Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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It is intended for molecular biology researchers involved in bioluminescent reactions, molecular engineering of bioluminescent sensor probes, and biomonitoring of environmental toxins.. Field researchers as well as students will also find this volume to be of interest.",isbn:"978-1-78984-785-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-784-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-196-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77783",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",numberOfPages:124,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6902,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:43,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 15th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 15th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 16th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 21st 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 20th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"410",title:"Biotechnology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-microbiology-biotechnology"}],chapters:[{id:"66251",title:"Biotechnological Advances in Luciferase Enzymes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85313",slug:"biotechnological-advances-in-luciferase-enzymes",totalDownloads:1409,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter explores the history of the bioengineering advances that have been applied to common luciferase enzymes and the improvements that have been accomplished by this work. The primary focus is placed on firefly luciferase (FLuc), Gaussia luciferase (GLuc), Renilla luciferase (RLuc), Oplophorus luciferase (OLuc; NanoLuc), and bacterial luciferase (Lux). Beginning with the cloning and exogenous expression of each enzyme, their step-wise modifications are presented and the new capabilities endowed by each incremental advancement are highlighted. Using the historical basis of this information, the chapter concludes with a prospective on the overall impact these advances have had on scientific research and provides an outlook on what capabilities future advances could unlock.",signatures:"Andrew Kirkpatrick, Tingting Xu, Steven Ripp, Gary Sayler and Dan Close",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66251",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66251",authors:[{id:"34168",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",surname:"Ripp",slug:"steven-ripp",fullName:"Steven Ripp"},{id:"89407",title:"Dr.",name:"Tingting",surname:"Xu",slug:"tingting-xu",fullName:"Tingting Xu"},{id:"187444",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",surname:"Close",slug:"dan-close",fullName:"Dan Close"},{id:"256492",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",surname:"Sayler",slug:"gary-sayler",fullName:"Gary Sayler"},{id:"256494",title:"Mr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Kirkpatrick",slug:"andrew-kirkpatrick",fullName:"Andrew Kirkpatrick"}],corrections:null},{id:"66952",title:"Protein-Protein Interaction Assays Using Split-NanoLuc",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86122",slug:"protein-protein-interaction-assays-using-split-nanoluc",totalDownloads:1659,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Protein-protein interaction assays are fundamental to basic biology, drug discovery, diagnostics, screening, and immunoassays. Protein-fragment complementation (PCA) is one of such useful protein-protein interaction assays. PCA when performed using luciferase is a reversible approach, whereas when performed using green fluorescent protein analogs is an irreversible approach. The NanoLuc technology developed in 2012 utilizes a small and structurally robust luciferase that is capable of producing very bright luminescence. NanoLuc PCA has been used to detect many protein-protein interactions and for screening purposes. Methods developed from NanoLuc PCA include the HiBiT technology and NanoLuc ternary technology. These novel technologies are promising in various fields and further developments are anticipated.",signatures:"Yuki Ohmuro-Matsuyama and Hiroshi Ueda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66952",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66952",authors:[{id:"234155",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",surname:"Ueda",slug:"hiroshi-ueda",fullName:"Hiroshi Ueda"},{id:"234158",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuki",surname:"Ohmuro-Matsuyama",slug:"yuki-ohmuro-matsuyama",fullName:"Yuki Ohmuro-Matsuyama"}],corrections:null},{id:"66940",title:"Biosensors Using Free and Immobilized Cells of Luminous Bacteria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85624",slug:"biosensors-using-free-and-immobilized-cells-of-luminous-bacteria",totalDownloads:818,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The technologies of receiving free and immobilized photobacteria cells for biomonitoring of toxins are considered. The mechanisms of interaction of toxins with photobacteria are observed. The main attention is paid to the immobilized procedures and structures of carriers. Data on poly(vinyl)alcohol (PVA) cryogel immobilization of different strains of photobacteria are presented. It is established that intensity and stability of light emission of PVA cells is competently controlled by: (1) intensity and persistence of a luminescent cycle using bacterial strain; (2) type of the carrier and the composition of the gel-formation medium; (3) freeze-thawing procedures; and (4) physical and chemical conditions of storage and application. The developed technology of cryogenic gel formation has kept the survival of luminous bacteria in the carrier practically at 100% without the introduction of additional cryoprotecting agents and procedures of a light induction. With storage at −80°C, bioluminescent activity remained without changes about 2 years. Using the immobilized preparations of biosensor, the discrete and continuous analysis of heavy metals, chlorophenols, and pesticides is carried out. The sensitivity of free and immobilized cells to the chosen toxicants is approximately identical. The continuous monitoring of toxicant conditions is optimized.",signatures:"Anvar D. Ismailov, Leyla E. Aleskerova, Kristina A. Alenina and Elena N. Efremenko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66940",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66940",authors:[{id:"288106",title:"Prof.",name:"Anvar",surname:"Ismailov",slug:"anvar-ismailov",fullName:"Anvar Ismailov"},{id:"288351",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleskerova",surname:"Leyla",slug:"aleskerova-leyla",fullName:"Aleskerova Leyla"},{id:"288352",title:"Ms.",name:"Alenina",surname:"Kristina",slug:"alenina-kristina",fullName:"Alenina Kristina"},{id:"288353",title:"Prof.",name:"Efremenko",surname:"Elena",slug:"efremenko-elena",fullName:"Efremenko Elena"}],corrections:null},{id:"68274",title:"Ecological and Histological Notes on the Luminous Springtail, Lobella sp. (Collembola: Neanuridae), Discovered in Tokyo, Japan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88321",slug:"ecological-and-histological-notes-on-the-luminous-springtail-em-lobella-em-sp-collembola-neanuridae-",totalDownloads:969,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Some species of springtail (Collembola) are luminous, but it is not known whether light emitted by springtail is due to self-luminescence, feeding on luminous fungi, or accidental infection by luminous bacteria. To address this question, we characterized the luminescence of a luminous springtail, Lobella sp. (family Neanuridae) discovered in Tokyo, Japan. The emitted light was yellowish-green (540 nm) and was found to originate from tubercles on the thorax (segments II and III) and abdomen (segments I–VI) using a low-light imaging system. The luminescence persisted for several seconds but showed occasional oscillations in a laboratory environment. We also observed fat bodies containing eosin-positive granules under the integument of the tubercles in the tergum by hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining that were not present in a nonluminous springtail (Vitronura sp.). The fat bodies in Lobella sp. are presumably photocytes analogous to the firefly lantern, and the eosin-positive granules are the likely source of bioluminescence, which implies that springtails are self-luminescent.",signatures:"Tadasu Sano, Yukimasa Kobayashi, Ikuko Sakai, Katsunori Ogoh and Hirobumi Suzuki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68274",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68274",authors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki"},{id:"297356",title:"Prof.",name:"Yukimasa",surname:"Kobayashi",slug:"yukimasa-kobayashi",fullName:"Yukimasa Kobayashi"},{id:"297357",title:"Ms.",name:"Ikuko",surname:"Sakai",slug:"ikuko-sakai",fullName:"Ikuko Sakai"},{id:"297358",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsunori",surname:"Ogoh",slug:"katsunori-ogoh",fullName:"Katsunori Ogoh"},{id:"297362",title:"Mr.",name:"Tadasu",surname:"Sano",slug:"tadasu-sano",fullName:"Tadasu Sano"}],corrections:null},{id:"66645",title:"Effect of Camera Illumination on Flashing Behavior of Pteroptyx malaccae (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85796",slug:"effect-of-camera-illumination-on-flashing-behavior-of-em-pteroptyx-malaccae-em-coleoptera-lampyridae",totalDownloads:939,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Pteroptyx malaccae is a synchronous firefly that is important in firefly tourism in Thailand. Without well-managed tourism, the fireflies have faced to the problems of shooting camera flashes from tourists. Although the effect of artificial light was well understood, which causes negative impact to firefly courtship, there is no obvious information on the effect of the camera illumination. The experiment of testing four types of camera illumination was set up in laboratory using wild populations of P. malaccae. The flash patterns were recorded by videotaping and analyzed by using TiLIA software. The results showed that all kinds of camera illuminations affect flashing behavior of the fireflies. They prolonged flash interval by increasing pulse duration. The flashes from smartphone camera displayed the strongest effect; however, all flash types did not influence on the firefly life span, mating behavior and oviposition behavior of the fireflies.",signatures:"Anchana Thancharoen and Sirima Masoh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66645",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66645",authors:[{id:"289106",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Anchana",surname:"Thancharoen",slug:"anchana-thancharoen",fullName:"Anchana Thancharoen"},{id:"295154",title:"Ms.",name:"Sirima",surname:"Masoh",slug:"sirima-masoh",fullName:"Sirima Masoh"}],corrections:null},{id:"68446",title:"Biofluorescence in Terrestrial Animals, with Emphasis on Fireflies: A Review and Field Observation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86029",slug:"biofluorescence-in-terrestrial-animals-with-emphasis-on-fireflies-a-review-and-field-observation",totalDownloads:1108,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The mysterious world of biofluorescence in terrestrial ecosystems is mesmerizing. Though not as ubiquitous as in the ocean, it is not a rare phenomenon on land. Fluorescence occurs in all major phyla of terrestrial animals (Platyhelminthes, Mollusca, Annelida, Nematoda, Onychophora, Arthropoda, and Chordata) and their subgroups, with diverse fluorophores and performance. In this chapter, we make a general review on the fluorescence in terrestrial animals first, including their systematic distribution, research history, fluorophores, and proposed functions for each group among several other aspects. A systematic observation on the fluorescence of fireflies is reported for the first time. The co-occurrence of biofluorescence and bioluminescence in luminescent land snails, earthworms, potworms, millipedes, and fireflies is a fascinating issue. Though the biochemical mechanism of photogenesis is not fully understood in many terrestrial animals except fireflies, it appears that biofluorescence and bioluminescence do not have clear interaction during the light production process. However, fluorophores and luminophores are usually biochemically related and are different from the photogenic mechanism of jellyfish and several marine creatures whose ultimate light emission is made through energy transfer from bioluminescence to biofluorescence by green fluorescent protein (GFP) or its variants. The role of fluorescence is disputative. In general, nocturnal animals or animals having cryptic living styles, e.g., in earth or under shelters like tree bark or rocks, tend to exhibit UV fluorescence more frequently than animals that are diurnal or inhabit open environments. This pattern is evident in fireflies wherein only nocturnal and luminescent species exhibit noticeable UV fluorescence (likely from luciferin), which is dim or absent in diurnal or crepuscular fireflies. It is unlikely that occasionally induced UV fluorescence in natural environments can play a significant role in intra- or interspecific communication in fireflies or other nocturnal animals.",signatures:"Ming-Luen Jeng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68446",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68446",authors:[{id:"288568",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ming-Luen",surname:"Jeng",slug:"ming-luen-jeng",fullName:"Ming-Luen Jeng"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:{id:"15",series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",issn:"2632-0983",editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}}},tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9655",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Technology and Biology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"26b9e7dade717a5ffdc2dbcfaa1ea43d",slug:"bioluminescence-technology-and-biology",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki and Katsunori Ogoh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9655.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1770",title:"Gel Electrophoresis",subtitle:"Principles and Basics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"279701f6c802cf02deef45103e0611ff",slug:"gel-electrophoresis-principles-and-basics",bookSignature:"Sameh Magdeldin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1770.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"584",title:"Advances in Applied Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fcc9fab84b820983f2a462d5145d2a0e",slug:"advances-in-applied-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Marian Petre",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/584.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"74654",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",surname:"Petre",slug:"marian-petre",fullName:"Marian Petre"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3404",title:"Environmental Biotechnology",subtitle:"New Approaches and Prospective Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"925d14b19ca0f7945996b169d9836f5b",slug:"environmental-biotechnology-new-approaches-and-prospective-applications",bookSignature:"Marian Petre",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3404.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"74654",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",surname:"Petre",slug:"marian-petre",fullName:"Marian Petre"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2115",title:"Biotechnology",subtitle:"Molecular Studies and Novel Applications for Improved Quality of Human Life",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"07ebd9c0af07dd6b0649bc67ae612b1e",slug:"biotechnology-molecular-studies-and-novel-applications-for-improved-quality-of-human-life",bookSignature:"Reda Helmy Sammour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2115.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32232",title:"Dr.",name:"Reda",surname:"Sammour",slug:"reda-sammour",fullName:"Reda Sammour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1910",title:"Oxidative Stress",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Biological Effects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5fc01580caefb2637f31d59b377032a",slug:"oxidative-stress-molecular-mechanisms-and-biological-effects",bookSignature:"Volodymyr Lushchak and Halyna M. 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In 2010, she defended her doctoral thesis, and in 2019 she obtained habilitation and she was granted a Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) to participate in the Postgraduate School of Industrial Ecology (PSIE) - IndEcol at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim. She has published over 77 papers, including 69 papers in world-known peer-reviewed scientific journals from the JCR list. Her works have been cited more than 300 times and she has an h-index: 15. She is the author of 5 patents. She cooperates with many universities in the field of multidisciplinary projects. 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1. Introduction
\n
Color has a great influence on the appearance, processing, and acceptance of food products, textiles and pharmaceutical products. The first quality impact by which consumers make the decision to purchase a product is its visual appearance.
