of the labor market. In general tourism industry is labor-intensive. Furthermore, approximately 54% of posts are taken by the tourism sector by the woman and young people, which makes the industry inclusive.
\nThe expected loss for 2020 in the tourism sector can be estimated by analyzing the figure of the previous year, as in 2018, approximately 1407 million international tourist arrivals were recorded, which generate total tourist receipts amount 1480 billion dollars. Similarly, the tourism sector also provides a significant amount of indirect employment, such as in construction and infrastructure development, and even a long chain of the supply chain of food and drinks is also associated with this sector. Many staff in the tourism offices, airlines, aircraft, hotels, restaurants, shopping centers, and various tourist attractions often has direct interaction with visitors. Below giveFigure 1 indicate, inbound tourist expenditure recorded in 2018 by top tourist destination in the world.
\nInbound tourism expenditure of 2018 by top tourist destinations. Source: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
It is not the first time where the world is experiencing a pandemic outbreak. In the past 20 years, the earth had also experienced two regional pandemic crises, SARS 2004 and Ebola 2014. Both pandemic disasters did not affect the airline and especially the tourism industry. However, due to the Tsunami 2004, the tourism sector of Far East Asian countries. The 9/11 incident did not account for the massive decline in the airline industry. Give below Figure 2 present, these incidences and overall flight operations.
\nImpact of major crises on the global tourism. Source: Gössling et al. [1].
In the European Union, it is expected that 13 billion people might lose their job due to Covid-19, and in terms of revenue, it is approximately 12 billion per year. The key drivers of the tourism industry in Europe are the local festivals, trade fairs, sports events, and concerts. Therefore due to Covid-19 in many tourist places, hotels, restaurants, bars, and theme parks already closed. Similarly, sports events like the Euro 2020 football championship already postpone until 2021. Likewise, on the other hand, at the beginning of the Covid-19 outbreak, many tourists faced difficulty with returning home due to the border controls in massive countries of Europe.
\nThe primarily purpose of this chapter is to explore the nexus between the impact of Covid-19 and tourism. Furthermore, this chapter explains the overall impact of tourism and lockdown on pollution as well.
\nTourism also has an indirect economic effect, in addition to incoming tourism expenditures. Tourism employs workers, ports, and airports as well as a wide variety of intermediate inputs, including financial services, education, food and alcohol, and domestic transport. According to IATA estimation, as compared to April 2019, 80% fewer flights were recorded in 2020 due to the Covid-19 outbreak. In terms of numeric values, the estimated monetary loss recorded in the airline industry is 84.3 billion and 2020. Furthermore, according to IATA estimation, regular international flight schedules will start working until 2023–2024, whereas domestic flights will soon be restored.
\nIn terms of survivor crises of the Covid-19 outbreak, three kinds of potential threats have been indicated by 2020, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. These scenarios are listed below in Figure 3.
\nThree kinds of potential threats. Source: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
According to the above table, each scenario indicates the annual tourism expenditure is reduced as productivity shock. Similarly, on the other hand, the social effect on the output of the other products and sectors also hit massively in each of the scenarios explained in the table, such as food, drink, logistics, and construction. However, in the case of a moderate scenario, for four-month, the global economy reduced by 1.2 trillion US dollars. Intermediate for eight-month it reduces 2.2 trillion US dollars. In the last, in case of a dramatic scenario, the world would experience a loss of 3.3 trillion US dollars in terms of GDP (2020, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development).
\nSimilarly, Ali and Cobanoglu [2], mention in work once, as initially due to Covid-19 world experience lockdown situation, they predicted that under the current circumstances of international travelers can be shrinking from 1.4 to 1 billion. Furthermore, they also reveal that approximately 50 million jobs could be lost. However, the current statistics are indicating the worse situation. The world has already experienced massive outbreaks, crises, and other natural disasters that directly or indirectly impact the overall tourism sector. In the past, one of the significant crises hit the tourism sector, especially, was the Tsunami of 2004, which ran almost 15 countries of the Indian Ocean, and more than 200,000 people lost their lives. It was a natural disaster, as [3] disasters are unpredictable catastrophic change; usually, it happens all of a sudden and can be responded after the event, furthermore response is possible either by contingency plans or by through reactive responses as well. Although Covid-19 is not a regional issue or any specified geographical disaster, it is pandemic crises spread worldwide, and eventually, every human living in this world is disturbed due to it. It is right to argue that the tourism sector hit and disrupted massively due to Covid-19 due to that sector, every other industry of the world experience a downward trend.
\nIn terms of Covid-19 impact of economy, Barro et al. [4] empirically investigate the economic effect of Covid-19 and reveals that due pandemic crises, on average, 2.1% death rate could cause the decline of averagely 6% of world GDP and 8% decline in private consumption. On the other hand, one more study conducted by Coibion et al. [5] using a survey on the household in the US concluded due to pandemic crises, consumption and employment decreased whereas inflation and economic uncertainty increased.