\n
Food colorants can be divided into four categories: natural, nature-identical, synthetic, and inorganic colors [1]. The production of synthetic coloring agents and other chemicals used as food additives is under increasing pressure due to a renewed interest in the use of natural products and the strong interest in minimizing the use of chemical processes [2]. Since the number of permitted synthetic colorants has decreased because of undesirable toxic effects including mutagenicity and potential carcinogenicity, interest focuses on the development of food grade pigments from natural sources [3–5].
\n
Natural pigments are derived from sources such as plants, insects, and microorganisms. Algae and microalgae, bacteria, fungi, and yeasts are organisms commonly found in nature that can produce natural pigments in different color spectra, such as violacein, phycocyanin, monascins, flavins, quinones, and carotenoids.
\n
Carotenoids represent one of the most important groups of natural pigments, they are responsible for the yellow, orange, red, and purple colors in a wide variety of plants, animals, and microorganisms [6]. They are lipid-soluble, commercially, and biotechnologically significant pigments produced from various organisms such as plants [7], algae and microalgae [8–12], bacteria [13–15], fungi [16–20], and yeasts [4, 21–25].
\n
Pigments from natural sources have been obtained since long time ago, and their attractiveness has increased due to the toxicity problems caused by the synthetic pigments [26–28]. Carotenoids are obtained industrially by chemical synthesis or extraction from plants or algae; however, there has been an increasing interest in biotechnological processes for carotenoids production [29]. The pigments from microbial sources are a good alternative to obtain natural colorants for industrial uses.
\n
The biotechnological production of carotenoids has advantages related to the diversity of microorganisms in nature, versatility in the use of substrates and agro-industrial wastes and the possibility to control operating conditions such as pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and light intensity; also, biomass from other bioprocesses can be submitted to the extraction of carotenoids. The production of microbial carotenoids has become a potential alternative for the replacement of artificial pigments, even with technological, economic, and legislation limitations.
\n
Studies have demonstrated that carotenoids play an essential role for the maintenance of living bodies. In plants, carotenoids play an important role in photosynthesis, acting as light-harvesting pigments and protectors against photo-oxidation. In foods, carotenoids confer yellow, orange, or red color, serve as precursors of aroma compounds, and, as natural antioxidants, may help to extend the shelf-life [30, 31]. In humans, carotenoids have been associated with the reduction of the risk of developing chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, high levels of cholesterol, cataract, and macular degeneration, aside from the pro-vitamin A activity of some of these compounds [31–33]. This is important because in the developed world, as life expectancy increases and the birth rate declines, the demand for solutions focusing on longevity and life quality increases too. The number of people aged >60 years is expected to account for approximately one-fifth of the world’s population by 2050 [34].
\n
\n
2. Biotechnological production of carotenoids
\n
2.1. Carotenoids diversity
\n
Carotenoids are lipid-soluble pigments, colored from yellow to red, with a basic structure consisting in a tetraterpene with a series of conjugated double bonds. They can have only carbon and hydrogen in their structures or have one or more oxygen atoms, being classified as xanthophylls. The majority of carotenoids are C40 terpenoids, which act as membrane-protective antioxidants scavenging O2 and peroxyl radicals [35].
\n
There are more than 700 types of carotenoids described and only about 50 are precursors of vitamin A. Carotenoids can reduce risks for degenerative diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, macular degeneration, and cataract. The biological activities, specially the antioxidant properties, depend on their chemical structure: number of conjugated double bonds, structural end-groups, and oxygen-containing substituents [36].
\n
Carotenoids occur in photosynthetic systems of higher plants, algae, and phototrophic bacteria. In plants, carotenoids are embedded in the membranes of chloroplasts and chromoplasts. The colors of these pigments are masked by chlorophyll, but they contribute to the bright colors of many flowers and fruits [37].
\n
Nonphotosynthetic organisms, as some bacteria and fungi, present carotenoids as protectors against photo-oxidative damage, a way of protection in growth conditions with light and abundant air. The main carotenoids produced by fungi are β-carotene, torulene, torularhodin, and astaxanthin [38]. Bacteria have been reported as producers of cantaxanthin mainly. The microalgae are producers of lutein, β-carotene, and astaxanthin [35].
\n
Animals usually present carotenoids provenient from their diet. Marine animals that feed on algae or on products rich in carotenoids may exhibit the coloration of these pigments, as the salmon fish. The color of the feathers of some birds also comes from a diet rich in carotenoids, as flamingos [39].
\n
The industrial production of carotenoids by plants is dependent on the season and geographic variability, and these cannot always be controlled. The chemical synthesis of carotenoids generates wastes that can cause damage to the environment and resistance by the consumers. Because of this, the biotechnological resources are becoming more interesting. The microbial production of carotenoids can be performed using low-cost substrates or substrates that are residues from industrial processes, like molasses, resulting in lower costs of production [40]. All conditions of this kind of production can be controlled and optimized, especially knowing the metabolic route of each microorganism utilized.
\n
Carotenoids are intracellular products, and a process to increase their accessibility at the downstream stage is necessary. The techniques most used combine physical and chemical methods like maceration and contact with organic solvents [4].
\n
\n
2.2. Main carotenoid biosynthesis pathways
\n
Carotenoids are usually produced from the building blocks geranyl geranyl diphosphate (GGPP) and farnesyl diphosphate (FPP), like other secondary metabolites such as sesquiterpenoids and steroids. The most common pathway is the condensation of 2 GGPP units into prephytoene diphosphate and then to phytoene, a 40-carbon polyunsaturated precursor which is colorless. This precursor is converted into lycopene and then into several derived carotenoids such as β-carotene and oxidized derivatives such as lutein. The condensation of two units of FPP leads to 30-carbon precursors that are converted to steroids or apocarotenoids such as staphyloxanthin [41, 42]. Apocarotenoids can also be produced by oxidative cleavage of carotenoids. Figure 1 presents a simplified carotenoid biosynthesis pathway.
\n
Figure 1.
Biosynthesis pathways of common carotenoids. Source: Adapted from Ref. [38] with permission.
\n
Most carotenoids present maximal absorption in the violet to green region of the visible spectrum, so these substances appear as red to yellow pigments. Table 1 shows the carotenoids with permitted food use according to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Additive/source
\n
Color
\n
Main component
\n
International Numbering System
\n\n
\n
Algae meal, dried
\n
Green to red
\n
Mixture of carotenoids, xanthophyll, and chlorophylls
\n
\n
\n
Astaxanthin and astaxanthin dimethyldisuccinate (several microorganisms)
\n
Orange-red
\n
Astaxanthin
\n
\n
\n
β-apo-8′-carotenal (from carrot oil)
\n
Reddish orange
\n
All-trans-β-apo-8′-carotenal
\n
160e, 160f
\n
\n
β-carotene, synthetic and natural: from vegetables, Blakeslea trispora and Dunaliella salina
\n
Orange
\n
β-carotene
\n
160a(i), 160a(ii)
\n
\n
Canthaxanthin; most of the pigment used in feeds is synthetic
\n
Orange pink
\n
β-carotene-4,4′-dione (canthaxanthin)
\n
161g
\n
\n
Carrot oil
\n
Orange to yellow
\n
\n
160a(ii)
\n
\n
Gardenia red and yellow
\n
Red, yellow
\n
Crocin, crocetin
\n
\n
\n
Haematococcus algae meal
\n
Orange-red
\n
Astaxanthin
\n
\n
\n
Lycopene, tomato extract (i) or concentrate (ii) or from Blakeslea trispora (iii)
\n
Red
\n
Lycopene
\n
160d
\n
\n
Lutein (bras), from marigold oleoresin
\n
\n
Lutein
\n
161b
\n
\n
Marigold color
\n
Yellow
\n
Lutein
\n
\n
\n
Orchil dyes
\n
Red
\n
Orcein
\n
\n
\n
Paprika and paprika oleoresin
\n
Red
\n
Capsanthin, capsorubin
\n
160c
\n
\n
Paracoccus pigment
\n
Red
\n
Astaxanthin
\n
\n
\n
Phaffia yeast
\n
Orange-red
\n
Astaxanthin esters
\n
\n
\n
Saffron
\n
Yellow to orange
\n
α-crocin
\n
164
\n
\n
Tagetes (Aztec marigold) meal and extract
\n
Yellow to orange
\n
Lutein
\n
161b
Table 1.
Carotenoids and carotenoid-rich products used as food color additives.
The most common sources for natural carotenoids for food and cosmetic use are plants, although microorganism biomass is becoming more common as a source for these substances. Table 2 illustrates some commercial sources for microorganism-based carotenoids.
2.4. General downstream operations for carotenoid production
\n
Carotenoids are nonpolar molecules that accumulate intracellularly in plant tissues and microorganisms. Therefore, the production usually consists in a biomass pretreatment that may accelerate the dissolution of these substances, followed by a solid-liquid extraction (leaching) with a suitable, low-polarity solvent. The resulting solution can be a final product, can be desolventized, and can be further purified, depending on the use intended for the extract. Figure 2 illustrates the main steps in the production of carotenoids.
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Figure 2.
Main steps in carotenoids production.
\n
The first step in carotenoid production is the pretreatment of the raw biomass, usually by drying and milling. Drying is convenient because it reduces the weight of the material to be processed, facilitates the access for solvents to the biomass, and reduces contaminants that could be extracted in water micelles with the solvent. The milling step is also important because it increases the surface area of the biomass matrix, facilitating contact with the solvent. In the case of tough-walled organisms, chemical or mechanical cell disruption may be done prior to drying. Fine milling of the dry biomass is less common.
\n
The dry biomass is then extracted using a nonpolar solvent such as hexane or a vegetable oil, for the dissolution of carotenoids. A higher polarity solvent such as acetone can be used for the extraction of xanthophylls. In both cases, lipids are extracted in the mix. This extraction is an equilibrium operation; therefore, the final concentration in the solvent affects the extraction efficiency. Following extraction, the solution containing carotenoids must be concentrated and desolventized. This is why low boiling point solvents, which are easy to evaporate, are more common extractants than oils.
\n
The carotenoids in the concentrated extract may be purified or not, depending on the intended use. For example, β-carotene that will be used as a vitamin A precursor must be purified, while paprika oleoresin is a mixture of carotenoids used mainly as a color and flavor additive and needs no further purification. In general, for carotenoids used as color additives, it is enough to concentrate the extract because (1) the tinctorial strength of the molecules is large—therefore, the additive is added at a low concentration to the formulated product and (2) the sources used are generally regarded as safe (GRAS), and the molecules extracted with the carotenoid are harmless in the concentrations used.
\n
In the case of purified carotenoids, the operations to be used—adsorption, chromatography, crystallization, etc.—depend largely on the properties of the target molecule and the contaminants in the mixture, such as melting point, polarity, solubility, etc. All sorts of nonpolar compounds are extracted with the solvent, such as neutral and slightly polar lipids, steroids, and waxes. The differences in the properties of the carotenoid and the contaminants will be explored in the purification strategy.
\n
Following extraction and purification, the carotenoid must be formulated for further application. This formulation will also depend on the intended use. The formulation may be as simple as adding an antioxidant such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) or butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) to the extract or may be more complex, such as emulsifying the carotenoid as an oil-in-water product for use in polar matrixes such as juices.
\n
\n
\n
3. Industrial application of carotenoids as additives in food, feed and pharmaceutical products
\n
Because of the rising of health concerns by consumers, the demand for carotenoids as natural coloring products is growing. Beta-carotene, astaxanthin, canthaxanthin, lycopen, and lutein are the most required and valuable carotenoids, and they are currently used by the food, feed, and cosmetic industries (Table 3). The use of carotenoids is regulated by the legislation of each country that specifies the source, purity, product, and quantities of the colorant that can be used [59].
Carotenoids\' colors, applications and biological activities.
\n
According to BBC Research [65], the carotenoid global market in 2014 was of US$ 1.5 billion, this value is increasing year by year and is expected to reach US$ 1.8 billion in 2019, with an annual growth rate of 3.9%. Beta-carotene, the carotenoid of highest value, had a global market of US$ 233 million in 2010, which is expected to reach US$ 309 million by 2018. Astaxanthin, due to its powerful antioxidant activity, is the third carotenoid in terms of high added value, with a global market size of US$ 225 million, estimated to increase to US$ 253 million by 2018.
\n
3.1. Importance and use of carotenoids in food products
\n
Commercial food products using carotenoids are expanding, and the greatest demand is in the Asian continent. The pigment is extracted from microalgae such as Chlorella, Dunaliella, Haematococcus [66, 67], from the cyanobacterium Spirulina [68], and from the fungus Monascus [69].
\n
In Asia, the production red koji dates of hundreds of years and uses the fermentation of rice by Monascus to produce the typical reddish color. These red pigments are also used as food colorants for wine, red soy cheese, meat, and by-products of meat and fish [26]. The French cheese named vieux-pan contains the carotenoid produced by Brevibacterium linens due to its orange-red-brown color that improves the sensory quality of the product [70]. In Russia, infant formulas are enriched with natural pigments such as lutein, which is present in breast milk, in order to improve children\'s health [71].
\n
Nutraceutical food products have also been applied in bakery products and pasta. In Japan, Undaria pinnatifida (wakame), an edible seaweed rich in fucoxanthin, is commercialized as an ingredient for pasta [72]. In India, a pasta containing fucoxanthin as an ingredient to improve its biofunctional and nutritional qualities was developed [73].
\n
\n
3.2. Importance and applications of carotenoids in the pharmaceutical industry
\n
Besides the use of nutraceutical foods as a form of prevention and treatment of diseases, the administration of the bioactive compounds in their concentrated form is also a possibility for promoting health. The transport of carotenoids occurs from the intestinal mucosa to the blood vessels carried by lipoproteins [74]. Carotenoids functional properties are related to reactions such as oxidation, reduction, hydrogen abstraction, and addition in biological membranes, and their antioxidant power is fundamental for cell protection against free radicals and singlet oxygen formed in tissues [75].
\n
Some carotenoids are precursors of vitamins, and they also present activities such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anticancer, for cardiovascular therapy and neurodegenerative diseases [76], and anti-obesity [77]. The carotenoids included as pro-vitamin A are β-carotene, α-carotene, and cryptoxanthin. Vitamin A is an essential nutrient for operation and maintenance of biological functions including vision, reproduction, and immunity [78]. Beta-carotene is present in blood and tissues, which is associated with antioxidant activity and concomitantly with other carotenoids or antioxidants can enhance their activity against free radicals. However, it can bring health risk at high doses [79].
\n
Carotenoids, acting as antioxidants eliminating free radicals, can modulate the risk of developing chronic diseases by inhibiting reactions mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Reactive species are produced during cellular metabolism as a defense to infectious and chemical agents that may cause damage to DNA, proteins, and tissues, contributing to the development of chronic diseases such as diabetes, Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer [80].
\n
In addition to the antioxidant properties, carotenoids exhibit anti-inflammatory activities owing to the protective effects of phytochemicals such as lutein and astaxanthin. Astaxanthin has been shown to inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO) in macrophages, to increase the level of inflammatory cytokines, and to reduce oxidative stress. Neuroprotective effect, reduced neuroinflammation, improvement of insulin signals, and reduction of lipid levels were also verified [81].
\n
Inhibition of cell proliferation of colon cancer cells by the use of Neochloris oleoabundans carotenoids was observed, enabling its use as a functional food additive or nutraceutical with potential for the prevention of colon cancer [82]. Beta-carotene, astaxanthin, and capsanthin demonstrated antiproliferative effects on leukemic K562 cells [83]. Studies indicated that the simultaneous use of different carotenoids was efficient against liver cancer. Patients were administered with β-cryptoxanthin-enriched mandarin orange juice and capsules of a carotenoids mixture-containing lutein, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, zeaxanthin, and fucoxanthin. Analyses of DNA array and protein-antibody array showed that the carotenoids interferred in the induction of genes such as p16 and p73 [84].
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusion and final remarks
\n
There are many advantages related to the use of carotenoids instead of artificial pigments in food products and for pharmaceutical applications. Their biological properties such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumoral, and pro-vitamin A activities contribute to the quality of the product and to the consumer’s health. Among the production strategies, microbial synthesis is considered advantageous, and the downstream techniques usually involve cell disruption, solvent extraction, concentration, and purification, when necessary. Several researches have proved the beneficial effects of carotenoids on health, so they can meet the demand for solutions focusing on longevity and life quality.