\nSimilarly, a massive number of empirical studies have been conducted that explain the positive impact of the tourism sector on the economy. Some of these studies which demonstrate a positive relationship between economic growth and tourism are [6] for Turkey, [7] for six Balkan countries, Chen and Chiou-wei [8] for Thailand and Korea [9] for India, and more recently Khan et al. (2019) empirically investigate that relationship between multiple variables for Thailand using ARDL estimation and conclude that the logistics and transportation sector positively impact inbounds tourism. Therefore it is correct to argue that, due to current pandemic crises, the overall economic industry hit massively due to the downfall of the commercial sector. The figure below indicates the global destruction of GDP in terms of the percentage and value of the top 15 tourist destinations in the world (Figure 4).
\nOverall GDP change in top 15 countries due to Covid-19. Source: World Tourism Organization.
The above table indicates that from Asia, Thailand, and Malaysia’s GDP falls with 9 and 3%. In terms of the monetary value of GDP, Indian GDP decreased by 28,120 million US dollars, China bear loss of 104,690 million US dollars, and Korea experienced the loss of 22,092 million US dollars. Jamaican and Dominican republic GDP indicate a downward trend of 11 and 5%. However, European countries’ tourism sector hit massive due to the Covid-19 outbreak. Croatian GDP fall by 8%, Portugal 6%, Greece 4%, Ireland and Spain 3%. In terms of monetary value, France bears losses of 47,289 million US dollars, Germany 46,260 million US dollars, and then Italy lost 34,104 million US dollars. All these losses are due to the lockdown of other sectors, directly or indirectly, with the tourism sector of Europe.
\nSimilarly, the net of loss experience by European countries is due to massively unemployed labor and capital. One of the main reasons for the substantial loss in Europe is the high percentage of Tourism to GDP ratio. According to the estimate, the overall tourism sector is responsible for 30% of the EU’s GDP [10]. Due to this, many people are unemployed or displaced in Europe. However, due to the lockdown situation, all these unemployed people also face difficulty searching for new work.
\nGössling et al. [1] indicate in their research work that various airlines such as Scandinavian Airlines (March 17, 2020), Singapore Airlines (March 27, 2020) and Virgin (March 30, 2020), and German TUI (March 27, 2020) have already requested for state aid due to pandemic crises. According to the Federal Aviation Administration estimate in the USA, approximately 64 million take-offs and landed recorded. However, the Covid-19 pandemic crises became a significant cause of downfall in the airline industry. The below figure indicates the trend of airlines from January to April 2020, and due to lockdown situations, a massive number of airlines top working (Figure 5).
\nFlight operations during for first four mother of 2020. Source: International Energy Agency (2020).
At the beginning of 2020, it was not expected that Covid-19 caused economic down and air restriction. In the middle of February the causalities and death rate due to Covid-19 start increasing especially in the UK, Italy and Spain, most of the European countries lockdown their border, and also put travel bans. Besides that, all the schools, universities, bar-restaurants, and other tourist spots were also closed by authorities in Europe. Given the below figure, indicate travel restriction imposed by countries due to the Covid-19 (Figure 6).
\nTravel restriction on 31 March. Source: Gössling et al. [1].
However, as the number of confirmed cases started increasing, most of the world’s countries put travel restrictions. In the case of tourism, many people also faced issues related to their visa, which was on a visit to other countries as international tourists. However, it is notable that almost every country of the world increased visa validity for an unknown period. Similarly, embassies of the different countries also played an active role during the crises. Many countries arranged chartered flights for their nationals, which were stuck in different countries of the world.
\nBesides the airline industry, exploring and travel by cruise ship is also very much popular in European, American, and Asian countries. However, due to Covid-19 cruise industry also faced a downward trend. The significant number of cruise ships also experienced heavy losses. The cruise industry stops its operation until 2020 September, and also it is expected that it will be until the first quarter of 2021. The top three cruise ship lines which experienced heavy losses are cruise lines Carnival, Norwegian Cruise Line, and Royal Caribbean Cruises. However one of the most significant reasons for imposing bans on cruise ships is indicated by Travel.State.Gov [11], they mention in their work, due to the close environment of the cruise it is a high possibility that the Covid-19 spread among the traveler very quickly and therefore it will also be hard to provide help and assistance immediately.