\n
\n',keywords:"biotechnology, natural pigments, microbial carotenoids, downstream, industrial applications",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/54486.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/54486.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54486",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54486",totalDownloads:3557,totalViews:2384,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:44,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:13,impactScorePercentile:99,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 13th 2016",dateReviewed:"February 3rd 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 14th 2017",dateFinished:"March 20th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Pigments can be divided into four categories: natural, nature-identical, synthetic, and inorganic colors. Artificial colorants are the most used in food and pharmaceutical industries because of their advantages related to color range, price, resistance to oxygen degradation, and solubility. However, many natural pigments present health-promoting activities that make them an interesting option for human use and consumption. Natural colorants are derived from sources such as plants, insects, and microorganisms. Carotenoids are natural pigments with important biological activities, such as antioxidant and pro-vitamin A activity, that can be either extracted from plants and algae or synthesized by various microorganisms, including bacteria, yeasts, filamentous fungi, and microalgae. Advantages of microbial production include the ability of microorganisms to use a wide variety of low cost substrates, the better control of cultivation, and the minimized production time. After fermentation, carotenoids are usually recovered by cell disruption, solvent extraction, and concentration. Subsequent purification steps are followed depending on the application. The most prominent industrial applications of carotenoids, considering their health benefits, are in the food, feed, and pharmaceutical industries.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/54486",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/54486",book:{id:"5797",slug:"carotenoids"},signatures:"Ligia A. C. Cardoso, Susan G. Karp, Francielo Vendruscolo, Karen Y.\nF. Kanno, Liliana I. C. Zoz and Júlio C. Carvalho",authors:[{id:"188405",title:"Prof.",name:"Francielo",middleName:null,surname:"Vendruscolo",fullName:"Francielo Vendruscolo",slug:"francielo-vendruscolo",email:"francielo@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"190868",title:"Dr.",name:"Ligia",middleName:null,surname:"Cardoso",fullName:"Ligia Cardoso",slug:"ligia-cardoso",email:"ligiacardoso@up.edu.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Universidade Positivo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"192331",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlio",middleName:null,surname:"César Carvalho",fullName:"Júlio César Carvalho",slug:"julio-cesar-carvalho",email:"jccarvalho@ufpr.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"192332",title:"MSc.",name:"Liliana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Zoz",fullName:"Liliana Isabel Zoz",slug:"liliana-isabel-zoz",email:"zoz.liliana@yahoo.com.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"204888",title:"Mrs.",name:"Karen",middleName:null,surname:"Kanno",fullName:"Karen Kanno",slug:"karen-kanno",email:"karenykanno@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"204889",title:"Dr.",name:"Susan G.",middleName:null,surname:"Karp",fullName:"Susan G. Karp",slug:"susan-g.-karp",email:"sgkarp@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Biotechnological production of carotenoids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Carotenoids diversity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Main carotenoid biosynthesis pathways",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Carotenoid sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. General downstream operations for carotenoid production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Industrial application of carotenoids as additives in food, feed and pharmaceutical products",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1. Importance and use of carotenoids in food products",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2. Importance and applications of carotenoids in the pharmaceutical industry",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. 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DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2016.06.015'},{id:"B64",body:'Panis G, Carreon JR. Commercial astaxanthin production derived by green alga Haematococcus pluvialis: A microalgae process model and a techno-economic assessment all through production line. Algal Research. 2016;18:175-190. DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2016.06.007'},{id:"B65",body:'BBC Research. The Global Market for Carotenoids [Internet]. 2015. Available from: http://www.bccresearch.com/market-research/food-and-beverage/carotenoids-global-market-report-fod025e.html [Accessed: 2017-01-18]'},{id:"B66",body:'Spolaore P, Joaniss-Cassan C, Duran E, Isambert A. Commercial applications of microalgae. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering. 2006;101:87-96. DOI: 10.1263/jbb.101.87'},{id:"B67",body:'Raja R, Haemaiswarya S, Rengasamy R. Exploitation of Dunaliella for β-carotene production. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2007;74:517-523. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-006-0777-8d'},{id:"B68",body:'Singh RP. Spirulina: Health food for complete nutrition. 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Current Opinion in Food Science. 2015;2:123-129. DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2014.12.009'},{id:"B77",body:'Lai CS, Wu JC, Pan MH. Molecular mechanism on functional food bioactives for anti-obesity. Current Opinion in Food Science. 2015;2:9-13. DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2014.11.008'},{id:"B78",body:'Revuelta JL, Buey RM, Ledesma-Amaro R, Vandamme EJ. Microbial biotechnology for the synthesis of (pro) vitamins, biopigments and antioxidants: Challenges and opportunities. Microbial Biotechnology. 2016;9:564-567. DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.12379'},{id:"B79",body:'Curhan SG, Stankovic KM, Eavey RD, Wang M, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC. Carotenoids, vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E, and folate and risk of self-reported hearing loss in women. American Journal Clinical Nutrition. 2015;102:1167-1175. DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.115.109314'},{id:"B80",body:'Bakan E, Akbulut ZT, Inanç AL. Carotenoids in foods and their effects on human health. Akademik Gıda. 2014;12:61-68.'},{id:"B81",body:'Lu CC, Yen GC. 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1. Introduction
History indicates that modern project management (PM) developed in the Second World War and have developed in some engineering industries. Later year’s PM has been adapted in research and development and pharmaceutical industries. Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] found that “industries of origin” have developed more advanced in PM than disciplines that have started later. Knowledge and processes are important contributors to PM capability but are not the only important elements to assess an organisations project management maturity (PMM) [2]. A total approach of what organisational PMM needs to be applied in organisations. Research conducted by Skulmoski [3] affirm there is a lack of research on the competencies most important for certain types of projects. Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] study confirms that the maturity of PM across different industries indicates that a single model cannot be applied in all cases. Jugdev and Thomas [4] states that maturity models are not difficult to imitate and do not lead to sustained competitive advantage; however, they do lead to temporary competitive advantage for some firms and competitive parity for most. Jugdev and Thomas [4] also comment that most maturity models are not firm specific and can be duplicated. Competitors can replicate maturity models because they lack some of the durability characteristics. Killen and Hunt [5] suggest that project and portfolio capabilities must be tailored to the environment and implemented and adjusted over time and that best practice studies indicate correlations between practices and outcomes.
One way the effectiveness of the PM capability in the power sector can be assessed is through the PMM models. This paper presents the key factors that contribute to PMM in the SA power sector. While generic models are available, this paper aims to bridge this gap that exists in literature and develop a conceptual model for the SA’s power sector.
The following is a summary of gaps that exist on PMM in current literature review:
Organisational culture was largely under examined in PM research [6].
Further empirical studies should build for the mechanisms by which superior PM practices can be developed over time [1]. The authors focused on how PM have developed differently when it was fostered and formed in different environments.
Barber [7] indicate that the internally generated risks seem to relate inversely to PMM and that an opportunity exists of internally generated risks would be used to drive organisational development.
Crawford [8] studies on the relationship between PM standards and effective workplace performance find that there is no empirical research that supports or indeed questions the assumptions which is inherent in the way standards have been developed by expert practitioner.
Studies by De Bruin et al. [9] and Hulya [6] suggest that further research in PMM and how the relation to project performance need to be investigated.
Killen and Hunt [5] suggest that project and portfolio capabilities must be tailored to the environment and implemented and adjusted over time and that best practice studies indicate correlations between practices and outcomes.
A single model cannot be applied in all cases across different industries [1].
Viana et al. [10] indicate in their research that organizational project management maturity models (PMMMs) have been criticized as being ineffective as firms continue to face difficulties in improving their PM practices.
Alam et al. [11] indicate that there was a lack of organisational factors in PMMM, and the social-cultural skills required by project managers managing projects successfully are under examined.
The authors Mahasneh and Thabet [12] in their study indicate that there is a social cultural skills gap among construction school graduates indicating that the gap is a result of various factors such as lack of consensus, clear vision, standardization and common language on the social cultural skills gap between industry and academia.
Marando [13] suggest in their studies that many project managers are not able to successfully lead projects due to a deficiency of the necessary social cultural skills, interpersonal skills include leadership, communication, negotiation, expectations management, influencing, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Considering the following gaps that exist in PMMM it is therefore relevant to form a conceptual model for SA’s power sector. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to perform an extensive literature review to determine the key parameters that contribute to PMM in the SA power sector. The research objectives include the following:
Determine the gaps that is existing in current literature on PMM.
Determine the key parameters important for PMM.
Propose a conceptual model for PMM in the SA power sector.
This paper is divided into five sections. Section one provided the gaps that exist on PMM in current literature and section two provides the literature review. The research methodology is provided in section three. The analysis and discussion are provided in section four and the conclusion is provided in section five.
2. Literature review: parameters that affect PMM
To understand the concept of project maturity further, several definitions of the concept will be investigated as followers:
Hartman and Skulmoski [14] discuss that the maturity of PM tackles the following issues: The competence of the practitioner tries to measure it on a generalised scale and to understand the working environment of the practitioner assesses the business for which the project is being done.
Schlichter [15] use the word maturity to imply that capabilities must be grown to produce repeatable success in PM.
According to Andersen and Jessen [16] project maturity indicate that the organisation is perfectly conditioned to deal with its projects and can be used as an indication of or a measurement of the organisation’s ability to use projects for different purposes.
Ibbs and Kwak [17] define PM maturity as a level of sophistication that indicates organisation’s current PM practices, processes, and performances.
There are also links in literature that suggest maturity models also reflect and increasing desire to link PM competence to corporate achievement [4].
Gareeb and Rwelamila [18] paper reveals that most of the models assess PM capability against bodies of knowledge and indicates that there was no model that could be used for the SA power sector. A total approach of what organisational PM maturity will be applied in this research.
Improving the maturity of an organisation was found to be extremely correlated with project success [19]. Earlier research focuses narrowly on the definition of project success as project cost, time, and quality but current literature has adapted this definition to include other factors. There is limited research on the strength of the relationship between the critical factors and success criteria, and even less analysis of the causal effect between these factors and the performance of projects [20]. Han et al. [21] address the distinction between success factors and success criteria and state the following: “Success factors are factors that influence, constitute as well as determine the success of a project.” Earlier authors suggest that the success factors (critical success factors/project success factors) are defined as those few key factors necessary to reach goals [22]. Whereas success criteria are more related to the perceived performance based on the formal iron triangle such as time, cost, quality. Although the success criteria are difficult to define because many authors add other dimensions to the success criteria which include customer satisfaction as a success dimension or other dimensions. Two important aspects of project success are related to the technical side of the project and the second aspect relates to the “soft skill “henceforth referred to as social-cultural skills. Crawford and Pollack [23] comment that defining the technical and the social-cultural factors is not always clear. The social-cultural issues have been identified as the key success factors in PM and can have a high impact on the project [24]. Azim et al. [25] focus on the cause(s) of complexity in projects which lists three factors and includes process, product, and people. The author’s results indicate the underline importance of “people” not only as factor attributing to project complexity, but also as a key element to project success, thus also highlighting the benefits of social-cultural skills in effective PM. Mishra et al. [26] confirm that despite large work in this area no definite set of factors have been agreed upon that may be due to the organisational or cultural differences through-out the world. Ofori [27] state that generally, critical success factors are a set of project variables or factors that strongly correlate to project success, and whose maximisation or minimisation, depending on whether they are favourable or unfavourable, will lead to project success. Ofori [27] reveals that there is no consensus on what social-cultural factors contribute to project success and indicate that organisational and social-cultural aspects do influence project success because in different project environments different factors are more critical.
The need for developing a conceptual model for the PMMM can have the following benefits:
Langston and Ghanbaripour [28] indicate that any PM environment needs to support the business for successful project, program and/or portfolio delivery. The author indicates that the basis for achieving consistent excellence in PM is assisted by mature organisational systems and processes.
Viana et al. [10] point out that PMMMs have significantly contributed to the field of PM as they heighten awareness of competence to assess organizational PM maturity and that an essential input to support organizational development.
Jugdev and Thomas [4] indicate that PMMM capture the codified knowledge but does not include the intangible assets and if they were included could lead to the competitive advantage of a firm or organisation. Thus, incorporating the correct social cultural factors could add to the competitive advantage of a PMMM.
Zuo et al. [29] results indicated that social cultural skills of project managers significantly contributed to project success factors and hence the project success. Therefore, if these factors are not included in the PMMM a significant aspect is not included in PMMM assessments and measurement.
Studies by Campana [30] indicates there is a large shift to recognize the importance of social cultural skills and indicates the critical importance of social cultural skills in PM.
Assists to spot business or personal opportunities, and it gives advanced warning of significant threats [31].
It aids in the investigation of the barriers and opportunities in sector and provides several obstacles to effective and efficient commerce [32].
It reveals the direction of change within the business environment and thus assists shape change rather than work against it [31].
It provides a framework for the correlation with the production technologies to determine the strengths and weakness of different production pathways. [33]
Aids in avoidance of starting projects that are likely to fail [31].
Assistance with assumptions when one enters a new country, region, or market, because it helps develop an objective view of this new environment [31].
2.1 Technical parameter required for success
The most traditional way to establish project success is measured by the technically which include time, cost, and quality [34]. Portny [35] define a project has been successful when it has produced the desired results within the established timeframe with the allotted resources and state that the following three factors are essential to create the greatest chances for successfully completing a project: a clear and specific agreed-upon statement of the desired outcomes, comprehensive lists of all people who are interested in (needed to support, and/or effected by your project) and a complete and detailed listing of all required project work. Browne and O’Donnabhain [36] identifies key issues and concepts relevant to client-project manager relationship using customer service, service quality and customer satisfaction. Hartman and Skulmoski [37] suggest that there are parallels between business and PM research and topics such as leadership, communication, teamwork, success and examining risks alignment. Although the focus of this section is to find technical factors affecting PM the social-cultural factors based on different studies are ranked high. Studies by Nguyen et al. [38] depict the ranking of twenty success factors and the critical success factors indicate that competent project manager, adequate funding throughout the project, multidisciplinary/competent project team commitment to the project, and the availability of resources are ranked extremely high. Again, the social-cultural aspects of the projects are also indicated in the study reveals that commitment to the project, top management support and continuous involvement of stakeholder do rank high as well. Research conducted by Yong and Mustaffa [39] indicates that two of the four factors identify category namely, effective allocation of manpower; urgency in meeting project deadline are of higher importance. The research indicates that financial problem such as delayed payments and financial difficulties are seen to be a major factor that causes delay in the construction project. Table 1 represents the summary of the literature review that identifies the technical factors required for project success. With a list of several factors of understanding PM standards, risk methodology, documentation control management, understanding how to take make changes in the schedule as well considering the impact of the changes, performance and quality management, contract, legal aspects, top management support and financial management are important for a project manager from a technical side.
Technical factors
Reference
Project management standards and methodology *Technical specifications and performance **Tools and technique
Scope and schedule management. Change control aspects and management *Control of contractor Schedule **Project progress and plans in place ***Project planning
Chen [41] Yong and Mustaffa [39]* Yong and Mustaffa [39]** Griffith [43]*** Zwikael and Globerson [44]*** Lam et al. [40] Mishra et al. [26]
Performance and quality requirements **Quality **Adequacy of design specification
Zwikael and Globerson [44] Schein [45] Yong and Mustaffa [39]** Lam et al. [40]* Roberts et al. [46] Chen [41]* Browne and O’Donnabhain [36] Leveson et al. [47]
Contract and legal management must be in place by the organisation
Top management support *Aligned with the business/project objects thus obtaining top management support
Albu and Panzar [49]; Selders and Ma¨rkle [50]*; Mishra et al. [26] Ofori’s [27]
Financial implications/funding and profitability for the organisation *Adequate Funding throughout the project **Financial capability of the client profitability
Nguyen et al. [38]* Yong and Mustaffa [39]** Lam et al. [40]
Table 1.
Summary of the technical parameter for project success.
The *, **, *** on each factor/theme corresponds to the reference for each.
2.2 Social-cultural parameter required for success
Social-cultural issues include factors such as benefits, stakeholders, value management, and communications [51]. Studies by Mishra et al. [26] indicate that proper communication has been found a critical success factor in the success of a team. Vance’s [52] study consisting of 1800+ system integrators list in Control Engineering’s Automation Integrator Guide were asked to share their top tips for ensuring success of an automation project. This study indicated as much as 80% of the project’s problems were due to lack of proper communication between the client and the integrator. Mishra et al. [26] study indicates that clearly goals and objectives were the number one ranking in their empirical study on project performance. Ofori [27] study indicate experience and competence of project personnel as ranked number four in their top factors for critical success. Kadefors [53] highlights the importance of trust and project success. Karlsen et al. [54] argue that trust is being particularly important in both organisations and projects, since it is viewed as an essential for stable relationships, vital for the maintenance of cooperation, fundamental for any exchange and necessary for even the most routine of everyday interactions. Pinto and Slevin [55] study also indicate that understanding the mission and goals to measure the outcome as an important success factor. Hartman and Skulmoski [37] depict that multi PM must include inter-project communication, priority setting, planning that align projects with and support corporate strategy. Thus, ensuring outcomes to be understood by the project team members and the criteria for measurement.
Table 2 represents the literature review that identifies the social-cultural factors related to project success. Within a list of several factors for project success are communication and understanding outcomes. Studies on project success identifies success factors, which include communication, clearly defined roles and responsibilities, project team competency and availability of resources, trust and understanding outcomes.
Social-cultural factors
Reference
Communication *Clear Communication between client and contractor **Effective team members play a role in communication. ***Strong project commitment ****Communicating effectively on multicultural projects*
Mishra et al. [26]; Vance [52]*; Michalski [56]*; den Otter and Emmitt [57]**; Johannessen and Olsen [58]; Adenfelt [59]; Andersen et al. [60]***; Ochieng and Price [61]****; Zwikael and Globerson [44] Chen [41] Yong and Mustaffa [39]
Project team Competencies and availability of resources *Availability of resources
Cooke-Davies [62] Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] Ofori [27] Thia and Swierczek [20] Nguyen et al. [38]* Yong and Mustaffa [39]*
Trust *Between the client and contractor **Stable pool of project team members
Webber and Klimoski [63]* Pinto et al. [64]; Kadefors [53]; Maurer [65]*; Karlsen [54]
Understanding outcomes: of the project and each team member *Statement of outcomes and deliverables with key measurable criteria **Clear goals and objectives
Portny [35]*; Pinto and Slevin [55]; Hartman and Skulmoski [37] Mishra et al. [26]**
Table 2.
Summary of the social-cultural parameter for project success.
2.3 Organisational competencies
Zwikael [66] comments that different industries face different challenges while managing projects. The author refers to some examples like the software development organisations that must deal with high-technology uncertainty, while construction organisations that are usually more troubled with engineering and financial problems. Crawford [8] indicate that the competence of project personnel is important as they are having major impact on project performances and ultimately also impact the business performance. De Oliveria et al. [67] indicates that agility and flexibility represent the way to achieve organisational performance and that maximum project performance is accomplished when efforts are tied together to improve leadership factors and organisational factors. An important organisational success measure is the respondents perceived rate of project success of their organisations compared with competitors organisations in the same sector of activity [68]. Gareis and Huemann [69] indicates that PM competencies must describe, assess, and further develop for the organisation, teams, and individuals in the organisation. Brush et al. [70] describe the resource pyramid of value creation and indicate that firms can have a unique advantage when assets become valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable. Hartman and Skulmoski [14] state that elements that affect maturity will include technical, business, and social issues.
2.3.1 Strategic organisational PM
Albu and Panzar [49] state that maturity alignment is a concept referring to the extent to which the organisational components (strategy, structure, systems, processes, etc.) reflect similar or close maturity levels, acting in synergy towards the achievement of organisational objectives. Christenson and Walker [71] study concludes that project vision is a critical project success factor. The more immediate contribution remains demonstrating a protocol for getting project teams to focus on the project vision and the likely impact upon that for PM success. Fitsilis et al. [72] suggests that programmes and projects are recognised as one of the most important means of achieving organisations strategic plans. To become durably successful, an organisation should realise its maturity alignment [73]. PMM level cannot be attained or sustained if a certain level of organisational maturity is not reached [74]. Cooke-Davies et al. [75] argue that strategic drivers influence the nature of value expected from PM, and a PM system should be adapted to the specific strategic positioning of each organisation to deliver maximum value. Studies by Andersen et al. [76] found support for the proposition that there is a relationship between project perspectives applied in PM and formal organisational rationality. Table 3 summaries the Strategic organisational factors.
Strategic Organisational PM
References
Aligning project objective with business objective *Scorecards **Project vision
Albu and Panzar [49]; Selders and Ma¨rkle [50]*; Christenson and Walker [71]**; Fitsilis et al. [72]; Meyer [73]; Andersen et al. [76]
Sustainability of the organisation and best practices *Strategic drivers
[74]; Gareis and Huemann [69]; Cooke-Davies et al. [75] Crawford [8]
Table 3.
Summary of strategic organisational PM.
2.3.2 Organisational culture
Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] definition of organisational culture as: “Refers to the underlying beliefs, values and principles that serve as a foundation for an organisations management practices and behaviour that both exemplify and reinforce those basic principles.” Based on the literature review by Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] two important factors on organisational culture is if the culture is unhelpful then it is important to change it and secondly, that irrespective of whether culture helps or hinders the effects of culture must be considered throughout the project. Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] also suggest that the leadership style of a project manager needs to be adapted to the organisational culture and confirm through their literature review that there is a clear correlation between high trust and low cost, and between low trust and high cost. Thamhain [77] results shows that despite cultural differences among organisations a general agreement exists on the factors that drive team performance, one of the most striking finding is the large number of performance factors that is derived from the human side where organisational components that satisfy personal and professional needs seem to have a strong effect on cooperation, commitment, risk management, and ultimately drive overall team performance. Diallo and Thuillier [78] mentions that project success and success dimensions depend on project type and sector. Performance problems on technology-intensive projects involve largely management, behavioural and organisational issues, rather than technical complications [79, 80]. Dvir et al. [81] suggest that project success factors are not common for all projects; different types of projects are affected by different sets of success factors. Therefore, a project-specific approach is appropriate for following studies into the practice and theory of PM [82]. Table 4 summaries the themes from literature for organisational culture.
Organisational Culture
References
Organisational culture that supports project management process
Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1]; Diallo and Thuillier [78]; Killen and Hunt [5]; Mishra et al. [26]; Roberts et al. [46]; Crawford [8]
Support employees to understand cultural diversity
Thamhain [77]; *Belassi and Tukel [79]; *Hartman and Ashrafi [80]; **Branson [83]; Andersen et al. [76]; Deal and Kennedy [84]; Diallo and Thuillier [78]
Organisational structures that support project
*Dvir et al. [81]; **Hyväri [82]; Mishra et al. [26]
Top management support for organisational project culture
Killen and Hunt [5]; Zwikael [66]; *Simons [85] **Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1];
Table 4.