\nOn the other hand, some of the positive attributes have also been observed due to the Covid-19 impact of the tourism sector—one of the crucial factors found in the rapid downfall of air pollution. Due to the massive lockdown number of airlines grounded their air craft’s, which ultimately reduces the air-pollution. As the airline industry accounts for about 2.5% of global CO2 emission, and it is also predicted that until 2050 the airline industry will averagely increase 1.5 degrees Celsius worldwide [12]. After the lockdown, the clean environment has been observed worldwide, not only in highly industrialized countries, more specifically in European countries due to the lockdown situation, and the concentration of NO2 emission in the air rapidly decreased. It has alone been observed after a long time, in Italy due to lockdown and tourist restriction marine line start running in the canals of Vince. The change in terms of environmental change, which we are experiencing at the moment due to the lockdown situation in terms of clean air and clean water channels will not be long-lasting. It is expected that once in the world normal life cycle starts, we will again experience massive air and other pollutions [13].
\nDue to the deep concentration of tourism in the economy of numerous countries, many tourism business are associated with the global food market due to low cost, which generates employment for the local state. Similarly, on the other hand, there is a high volume of food waste involved in the tourism industry. Due to the Covid-19 outbreak, food waste and supply are declining, but on the other hand, it also becomes the cause of job losses for the people who work in the food industry [14].
\nIt is right to argue that, due to the lockdown situation and downward trend of tourism, the natural beauty around the world is restored. One of the critical factors which are noticed is the reduction of waste and trashes. Covid-19 provides us with a chance to restore our natural beauty. Besides tourism, another significant factor contributing to the decrease in pollutions (water and air) is less transporting activities. Thus due to lockdown, most people working from home, on the other hand, a massive number of industrial units not operational at the moment, which also decreased air pollution.
\nDue to the lockdown activities and the non-operational tourism sector, environmental quality is improved worldwide. Various gases such are CO2, NO2, and SO2 concentration decreased within the air. Furthermore, the critical factor which increases air quality around the world is also due to less operational activities of the airline industry. The figure given below presents the air quality which is observed in some of the cities in Europe (Figure 7).
\nChange in NO2 emission due to lockdown in Europe. Source: Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air.
On the other hand, in the country, China’s economy is considered one of the world’s top growing economies due to its industrialization. However, due to the Covid-19 outbreak and lockdown in china, its air quality increased as well. Similarly, as we have stated earlier, China also bears massive losses due to the downfall of the tourism sector. One of the critical factor which can be noticed that due to the lockdown situation and decline in tourism sector indicatively impact on overall energy consumption. More especially in China, energy consumption also declined due to the Covid-19 lockdown, which eventually affected its production. Less production of energy increases air quality as less coal consumption is used in the production of energy—figure, present coal consumption in Jingjinji city by five energy-generating plants (Figure 8).
\nCoal consumption by five generating plants in China. Source: Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air.
However, lockdown and the downward trend of the tourism sector provide an opportunity for the world to move toward renewable sources. It the responsibility of the government at the movement to spread awareness of green economy within their countries and further set upset those on tourist spots, which can efficiently operate with renewable energy sources, ultimately it will also reduce air pollution in the future. Similarly, after once pandemic crises will over, it is also highly recommended that, for local and international tourists, the authorities should arrange those vehicles for traveling purposes which consume renewable energy sources.
\nThis chapter aims to discuss the association between Covid-19’s outbreak and the tourism sector. The debate indicates that Covid-19 indicates an adverse effect on tourism activities. Due to the lockdown, thousands of people lost their jobs. Many airlines, restaurants, bars, and hotels are nearly to become bankrupt. On the other hand, our discussion reveals that global lockdown creates a positive impact on environmental sustainability. Also, air and water pollution have been reduced significantly, which creates a positive impact on fauna and flora.
\nFurther, we predict that in upcoming years, due to the restoration of environmental beauty, the global tourism industry will boom. However, the age of booming may not be very long. Because, once the world engine starts after Covid-19, air and water pollution will occupy the space of greeneries. It is the right time to formulate sustainable strategies and policies to maintain the beauty of the world. The following are the recommendations that will help policymakers and regulatory bodies to develop a master plan and integrate sustainable practices in the tourism industry.
The airlines, and especially tourist operators, should adopt green and eco-friendly practices in their businesses to improve environmental sustainability.
Governmental bodies should formulate strict eco-friendly policies for the tourism sector. Also, regulatory bodies encourage firms to adopt ISO certification
Regulatory bodies may encourage renewable energy and green projects by providing subsidies and tax-exemptions to corporations that adopt eco-friendly practices.
Governmental bodies embossed heavy penalties on the polluting firms, which will not only create pressure on firms to adopt sustainable practices but also motivate the eco-friendly firms.
The regulatory bodies should evaluate enterprises’ environmental performance and publicize the evaluation results, which will create competition between enterprises to be more sustainable.
This work supported by the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No. 2019 M660700), the Beijing Key Laboratory of Megaregions Sustainable Development Modeling, Capital University of Economics and Business (No. MCR2019QN09).
\nGeneral requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
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