Summary of organisational culture.
2.4 Country specific factors
A PESTLE is a tool used for macro environmental scanning [86]. Environmental scanning can be defined as the study and interpretation of the political, economic, social, technological, legal, and environ-mental events and trends which influence a business, an industry or even the total market [86]. A PESTLE analysis was conducted by Gareeb and Rwelamila [18] on the SA’s macro environment and the full analysis is present in Gareeb and Rwelamila [18]. Table 5 summarizes the SA specific issues that should be considered when entering the SA environment which is an extraction from the PESTLE analysis. This analysis will be used in this paper to build the PMMM.
PESTLE
Analysis of SA’s macro environment
Political
Baker [87] suggests that institutionally, the 2006 Electricity Regulation Act should govern the main activities of the electricity sector. However, influence on energy policy and planning is also exerted by SA’s Power Sector Parastatal, Treasury, SA’s Department of Public Enterprises, metropolitan and municipal governments, and the Inter Ministerial Committee on energy [87]. Besides these entities reducing the effect of the SA’s Department of Energy and its regulator (NERSA), the influence of heavy private users (Energy Intensive User’s Group) and coal suppliers cannot be ignored [87]. This describes a mix of highly influential political landscape in favour of specific entities that reduce the effect of proper regulation and create numerous policy uncertainties and delays remain. This does not allow for progress, including from energy independent power producers (IPPs) waiting to construct and connect their projects to the country’s electric grid. Specific interference by political organisations to suppliers of energy have also been documented [87] and [88].
Economic
The economic policy on supply and demand of electricity falls within the ambit of the SA’s Department of Energy and is well documented to be a major driver of growth, reducing poverty, and ensuring social well-being, even of industry [89]. However, lack of cohesive ownership and policy seems to be detracting from the major objectives of various stakeholders, resulting in lack of commitment [87].
Social
Skills remains a critical downfall of the planning, design, supply, and distribution of electricity, as cited by Baker [87] and the SA’s Department of Energy [90]. Further, social development along empowerment of independent suppliers can only be addressed through policy.
Technological
SA’s Power Sector Parastatal currently generates 95% of the country’s electricity [87]. SA’s Department of Energy [89] suggests that up to 30% of the country’s generation is to come from IPPs, but Baker [87] suggests that the appropriate legislation was never enacted, and no private generation was incorporated to the grid. Most of the country’s electricity originates from coal fired power plants in the northeast, many immediately adjacent to privately owned coal mines. The remaining generation comes from pumped storage and imported hydroelectricity, the Koeberg nuclear power station, four gas fuelled turbine stations, and one wind energy power station [87]. In 2005 SA’s Electricity Parastatal initiated its expansion programme which includes the construction of two major power plants, the return to service of mothballed coal fired power stations and energy efficiency investments [87].
Legal/regulatory
The Energy Regulator defined by the Electricity Regulation Act 4 of 2006 mandated to ensure adequate supply, distribution, and electrification of all users in a fair and equitable manner. This includes empowering entities to get access to specific sectors and population groups, ensure clarity in policy to operate and integrate to the grid and stipulate environmental and social targets. The cohesiveness of such policy is questioned by policy makers and industry commentators [87]. This together with a lack of governance on managing progress creates a vacuum between planning parties and those organisations charged with delivery. Finally, the scope of legislation for local empowerment and public accountability extends to the regulated energy market and plays a key role to ensure governance and accountability.
Environmental
South Africa pledged to reduce the country’s greenhouse gas emissions by 34% by 2020 and 42% by 2025 [91]. Baker [87] suggests that despite the absence of national expertise, South Africa also has an enormous potential for several different renewable energy technologies including: wind, solar water heaters, concentrated solar power, solar photovoltaics, and biomass. SA’s Power Sector Parastatal has thus far secured investment in a renewable component consisting only of the 100 MW wind farm now funded by the World Bank [87]. Lack of policy on carbon emission and empowerment of local suppliers to augment the grid is hampering progress.
Table 5.
PESTLE analysis based on South African macro environment.
The sector specific by Gareeb and Rwelamila [18], include: high-risk environment, organisational safety culture, sustainability, environmental impact, compliance with SA’s governing regulations and reliable technologies. Table 6 summarizes the characteristics of the power sector from Gareeb and Rwelamila [18] been important consideration for the SA’s power sector. This analysis will be used in this paper to build the PMMM.
McCaffrey [94]; Taylor [95]; Fitsilis et al. [72] OSHA [92]; NERSA [96]; Li and Poon [97]; Weil [98]; Taylor [95];
P.S.3
Sustainability
Oricha and Taiwo [99]; Chambers et al. [100] Goodland [101]; Suberu et al. [102]; Silvius and Schipper [103]; Alzahrani [104]; Păunescu and Acatrinei [105]
P.S.4
Environment impact
Chen et al. [106]; Blaabjerg et al. [107]; Massetti et al. [108]; Silvius and Schipper [103]; Alzahrani [104]; Bai et al. [109]
P.S.5
Compliant with SA’s regulations
SA’s Department of Energy [90]; NERSA [96]; Karekezi and Kimani [110]; Li et al. [111]
P.S.6
Process capability effectives//high end technology—reliable, sustainable, and environmental effectiveness
Panda and Ramanathan [112]; Oseni [113]; Oseni [114]; Pauschert [115]; Dabre et al. [116]
Table 6.
Summary of factors related to the power sector industry.
This study is classified as a literature review [117]. The literature search in Gareeb and Rwelamila [18] categorised over a 19-year period and using 28 databases indicate that the current models are not completely suitable for SA’s power sector (the models tend to be generalizable, and some models are developed for specific countries and areas that are not suitable to the SA environment).
This study proposes a conceptual model for measuring PMM in the SA’s power sector. To achieve the goals of this paper a grounded approach was used to develop a conceptual model. First, past and current studies relating to PM success factors for PMM were studied to get a comprehensive understanding of the topic. The next steps included studies that entailed gaps that existed in current PMM literature so that this could be addressed in this study. The literature search continued until saturation of the data occurred. A literature review was used to find the key success factors for PMM as well as gaps that exist in current PMM literature. The data source was the analysis of books, published papers, conference papers, white papers, and specialized material from the relevant institutions.
Finally, the findings and analysis are provided together with the concluding remarks showing the contributions of this study in the PM field. The proposed model will be tested with the relevant case study organisations to determine the validity of the proposed conceptual model.
4. The conceptual model for PMM in the SA power sector
This paper presents a conceptual model for projects taking place in SA’s power sector. Section two provided the gaps that existed in current literature on PMM. Organisations are complex environments. It is impossible for researchers to put forward a full detailed picture of these phenomena therefore, a way of representing a simplified version is through a model [118].
To understand the concept of a model, Team [119] defines “model” as: “A model is a simplified representation of the world.” KPMG [120] state that models have benefits such as: set process improvement objectives and priorities; improve processes and provide guidance; acts as a guide for improvement of organisational processes and define a starting point; enable the benefits of a community’s prior experiences to be shared; create a common language and share a vision. A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, or conditions and used for representation, identification, communication, or understanding [121].
Lilien [122] lists the characteristics of conceptual model as:
Often a flowchart or simple relationship (graph to indicate the nature of the relationship).
Generally, of more use to the model builder than the model user (if the user and the builder are not the same).
Helpful in thinking about reality than in actual decision—making.
This paper presents a conceptual model for projects taking place in SA’s power sector.
Section two provided the gaps that existed in current literature on PMM. The proposed PMM model addresses the requirements and complexities identified within the PM environment in a more holistic way (represented in Figure 1) for the SA power sector.
Figure 1.
Conceptual model for PMM for SA’s power sector.
Figure 1 indicates the content that exists in literature and highlighted in red indicates what was lacking in current PMM. Figure 1 presents the requirements of what the key factors for PMM in the SA Power
Sector should entail. The concept PM maturity was discussed. Diallo and Thuillier [78] mentions that project success and success dimensions depend on project type and sector. Dvir et al. [81] suggests that project success factors are not common for all projects and different types of projects are affected by different sets of success factors. Therefore, a project specific approach is appropriate for following studies into the practice and theory of PM [82].
Studies reveal that project performance is linked to project maturity. Therefore, extensive literature review has been conducted on what constitutes project performance/project success. Empirical correlations of all the factors that affect project success were reviewed. Two important factors were identified that affect project success, namely the technical and the social-cultural factors. This study identifies the critical success factors for successful projects that have an impact on the project maturity
Not only does project performance has links to project maturity but the organisational play a part. There is extensive literature available on the concepts that exist between PM maturity and organisational maturity. Without some degree of organisational maturity, PM maturity would not last or continue.
Therefore, organisations need to have an alignment between the organisational and PM maturity. The project objectives need to be linked into the overall business objects and organisational strategy. This model from a broader perspective takes into account sector specific and country specific factors that have not been established yet.
The proposed PMM model addresses the requirements and complexities identified within the PM environment in a more holistic way (represented in Figure 1) for the SA power sector. Figure 1 indicates the content that exists in literature and highlighted in red indicates what was lacking in current PMM. The framework takes into account what was lacking in current literature on PMM for the SA power sector. Figure 1 presents the requirements of what the key factors for PMM in the SA power sector should entail.
The conceptual model introduces country specific factors for the SA’s environment and sector specific factor for the power sector. If the country specific factors are relaxed and a PESTLE analysis is carried out in the country where projects is taking place, therefore this framework can be adapted to different countries. The success components address the requirements and complexities identified with PM in the more holistic way to the SA power sector.
The proposed conceptual model addresses issues encountered as followers:
Hulya [6] claims that organisational culture was largely under examined in PM research. This paper considers the organisational culture and the need for the organisational culture to support PM therefore an enabler for PMM eventually. This can be found in Table 4.
Cooke-Davies and Arzymanow [1] state that further empirical studies need to be built for superior PM practices. This study focused on the latest empirical literature.
Özturan et al. [123] comment that earlier models are a relatively a new proposal and therefore lacks empirical support for determining which competencies contribute most success. Figure 1 was linked to empirical data. This can be found in the literature review Section 2 of this paper.
This paper focuses on the country specific factors, sector specific factors and the project specific factors that affect PMM therefore provides a holistic approach for the context of this study. This can be found in Table 5 where a summarized PESTLE analysis was conducted to determine these components.
Ibbs and Kwak [124] comment that as new PM knowledge and practice becomes available the models need to be continuously developed and adapted. This study focused on the latest research and Figure 1 address the gaps that is lacking in current literature on considering the PMM requirements for the SA’s power sector.
Organisational development for PMM have been identified in this paper and have addressed the challenges.
5. Conclusion
The crucial factors that underpin the success of the projects are due to social-cultural factors [125]. This paper presents the key factors that contribute to PMM in the SA pwer sector. Section 4 presents the framework for developing a PMM model for the SA power sector. Diallo and Thuillier [78] mentions that project success and success dimensions depend on project type and sector. Dvir et al. [81] suggests that project success factors are not common for all projects and different types of projects are affected by different sets of success factors. Therefore, a project specific approach is appropriate for following studies into the practice and theory of PM [82]. Studies reveal that project performance is linked to project maturity. Therefore, extensive literature review has been conducted on what constitutes project performance/project success. Empirical correlations of all the factors that affect project success were reviewed. Two important factors were identified that effect project success, namely the technical and the social-cultural factors. This study identifies the critical success factors for successful projects that have an impact on the project maturity. Not only the project performance has links to project maturity but the organisational plays a role. There is extensive literature available on the concepts that exist between PMM and organisational maturity. Without some degree of organisational maturity, PMM would not last or continue. Therefore, organisations need to have an alignment between the organisational and PMM. The project objectives need to be linked into the overall business objects and organisational strategy. The contribution for this study provides the conceptual framework from a broader perspective for the SA power sector.
The following was achieved during the research and the following objectives met:
Firstly, gaps that existed in current PMM were identified and are listed in section two as the starting point of the study.
Secondly the gaps were addressed through an extensive literature review on PMM and is listed in section four.
The key parameters that contribute to SA PMM were determined and consist of social-cultural, technical, organisational, sector and country specific and is listed in section two. Figure 1 provides the conceptual framework for PMM in the SA power sector.
Research limitations—The focus of this paper was limited to the peer reviewed articles and journals on PMM.
Future research—The current research provides the conceptual model for the SA power sector. The next steps are to test the conceptual model with the relevant organisations.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge that this paper is part of a doctoral thesis. The author of the thesis is Dr Natisha Gareeb (2018) and is entitled “An Appropriate Project Management Maturity Model for the Power Sector – the Case of South Africa”, UNISA, South Africa, Pretoria. The authors would also like to thank our statistician, Juliana van Staden from the University of Witwatersrand.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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The authors reviewed the relevant journals to search for key parameters for measuring PMM. The study proposes a conceptual model for measuring PMM in the SA’s power sector. The focus of this paper was limited to the peer reviewed articles and journals.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82218",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82218",signatures:"Natisha Gareeb and Pantaleo Mutajwaa Daniel Rwelamila",book:{id:"11260",type:"book",title:"Project Management - New Trends and Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Project Management - New Trends and Applications",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Marinela Mircea and Dr. Tien M. 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Literature review: parameters that affect PMM",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Technical parameter required for success",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Social-cultural parameter required for success",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Organisational competencies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.4 Country specific factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.5 Sector specific factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Research methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. The conceptual model for PMM in the SA power sector",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Disclosure statement",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Cooke-Davies TJ, Arzymanow A. 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Software Quality Journal. 2007;15(4):365-381'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Natisha Gareeb",address:"natisha.gareeb@gmail.com",affiliation:'
, UNISA – University of South Africa, Carlswald, Gauteng, South Africa
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Pantaleo Mutajwaa Daniel Rwelamila",address:null,affiliation:'
, UNISA – University of South Africa, Carlswald, Gauteng, South Africa
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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The model parameters deciphered here are the amplitude coefficient (k), horizontal location (x0), depth of the body (z), and shape (q). Inversion of the model parameter suggests that constraining the horizontal location and the shape factor offers the most reliable results. Investigation of convergence rate, histogram, and cross-plot examination suggest that the interpretation method developed for the self-potential anomalies is stable and the model parameters are within the estimated ambiguity. Inversion of synthetic noise-free and noise-corrupted data for single structures and multiple structures in addition to real field information exhibits the viability of the method. The model parameters estimated by the present technique were in good agreement with the real parameters. The method has been used to invert two field examples (Sulleymonkoy anomaly, Ergani, Turkey, Senneterre area of Quebec, Canada) with application of subsurface mineralized bodies. 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In fact, under some specific conditions the NCMs could be used either as effective adsorbent material or alternative source of minerals. This chapter presents an outline of a general review of factors that affect the application ability of NCMs and a descriptive analysis of NH4+ and REE adsorption behavior and extraction of rare earth elements (REE) by an ion-exchange with NH4+ ions onto NCMs. Clays and NCMs both effectively remove various contaminants from aqueous solution and serve as alternative sources of minerals, as extensively discussed in this chapter. This review compiles thorough literature of current research and highlights the key findings of adsorption (NH4+ and REE) that use different NCMs as adsorbents or alternative sources of minerals (i.e., REE). The review confirmed that NCMs excellently remove different cations pollutants and have significant potential as alternative source of REE. However, modification and further development of NCMs applications for getting the best adsorption and the best extraction of REE onto NCMs, which would enhance pollution control and leaching system is still needed.",book:{id:"7315",slug:"minerals",title:"Minerals",fullTitle:"Minerals"},signatures:"Aref Alshameri, Xinghu Wei, Hailong Wang, Yang Fuguo, Xin Chen, Hongping He, Chunjie Yan and Feng Xu",authors:[{id:"172947",title:"Prof.",name:"Xin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"xin-chen",fullName:"Xin Chen"},{id:"250327",title:"Dr.",name:"Aref",middleName:null,surname:"Alshameri",slug:"aref-alshameri",fullName:"Aref Alshameri"},{id:"306625",title:"Dr.",name:"Aref",middleName:null,surname:"Alshameri",slug:"aref-alshameri",fullName:"Aref Alshameri"},{id:"306656",title:"Prof.",name:"Fuguo",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"fuguo-yang",fullName:"Fuguo Yang"},{id:"306658",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Xinghu",slug:"wei-xinghu",fullName:"Wei Xinghu"},{id:"306660",title:"Prof.",name:"Wang",middleName:null,surname:"Hailong",slug:"wang-hailong",fullName:"Wang Hailong"},{id:"306664",title:"Prof.",name:"Yan",middleName:null,surname:"Chunjie",slug:"yan-chunjie",fullName:"Yan Chunjie"},{id:"306665",title:"Dr.",name:"Xu",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"xu-feng",fullName:"Xu Feng"},{id:"306671",title:"Prof.",name:"He",middleName:null,surname:"Hongping",slug:"he-hongping",fullName:"He Hongping"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71052",title:"Enhanced Humidity Sensing Response in Eu3+-Doped Iron-Rich CuFe2O4: A Detailed Study of Structural, Microstructural, Sensing, and Dielectric Properties",slug:"enhanced-humidity-sensing-response-in-eu-sup-3-sup-doped-iron-rich-cufe-sub-2-sub-o-sub-4-sub-a-deta",totalDownloads:596,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The CuFe(2−x)EuxO4 (where x = 0.00, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03) nanoparticles are synthesized by solution combustion method. The influence of Eu3+ on the structural, morphological, dielectrical, and humidity sensing study is recorded. The XRD pattern peaks of the as-prepared CuFe(2−x)EuxO4 (where x = 0.00, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03) nanoparticle confirm the polycrystalline spinel cubic structure with a small amount of CuO impurity phase at 38.87° and 48.96°. Surface morphology of the samples was studied by scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the nanoparticles, and their respective average grain size was estimated using Image software. Chemical composition of all prepared samples was analyzed by EDS spectra. The dielectric parameters of AC conductivity, electric modulus, and impedance of the samples were measured over a range of frequencies from 0.1 KHz to 1 MHz at room temperature. Europium-doped copper ferrite samples showed good humidity sensing response, response and recover times, and stability over a %RH range of 11–91%. These types of samples are very useful for sensor application, battery applications, electronic applications, and automotive applications.",book:{id:"9247",slug:"mineralogy-significance-and-applications",title:"Mineralogy",fullTitle:"Mineralogy - Significance and Applications"},signatures:"I.C. Sathisha, K. Manjunatha, V. Jagadeesha Angadi, B. Chethan, Y.T. Ravikiran, Vinayaka K. Pattar, S.O. Manjunatha and Shidaling Matteppanavar",authors:[{id:"266255",title:"Dr.",name:"Veerabhadrappa",middleName:null,surname:"Jagadeesha Angadi",slug:"veerabhadrappa-jagadeesha-angadi",fullName:"Veerabhadrappa Jagadeesha Angadi"},{id:"321561",title:"Dr.",name:"I.C.",middleName:null,surname:"Sathisha",slug:"i.c.-sathisha",fullName:"I.C. Sathisha"},{id:"321562",title:"Dr.",name:"K.",middleName:null,surname:"Manjunatha",slug:"k.-manjunatha",fullName:"K. Manjunatha"},{id:"321564",title:"Dr.",name:"B.",middleName:null,surname:"Chethan",slug:"b.-chethan",fullName:"B. Chethan"},{id:"321565",title:"Dr.",name:"Y.T.",middleName:null,surname:"Ravikiran",slug:"y.t.-ravikiran",fullName:"Y.T. Ravikiran"},{id:"321566",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayaka K.",middleName:null,surname:"Pattar",slug:"vinayaka-k.-pattar",fullName:"Vinayaka K. Pattar"},{id:"321567",title:"Dr.",name:"S.O.",middleName:null,surname:"Manjunatha",slug:"s.o.-manjunatha",fullName:"S.O. Manjunatha"},{id:"321568",title:"Dr.",name:"Shidaling",middleName:null,surname:"Matteppanavar",slug:"shidaling-matteppanavar",fullName:"Shidaling Matteppanavar"}]},{id:"65826",title:"Introductory Chapter: Mineral Exploration from the Point of View of Geophysicists",slug:"introductory-chapter-mineral-exploration-from-the-point-of-view-of-geophysicists",totalDownloads:1635,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"7315",slug:"minerals",title:"Minerals",fullTitle:"Minerals"},signatures:"Khalid S. Essa and Marc Munschy",authors:[{id:"102766",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalid S.",middleName:null,surname:"Essa",slug:"khalid-s.-essa",fullName:"Khalid S. Essa"},{id:"292929",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Munschy",slug:"marc-munschy",fullName:"Marc Munschy"}]},{id:"69811",title:"Chemical Synthesis and Characterization of Luminescent Iron Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Biomedical Applications",slug:"chemical-synthesis-and-characterization-of-luminescent-iron-oxide-nanoparticles-and-their-biomedical",totalDownloads:564,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The syntheses and characterizations of biocompatible luminescent magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles has drawn particular attention as diagnostic and drug delivery tools for treatment of cancer and many other diseases. This chapter focuses on the chemical synthetic methods, magnetic and luminescent properties, including the biomedical applications of iron oxide nanomaterials and luminescent magnetic iron oxide-based nanocomposite materials. The influences of functionalizing with short ligands such as dopamine and L-cysteine on the magnetic properties of synthesized nanoparticles are described. The chapter contains some data on necessary reagents and protocols for bioconjugation aimed at cell culture and step by step the MTT assays used to evaluate cytotoxicity are also presented. In the final section of the chapter, we focus on the biomedical applications specifically for diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer treatment. This chapter also investigates the application of various characterization techniques for analysis of the structural, optical and magnetic properties of the iron oxide nanoparticles and as their nanocomposites.",book:{id:"9247",slug:"mineralogy-significance-and-applications",title:"Mineralogy",fullTitle:"Mineralogy - Significance and Applications"},signatures:"Martin Onani, Leandre Brandt and Zuraan Paulsen",authors:[{id:"258023",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:null,surname:"Onani",slug:"martin-onani",fullName:"Martin Onani"},{id:"302723",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandré Bianca",middleName:null,surname:"Brandt",slug:"leandre-bianca-brandt",fullName:"Leandré Bianca Brandt"},{id:"302725",title:"MSc.",name:"Zuraan",middleName:null,surname:"Paulsen",slug:"zuraan-paulsen",fullName:"Zuraan Paulsen"}]},{id:"27429",title:"An Introduction to Mineralogy",slug:"an-introduction-to-mineralogy",totalDownloads:6621,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"1600",slug:"an-introduction-to-the-study-of-mineralogy",title:"An Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy",fullTitle:"An Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy"},signatures:"Cumhur Aydinalp",authors:[{id:"98959",title:"Prof.",name:"Cumhur",middleName:"---",surname:"Aydinalp",slug:"cumhur-aydinalp",fullName:"Cumhur Aydinalp"}]},{id:"27435",title:"A Review of Pathological Biomineral Analysis Techniques and Classification Schemes",slug:"a-review-of-pathological-biomineral-analysis-techniques-and-classification-schemes",totalDownloads:4303,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1600",slug:"an-introduction-to-the-study-of-mineralogy",title:"An Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy",fullTitle:"An Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy"},signatures:"Maria Luigia Giannossi and Vito Summa",authors:[{id:"101919",title:"PhD.",name:"Maria Luigia",middleName:null,surname:"Giannossi",slug:"maria-luigia-giannossi",fullName:"Maria Luigia Giannossi"},{id:"108348",title:"Dr.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Summa",slug:"vito-summa",fullName:"Vito Summa"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"651",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81626",title:"Use of Natural Safiot Clay for the Removal of Chemical Substances from Aqueous Solutions by Adsorption: A Combined Experimental and Theoretical Study",slug:"use-of-natural-safiot-clay-for-the-removal-of-chemical-substances-from-aqueous-solutions-by-adsorpti",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101605",abstract:"The main objective of this work was to investigate the potential of Natural Safiot Clay (NSC), as an adsorbent for the removal of two cationic dyes such as Basic Blue 9 (BB9) and Basic Yellow 28 (BY28) from single and binary systems in aqueous solutions. For this, the effects of three factors controlling the adsorption process, such as initial dye concentration, adsorbent dose, and initial pH on the adsorption extent, were investigated and examined. The natural safiot clay was characterized using the following technique: energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), DRX, and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and pH of the point of zero charge (pHZPC). Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy results indicate high percentages of Silica and Alumina. FT-IR spectrum identified kaolinite as the major mineral phase in the presence of quartz, calcite, and dolomite. The quantum theoretical study confirms the experimental results, through the study of the global and local reactivity and the electrophilicity power of the dyes. The electrophilicity power of dyes affects the removal efficiency. The theoretical study proves that BB9 (ω = 6.178) is more electrophilic than BY28 (ω = 2.480) and more interactions with surface sites. The results of the molecular dynamics simulation indicate that the dyes are adsorbed parallel to the surface of natural Safi clay (kaolinite), implying the strong interaction with the kaolinite atoms. All the results of quantum chemistry calculations and simulations of molecular dynamics are in perfect agreement with the results of the experimental study.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Aziz El Kassimi, Mohammadine El Haddad, Rachid Laamari, Mamoune El Himri, Youness Achour and Hicham Yazid"},{id:"80866",title:"Normative Mineralogy Especially for Shales, Slates, and Phyllites",slug:"normative-mineralogy-especially-for-shales-slates-and-phyllites",totalDownloads:44,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102346",abstract:"First, an insight into normative mineralogy and the most important methods for calculating the standard or norm minerals, such as the CIPW norm, is given. This is followed by a more detailed explanation of “slatenorm” and “slatecalculation” for low and very low metamorphic rocks, such as phyllites, slates, and shales. They are particularly suitable for fine-grained rocks where the mineral content is difficult to determine. They enable the determination of a virtual mineral inventory from full chemical analysis, including the values of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon (C), and sulfur (S). The determined norm or standard minerals include the minerals—feldspars, carbonates, micas, hydro-micas, chlorites, ore minerals, and quartz. The advantages of slatenorm and slatecalculation compared to other methods for calculating normal minerals of sedimentary rocks are discussed.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Hans Wolfgang Wagner"},{id:"80770",title:"Mg-Ilmenite from Kimberlites, Its Origin",slug:"mg-ilmenite-from-kimberlites-its-origin",totalDownloads:57,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102676",abstract:"The main regularities of the saturation of kimberlite rocks with the accessory mineral Mg-ilmenite (Ilm), the peculiarities of the distribution of Ilm compositions in individual pipes, in different clusters of pipes, in diamondiferous kimberlite fields, are considered as the example of studies carried out within the Yakutian kimberlite province (Siberian Craton). Interpretation of different crystallization trends in MgO-Cr2O3 coordinates (conventionally named “Haggerty’s parabola”, “Steplike”, “Hockey stick”, as well as the peculiarities of heterogeneity of individual zonal and polygranular Ilm macrocrysts made it possible to propose a three-stage model of crystallization Ilm: (1) Mg-Cr poor ilmenite crystallizing from a primitive asthenospheric melt; (2) Continuing crystallization in the lithospheric contaminated melt by MgO and Cr2O3; (3) Ilmenite subsequently underwent sub-solidus recrystallization in the presence of an evolved kimberlite melt under increasing oxygen fugacity (ƒO2) conditions.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Sergey I. Kostrovitsky"},{id:"80553",title:"Investigation of Accessory Minerals from the Blatná Granodiorite Suite, Bohemian Massif, Czech Republic",slug:"investigation-of-accessory-minerals-from-the-blatn-granodiorite-suite-bohemian-massif-czech-republic",totalDownloads:48,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102628",abstract:"The Central Bohemian magmatic complex belongs to the Central European Variscan belt. The granitic rocks of this plutonic complex are formed by several suites of granites, granodiorites, and tonalites, together with small bodies of gabbros, gabbro diorites, and diorites. The granodiorites of the Blatná suite are high-K, calc-alkaline to shoshonitic, and metaluminous to slightly peraluminous granitic rocks. Compared to the common I-type granites, granodiorites of the Blatná suite are enriched in Mg (1.0–3.4 wt.% MgO), Ba (838–2560 ppm), Sr. (257–506 ppm), and Zr (81–236 ppm). For granodiorites of the Blatná suite is assemblage of apatite, zircon, titanite, and allanite significant. Zircon contains low Hf concentrations (1.1–1.7 wt.% HfO2). The composition of titanite ranges from 83 to 92 mol.% titanite end-member. Allanite is relatively Al-poor and displays Feox. ratio 0.2–0.5.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Miloš René"},{id:"80423",title:"Minerals as Prebiotic Catalysts for Chemical Evolution towards the Origin of Life",slug:"minerals-as-prebiotic-catalysts-for-chemical-evolution-towards-the-origin-of-life",totalDownloads:106,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102389",abstract:"A transition from geochemistry to biochemistry has been considered as a necessary step towards the emergence of primordial life. Nevertheless, how did this transition occur is still elusive. The chemistry underlying this transition is likely not a single event, but involves many levels of creation and reconstruction, finally reaching the molecular, structural, and functional buildup of complexity. Among them, one apparent question is: how the biochemical catalytic system emerged from the mineral-based geochemical system? Inspired by the metal–ligand structures in metalloenzymes, many researchers have proposed that transition metal sulfide minerals could have served as structural analogs of metalloenzymes for catalyzing prebiotic redox conversions. This assumption has been tested and verified to some extent by several studies, which focused on using Earth-abundant transition metal sulfides as catalysts for multi-electron C and N conversions. The progress in this field will be introduced, with a focus on the CO2 fixation and ammonia synthesis from nitrate/nitrite reduction and N2 reduction. Recently developed methods for screening effective mineral catalysts were also reviewed.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Yamei Li"},{id:"80338",title:"Ionic Conductivity of Strontium Fluoroapatites Co-doped with Lanthanides",slug:"ionic-conductivity-of-strontium-fluoroapatites-co-doped-with-lanthanides",totalDownloads:54,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102410",abstract:"Britholites derivatives of apatite’s that contain lanthanium and neodymium in the serial compounds Sr8La2−xNdx(PO4)4(SiO4)2F2 with 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 were subject of the present investigation. The solid state reaction was the route of preparing these materials. Several techniques were employed for the analysis and characterization of the synthesized powders. The chemical analysis results indicated that molar ratio Sr+La+NdP+Si was of about 1.67 value of a stoichiometric powder. The X-ray diffraction data showed single-phase apatites crystallizing in hexagonal structure with P63/m space group were successively obtained. Moreover, the substitution of lanthanium by neodymium in strontium phosphosilicated fluorapatite was total. This was confirmed by the a and c lattice parameters contraction when (x) varies coherently to the sizes of the two cations. The infrared spectroscopy and the 31P NMR (MAS) exhibited the characteristic bands of phosphosilicated fluorapatite. The pressureless sintering of the material achieved a maximum of 89% relative density. The sintered specimens indicated that the Nd content as well as the heating temperature affected the ionic conduction of the materials and the maximum was 1.73 × 10−6 S cm−1 obtained at 1052 K for x = 2.",book:{id:"11137",title:"Mineralogy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11137.jpg"},signatures:"Khouloud Kthiri, Mohammed Mehnaoui, Samira Jebahi, Khaled Boughzala and Mustapha Hidouri"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:10},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. 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Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. 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He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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